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Nineteenthcenturytheatre
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Nineteenthcenturytheatredescribesawiderangeof
movementsinthetheatricalcultureofEuropeandthe
UnitedStatesinthe19thcentury.IntheWest,theyinclude
Romanticism,melodrama,thewellmadeplaysofScribe
andSardou,thefarcesofFeydeau,theproblemplaysof
NaturalismandRealism,Wagner'soperatic
Gesamtkunstwerk,GilbertandSullivan'splaysandoperas,
Wilde'sdrawingroomcomedies,Symbolism,andproto
ExpressionisminthelateworksofAugustStrindbergand
HenrikIbsen.[1]

RichardWagner'sBayreuthFestivalTheatre.

Severalimportanttechnicalinnovationswereintroduced
between1875and1914.Firstgaslightingandthenelectric
lights,introducedinLondon'sSavoyTheatrein1881,replacedcandlelight.Theelevatorstagewasfirst
installedintheBudapestOperaHousein1884.Thisallowedentiresectionsofthestagetoberaised,lowered,
ortiltedtogivedepthandlevelstothescene.TherevolvingstagewasintroducedtoEuropebyKarl
LautenschlgerattheResidenzTheatre,Munichin1896.

Contents
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Melodrama
RomanticisminGermanyandFrance
Wellmadeplay
TheatreinBritain
TheatreintheUnitedStates
MeiningenEnsembleandRichardWagner
RiseofrealisminRussia
NaturalismandRealism
TechnologicalChanges
9.1 Stagelighting
9.2 Scenicdesign
10 Seealso
11 References
12 Sources
12.1 Externallinks

Melodrama
Throughouttheearlypartofthecentury,melodramawasthepredominanttheatricalstyle:itinvolvedaplethora
ofsceniceffects,anintenselyemotionalbutcodifiedactingstyle,andadevelopingstagetechnologythat
advancedtheartsoftheatretowardsgrandlyspectacularstaging.Itwasalsoahighlyreactiveformoftheatre
whichwasconstantlychangingandadaptingtonewsocialcontexts,newaudiencesandnewcultural
influences.This,inpart,helpstoexplainsitspopularitythroughoutthe19thcentury.[2]
BeginninginFranceafterthetheatremonopolieswereabolishedin1791duringtheFrenchRevolution,
melodramabecamethemostpopulartheatricalformofthecentury.Althoughmonopoliesandsubsidieswere
reinstatedunderNapoleon,theatricalmelodramacontinuedtobemorepopularandbroughtinlargeraudiences
thanthestatesponsoreddramaandoperas.AlthoughmelodramacanbetracedbacktoclassicalGreece,the
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termmlodramedidnotappearuntil1766andonlybecamepopular
after1800.AugustvonKotzebue'sMisanthropyandRepentance(1798)
isoftenconsideredthefirstmelodramaticplay.TheplaysofKotzebue
andRenCharlesGuilbertdePixrcourtestablishedmelodramaasthe
dominantdramaticformoftheearly19thcentury.[3]DavidGrimsted,in
hisbookMelodramaUnveiled(1968),arguesthat:
Itsconventionswerefalse,itslanguagestiltedand
commonplace,itscharactersstereotypes,anditsmorality
andtheologygrosssimplifications.Yetitsappealwasgreat
andunderstandable.Ittookthelivesofcommonpeople
seriouslyandpaidmuchrespecttotheirsuperiorpurityand
wisdom.[...]Anditsmoralparablestruggledtoreconcile
socialfearsandlife'sawesomenesswiththeperiod's
confidenceinabsolutemoralstandards,man'supward
progress,andabenevolentprovidencethatinsuredthe
triumphofthepure.[4]

HonorDaumier,Melodrama,1856
1860

InParis,the19thcenturysawaflourishingofmelodramainthemanytheatresthatwerelocatedonthepopular
BoulevardduCrime,especiallyintheGat.Allthiswastocometoanend,however,whenmostofthese
theatresweredemolishedduringtherebuildingofParisbyBaronHaussmannin1862.[5]
Bytheendofthe19thcentury,thetermmelodramahadnearlyexclusivelynarroweddowntoaspecificgenre
ofsalonentertainment:moreorlessrhythmicallyspokenwords(oftenpoetry)notsung,sometimesmoreor
lessenacted,atleastwithsomedramaticstructureorplotsynchronizedtoanaccompanimentofmusic
(usuallypiano).Itwaslookeddownonasagenreforauthorsandcomposersoflesserstature(probablyalsothe
reasonwhyvirtuallynorealisationsofthegenrearestillremembered).

RomanticisminGermanyandFrance
InGermany,therewasatrendtowardhistoricalaccuracyincostumesandsettings,arevolutionintheatre
architecture,andtheintroductionofthetheatricalformofGermanRomanticism.Influencedbytrendsin19th
centuryphilosophyandthevisualarts,GermanwriterswereincreasinglyfascinatedwiththeirTeutonicpast
andhadagrowingsenseofnationalism.TheplaysofGottholdEphraimLessing,JohannWolfgangvon
Goethe,FriedrichSchiller,andotherSturmundDrangplaywrights,inspiredagrowingfaithinfeelingand
instinctasguidestomoralbehavior.RomanticsborrowedfromthephilosophyofImmanuelKanttoformulate
thetheoreticalbasisof"Romantic"art.AccordingtoRomantics,artisofenormoussignificancebecauseit
giveseternaltruthsaconcrete,materialformthatthelimitedhumansensoryapparatusmayapprehend.Among
thosewhocalledthemselvesRomanticsduringthisperiod,AugustWilhelmSchlegelandLudwigTieckwere
themostdeeplyconcernedwiththeatre.[6]Afteratime,RomanticismwasadoptedinFrancewiththeplaysof
VictorHugo,AlexandreDumas,AlfreddeMusset,andGeorgeSand.Bythe1840s,however,enthusiasmfor
RomanticdramahadfadedinFranceandanew"TheatreofCommonSense"replacedit.

Wellmadeplay
InFrance,the"wellmadeplay"ofEugeneScribe(17911861)becamepopularwithplaywrightsand
audiences.FirstdevelopedbyScribein1825,theformhasastrongNeoclassicalflavour,involvingatightplot
andaclimaxthattakesplaceclosetotheendoftheplay.Thestorydependsuponakeypieceofinformation
keptfromsomecharacters,butknowntoothers(andtotheaudience).Arecurrentdevicethatthewellmade

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playemploysistheuseoflettersorpapersfallingintounintendedhands,inordertobringaboutplottwistsand
climaxes.Thesuspenseandpacebuildstowardsaclimacticscene,inwhichtheherotriumphsinanunforeseen
reversaloffortune.[7]
Scribehimselfwroteover400playsofthistype,utilizingwhatessentiallyamountedtoaliteraryfactorywith
writerswhosuppliedthestory,anotherthedialogue,athirdthejokesandsoon.Althoughhewashighly
prolificandpopular,hewasnotwithoutdetractors:ThophileGautierquestionedhowitcouldbethat,"an
authorwithoutpoetry,lyricism,style,philosophy,truthornaturalismcouldbethemostsuccessfulwriterofhis
epoch,despitetheoppositionofliteratureandthecritics?"[8]
ItsstructurewasemployedbyrealistplaywrightsAlexandreDumas,fils,EmileAugier,andVictorienSardou.
Sardouinparticularwasoneoftheworld'smostpopularplaywrightsbetween1860and1900.Headaptedthe
wellmadeplaytoeverydramatictype,fromcomediestohistoricalspectacles.InBritain,playwrightslike
WilkieCollins,HenryArthurJonesandArthurPinerotookupthegenre,withCollinsdescribingthewellmade
playas:Makeemlaughmakeemweepmakeemwait.GeorgeBernardShawthoughtthatSardou'splays
epitomizedthedecadenceandmindlessnessintowhichthelate19thcenturytheatrehaddescended,astatethat
helabeled"Sardoodledom".[7]

TheatreinBritain
InBritain,PercyByssheShelleyandLordByronwerethemostimportant
literarydramatistsoftheirtime(althoughShelley'splayswerenotperformed
untillaterinthecentury).Shakespearewasenormouslypopular,andbeganto
beperformedwithtextsclosertotheoriginal,asthedrasticrewritingof17th
and18thcenturyperformingversionsforthetheatre(asopposedtohisplaysin
bookform,whichwerealsowidelyread)wasgraduallyremovedoverthefirst
halfofthecentury.Intheminortheatres,burlettaandmelodramawerethemost
popular.Kotzebue'splaysweretranslatedintoEnglishandThomasHolcroft'sA
TaleofMysterywasthefirstofmanyEnglishmelodramas.PierceEgan,
DouglasWilliamJerrold,EdwardFitzball,JamesRolandMacLarenandJohn
BaldwinBuckstoneinitiatedatrendtowardsmorecontemporaryandrural
storiesinpreferencetotheusualhistoricalorfantasticalmelodramas.James
SheridanKnowlesandEdwardBulwerLyttonestablisheda"gentlemanly"
dramathatbegantoreestablishtheformerprestigeofthetheatrewiththe
aristocracy.[9]

EdwardBulwerLytton.

Intheearlyyearsofthe19thcentury,theLicensingActallowedplaystobeshownatonlytwotheatresin
London:DruryLaneandCoventGarden.Toescapetherestrictions,nonpatenttheatresintersperseddramatic
sceneswithmusicalinterludesandcomicskits.Theexplodingpopularityoftheseformsbegantomakethe
patentsystemunworkableandtheboundariesbetweenthetwobegantoblurthroughthe1830suntilfinallythe
LicensingActwasdroppedin1843withtheTheatresAct.Perhapsthemosttellingepisodeofthepopularityof
theatreintheearly19thcenturyisthetheatricaloldpriceriotsof1809.AfterConventGardenburneddown,
JohnPhilipKemble,thetheatre'smanager,decidedtoraisepricesinthepit,theboxesandthethirdtier.This
ledtothreemonthsofriotinguntilfinallyKemblewasforcedtopubliclyapologizeandlowerpricesagain.[10]
Theatresthroughoutthecenturyweredominatedbyactormanagerswhomanagedtheestablishmentsandoften
actedintheleadroles.HenryIrving,CharlesKeanandHerbertBeerbohmTreeareallexamplesofmanagers
whocreatedproductionsinwhichtheywerethestarperformer.IrvingespeciallydominatedtheLyceum
Theatreforalmost30yearsfrom18711899andwasheroworshippedbyhisaudiences.Whenhediedin
1905,KingEdwardVIIandTheodoreRooseveltsendtheircondolences.Amongtheseactormanagers,
Shakespearewasoftenthemostpopularwriterashisplaysaffordedthemgreatdramaticopportunityandname
recognition.Thestagespectacleoftheseproductionswasoftenmoreimportantthantheplayandtextswere
oftencuttogivemaximumexposuretotheleadingroles.However,theyalsointroducedsignificantreforms
intothetheatricalprocess.Forexample,WilliamCharlesMacreadywasthefirsttointroduceproperrehearsals
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totheprocess.Beforethisleadactorswouldrarelyrehearsetheirparts
withtherestofthecast:EdmundKean'smostfamousdirectiontohis
fellowactorsbeing,"standupstageofmeanddoyourworst."[10]
Melodramas,lightcomedies,operas,ShakespeareandclassicEnglish
drama,pantomimes,translationsofFrenchfarcesand,fromthe1860s,
Frenchoperettas,continuedtobepopular,togetherwithVictorian
burlesque.ThemostsuccessfuldramatistswereJamesPlanchand
DionBoucicault,whosepenchantformakingthelatestscientific
inventionsimportantelementsinhisplotsexertedconsiderable
influenceontheatricalproduction.Hisfirstbigsuccess,London
Assurance(1841)wasacomedyinthestyleofSheridan,buthewrote
invariousstyles,includingmelodrama.T.W.Robertsonwrotepopular
domesticcomediesandintroducedamorenaturalisticstyleofacting
andstagecrafttotheBritishstageinthe1860s.Sosuccessfulwerethe
comicoperasofGilbertandSullivan,suchasH.M.S.Pinafore(1878)
HenryIrvingportrait
andTheMikado(1885),thattheygreatlyexpandedtheaudiencefor
musicaltheatre.[11]This,togetherwithmuchimprovedstreetlighting
andtransportationinLondonandNewYorkledtoalateVictorianandEdwardiantheatrebuildingboominthe
WestEndandonBroadway.Attheendofthecentury,Edwardianmusicalcomedycametodominatethe
musicalstage.[12]Inthe1890sthecomediesofOscarWildeandGeorgeBernardShawofferedsophisticated
socialcommentandwereverypopular.

TheatreintheUnitedStates
IntheTheatreoftheUnitedStates,Philadelphiawasthedominant
theatricalcentreuntil1815.ThomasWignellestablishedtheChestnut
StreetTheatreandgatheredYouisagroupofactorsthatincluded
WilliamWarrenandThomasAbthorpeCooper(wholaterwas
consideredtheleadingactorinNorthAmerica).Initsinfancy,
playwrightssuchasRoyallTyler,WilliamDunlap,andJohnHoward
Paynelaidthefoundationsforanativedrama.Professionaltheatrewas
firstestablishedinthewestin1815whenSamuelDrake(17691854)
tookacompanydowntheOhioRiverandestablishedacircuitthat
includedLexington,Louisville,andFrankfort.

TheBlackCrook(1866)

NewYorkCity'simportanceasatheatricalcentergrewuntilitbecametheprimarytheatrecenterduringthe
century,andtheTheaterDistrictslowlymovednorthfromlowerManhattanuntilitfinallyarrivedinmidtown
attheendofthecentury.Onthemusicalstage,HarriganandHartinnovatedwithcomicmusicalplaysfromthe
1870s,butLondonimportscametodominate,beginningwithVictorianburlesque,thenGilbertandSullivan
from1880,andfinallyEdwardianmusicalcomediesattheendofthecentury.[12]

MeiningenEnsembleandRichardWagner
InGermany,dramaenteredastateofdeclinefromwhichitdidnotrecoveruntilthe1890s.Themajor
playwrightsoftheperiodwereOttoLudwigandGustavFreytag.Thelackofnewdramatistswasnotkeenly
feltbecausetheplaysofShakespeare,Lessing,Goethe,andSchillerwereprominentintherepertory.Themost
importanttheatricalforceinlater19thcenturyGermanywasthatofGeorgII,DukeofSaxeMeiningenandhis
MeiningenEnsemble,underthedirectionofLudwigChronegk.TheEnsemble'sproductionsareoften
consideredthemosthistoricallyaccurateofthe19thcentury,althoughhisprimarygoalwastoservethe
interestsoftheplaywright.TheEnsemble'sproductionsutiliseddetailed,historicallyaccuratecostumesand
furniture,somethingthatwasunprecedentedinEuropeatthetime.TheMeiningenEnsemblestandsatthe
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beginningofthenewmovementtowardunifiedproduction(orwhatRichardWagnerwouldcallthe
Gesamtkunstwerk)andtheriseofthedirector(attheexpenseoftheactor)asthedominantartistintheatre
making.[13]
TheMeiningenEnsembletraveledthroughoutEuropefrom18741890andmetwithunparalleledsuccess
wherevertheywent.Audienceshadgrowntiredwithregular,shallowentertainmenttheatreandwerebeginning
todemandamorecreativelyandintellectuallystimulatingformofexpressionthattheEnsemblewasableto
provide.Therefore,theMeiningenEnsemblecanbeseenastheforerunnersofthearttheatremovementwhich
appearedinEuropeattheendofthe1880s.[14]
RichardWagner(18131883)rejectedthecontemporarytrendtowardrealismandarguedthatthedramatist
shouldbeamythmakerwhoportraysanidealworldthroughtheexpressionofinnerimpulsesandaspirations
ofapeople.Wagnerusedmusictodefeatperformers'personalwhims.Themelodyandtempoofmusicallowed
himtohavegreaterpersonalcontroloverperformancethanhewouldwithspokendrama.Aswiththe
MeiningerEnsemble,Wagnerbelievedthattheauthorcomposershouldsuperviseeveryaspectofproductionto
unifyalltheelementsintoa"masterartwork."[15]Wagneralsointroducedanewtypeofauditoriumthat
abolishedthesideboxes,pits,andgalleriesthatwereaprominentfeatureofmostEuropeantheatresand
replacedthemwitha1,745seatfanshapedauditoriumthatwas50feet(15m)wideattheprosceniumand115
feet(35m)attherear.Thisallowedeveryseatintheauditoriumtoenjoyafullviewofthestageandmeantthat
therewereno"good"seats.

RiseofrealisminRussia
InRussia,AleksandrGriboyedov,AlexanderPushkin,andNikolaiPolevoywerethemostaccomplished
playwrights.Aselsewhere,Russiawasdominatedbymelodramaandmusicaltheatre.Morerealisticdrama
begantoemergewiththeplaysofNikolaiGogolandtheactingofMikhailShchepkin.Underclosegovernment
supervision,theRussiantheatreexpandedconsiderably.PrinceAlexanderShakhovskoyopenedstatetheatres
andtrainingschools,attemptedtoraisethelevelofRussianproductionafteratriptoParis,andputinplace
regulationsforgoverningtroupesthatremainedineffectuntil1917.[16]
Realismbeganearlierinthe19thcenturyinRussiathanelsewhereinEuropeandtookamoreuncompromising
form.[17]BeginningwiththeplaysofIvanTurgenev(whoused"domesticdetailtorevealinnerturmoil"),
AleksandrOstrovsky(whowasRussia'sfirstprofessionalplaywright),AlekseyPisemsky(whoseABitterFate
(1859)anticipatedNaturalism),andLeoTolstoy(whoseThePowerofDarkness(1886)is"oneofthemost
effectiveofnaturalisticplays"),atraditionofpsychologicalrealisminRussiaculminatedwiththe
establishmentoftheMoscowArtTheatrebyConstantinStanislavskiandVladimirNemirovichDanchenko.[18]
OstrovskyisoftencreditedwithcreatingapeculiarlyRussiandrama.HisplaysEnoughStupidityinEveryWise
Man(1868)andTheStorm(1859)drawonthelifethatheknewbest,thatofthemiddleclass.Otherimportant
Russianplaywrightsofthe19thcenturyincludeAlexanderSukhovoKobylinandMikhailSaltikovShchedrin.

NaturalismandRealism
Naturalism,atheatricalmovementbornoutofCharlesDarwin'sTheOriginofSpecies(1859)and
contemporarypoliticalandeconomicconditions,founditsmainproponentinmileZola.Hisessay
"NaturalismintheTheatre"(1881)arguedthatpoetryiseverywhereinsteadofinthepastorabstraction:
"Thereismorepoetryinthelittleapartmentofabourgeoisthaninalltheemptywormeatenpalacesof
history."
TherealisationofZola'sideaswashinderedbyalackofcapabledramatistswritingnaturalistdrama.Andr
Antoineemergedinthe1880swithhisThtreLibrethatwasonlyopentomembersandthereforewasexempt
fromcensorship.HequicklywontheapprovalofZolaandbegantostageNaturalisticworksandotherforeign
realisticpieces.Antoinewasuniqueinhissetdesignashebuiltsetswiththe"fourthwall"intact,onlydeciding
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whichwalltoremovelater.ThemostimportantFrenchplaywrightsof
thisperiodweregivenfirsthearingbyAntoineincludingGeorges
PortoRiche,FranoisdeCurel,andEugneBrieux.[19]
TheworkofHenryArthurJonesandArthurWingPineroinitiateda
newdirectionontheEnglishstage.Whiletheirworkpavedtheway,the
developmentofmoresignificantdramaowesitselfmosttothe
playwrightHenrikIbsen.
IbsenwasborninNorwayin1828.Hewrote25plays,themostfamous
ofwhichareADoll'sHouse(1879),Ghosts(1881),TheWildDuck
(1884),andHeddaGabler(1890).ADoll'sHouseandGhostsshocked
conservatives:Nora'sdepartureinADoll'sHousewasviewedasan
HenrikIbsen,the"father"ofmodern
attackonfamilyandhome,whiletheallusionstovenerealdiseaseand
drama.
sexualmisconductinGhostswereconsidereddeeplyoffensiveto
standardsofpublicdecency.IbsenrefinedScribe'swellmadeplay
formulatomakeitmorefittingtotherealisticstyle.Heprovidedamodelforwritersoftherealisticschool.In
addition,hisworksRosmersholm(1886)andWhenWeDeadAwaken(1899)evokeasenseofmysteriousforces
atworkinhumandestiny,whichwastobeamajorthemeofsymbolismandthesocalled"Theatreofthe
Absurd".
AfterIbsen,BritishtheatreexperiencedrevitalizationwiththeworkofGeorgeBernardShaw,OscarWilde,and
(infactfrom1900)JohnGalsworthy.Unlikemostofthegloomyandintenselyseriousworkoftheir
contemporaries,ShawandWildewroteprimarilyinthecomicform.

TechnologicalChanges
Stagelighting
Theeighteenthcenturytheatrehadbeenlitbycandlesandoillampswhichweremainlyprovidedfor
illuminationsothattheaudiencecouldseetheperformance,withnofurtherpurpose.Thischangedintheearly
19thcenturywiththeintroductionofgaslightingwhichwasslowlyadoptedbythemajortheatresthroughout
the1810sand1820stoprovideilluminationforthehouseandthestage.Theintroductionofgaslighting
revolutionizedstagelighting.Itprovidedasomewhatmorenaturalandadequatelightfortheplayingandthe
scenicspaceupstageoftheprosceniumarch.Whiletherewasnowaytocontrolthegaslights,thiswassoonto
changeaswell.InBritain,theatresinLondondevelopedlimelightforthestageinthelate1830s.InParis,the
electriccarbonarclampfirstcameintouseinthe1840s.Bothofthesetypesoflightingwereabletobehand
operatedandcouldbefocusedbymeansofanattachedlens,thusgivingthetheatreanabilitytofocuslighton
particularperformersforthefirsttime.[20]
Fromthe1880sonwards,theatresbegantobegraduallyelectrifiedwiththeSavoyTheatrebecomingthefirst
theatreintheworldtointroduceafullyelectrifiedtheatricallightingsystemin1881.RichardD'OylyCarte,
whobuilttheSavoy,explainedwhyhehadintroducedelectriclight:"Thegreatestdrawbackstotheenjoyment
ofthetheatricalperformancesare,undoubtedly,thefoulairandheatwhichpervadealltheatres.Aseveryone
knows,eachgasburnerconsumesasmuchoxygenasmanypeople,andcausesgreatheatbeside.The
incandescentlampsconsumenooxygen,andcausenoperceptibleheat."[21]Notably,theintroductionofelectric
lightcoincidedwiththeriseofrealism:thenewformsoflightingencouragedmorerealisticscenicdetailanda
subtler,morerealisticactingstyle.[22]

Scenicdesign
Oneofthemostimportantscenictransitionintothecenturywasfromtheoftenusedtwodimensionalscenic
backdroptothreedimensionalsets.Previously,asatwodimensionalenvironment,scenerydidnotprovidean
embracing,physicalenvironmentforthedramaticactionhappeningonstage.Thischangedwhenthree
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dimensionalsetswereintroducedinthefirsthalfofthecentury.This,coupledwithchangeinaudienceand
stagedynamicaswellasadvancementintheatrearchitecturethatallowedforhiddenscenechanges,thetheatre
becamemorerepresentationalinsteadofpresentational,andinvitedaudiencetobetransportedtoaconceived
'other'world.Theearly19thcenturyalsosawtheinnovationofthemovingpanorama:asettingpaintedona
longcloth,whichcouldbeunrolledacrossthestagebyturningspools,createdanillusionofmovementand
changinglocales.[23]

Seealso
Historyoftheatre
Nineteenthcenturytheatricalscenery
Twentiethcenturytheatre

References
1.BrockettandHildy(2003,293426).
2.Booth(1995,300).
3.BrockettandHildy(2003,277).
4.Grimsted(1968,248).
5.ThegoldenageoftheBoulevardduCrime(http://www.theatreonline.com/guide/detail_theatre.asp?i_Region=0&i_Th
eatre=256#Le%20l'%E2ge%20d'or%20du%20Boulevard%20du%20Crime)Theatreonline.com(inFrench)
6.BrockettandHildy(2003,278280).
7.EncyclopediaBritannicaEditors."wellmadeplay".EncyclopediaBritannicaOnline.Retrieved1November2015.
8.Gautier,Histoiredel'artdramatiqueenFrance(1859),citedinCardwell(1983),p.876.
9.BrockettandHildy(2003,297298).
10.19thcenturytheatre.VictoriaandAlbertMuseum.Retrieved1November2015.
11.BrockettandHildy(2003,326327).
12.Thefirst"Edwardianmusicalcomedy"isusuallyconsideredtobeInTown(1892).See,e.g.,Charlton,Fraser."What
areEdMusComs?"(http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/fraser.charlton/edmuscom/page12/edmuscom_what.html)FrasrWeb
2007,accessedMay12,2011
13.BrockettandHildy(2003,357359).
14.FischerLichte(2001,245)
15.BrockettandHildy(2003,378).
16.BrockettandHildy(2003,293).
17.BrockettandHildy(2003,370).
18.BrockettandHildy(2003,370,372)andBenedetti(2005,100)and(1999,1417).
19.BrockettandHildy(2003,362363).
20.Booth(1995,302)
21.Baily,p.215
22.Booth(1995,303)
23.Baugh(2005,1133)

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Baugh,Christopher(2005).Theatre,PerformanceandTechnology.London:PalgraveMcMillan.
Benedetti,Jean.1999.Stanislavski:HisLifeandArt.Revisededition.Originaleditionpublishedin1988.London:
Methuen.ISBN0413525201.
.2005.TheArtoftheActor:TheEssentialHistoryofActing,FromClassicalTimestothePresentDay.London:
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ofTheatre.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN019212997X.
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Cardwell,Douglas(May1983)."TheWellMadePlayofEugneScribe".AmericanAssociationofTeachersof
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FischerLichte,Erika.2001.HistoryofEuropeanDramaandTheatre.NewYork:Taylor&Francis.ISBN0415
180597.
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ISBN9780226309019.
"wellmadeplay".EncyclopdiaBritannicaOnline.EncyclopdiaBritannica,2015.Web.1Nov.2015.

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J.WillisSayrePhotographyCollection(http://content.lib.washington.edu/sayreweb/index.html)
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Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nineteenthcentury_theatre&oldid=743892072"
Categories: 19thcenturytheatre
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon11October2016,at21:35.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmay
apply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisaregistered
trademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.

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