Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
PROBOLIKH GEWMETRIA
Iwnnhc P. Zhc
E-mail: i.zois@exeter.oxon.org
10 Dekembrou 2006
Perieqmena
Prlogoc
Eisagwg
Proboliko
Qroi
12
3.1
3.2
3.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
3.4
18
3.5
. . . . . . . . . . .
19
3.6
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
3.7
Proboliko
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metasqhmatismo
12
15
27
29
4.1
Basiko Orismo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
4.2
31
4.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Dusmc
34
38
5.1
5.2
5.3
Kamplec
b'
bajmo
Desargues,
. . . . . . . . .
Jerhma Pppou
Quadrics
38
41
43
46
6.1
Digrammikc Morfc
6.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
6.3
Genikeumnec Kwnikc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
6.4
54
Grafdec
Tetragwnikn
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pencils of Quadrics
7.1
7.2
Grammiko
Qroi
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
Tetragwnikn
To Orjognio Sumplrwma
8.2
To
9.1
Exwterik
56
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1
46
56
58
62
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
Ginmeno
62
64
67
67
9.2
10 H
Exwterik
'Algebra
74
11 H
Tetragwnik
. . .
74
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
Klein
80
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Klein
12 Grammiko
69
Upqwroi
thc Tetragwnikc
80
. . . . . . . . .
82
Klein
84
Klein .
84
12.2 Sqlia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
13 Prosggish
Klein
thc
Gewmetrac
kai
Omoparallhlik
Gew-
metra
89
GLn
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
. . .
90
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
P GLn
. . . . . .
93
14 Optik
kai
14.1 Optik
Eidik
Gauss
Jewra
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sqetikthtac
95
100
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
P GL2 (C)
16 To
Axwma
104
thc
Parallhlac
108
. . . . . . . . . . . . 109
. . . . . 111
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
17 Parrthma
116
Sntomo
biografik
shmewma tou
suggrafa:
Met to
prac twn proptuqiakn tou spoudn sto Tmma Fusikc tou Panepisthmou Ajhnn, ap' pou apofothse me 'Arista, sunqise tic metaptuqiakc
tou spoudc sthn Aggla:
Mster (
Simon K. Donaldson FRS (Fields Medal 1986, Crafoord Prize 1996), Roger Penrose FRS kai
Sheung-Tsoun Tsou. 'Htan uptrofoc, metax llwn, thc Eurwpakc 'Enwdaktorikc tou diatribc apartiztan ap touc kajhghtc
sto
kai allo.
Ant
Bibliografac:
(Shmeinoume
pwc sthn pio gkurh prsfath diejn lsta me ta 200 korufaa panepistmia tou ksmou twn efhmerdwn
tou periodiko
Time,
Times
sthn ep mrouc kattaxh pou afor ta majhmatik kai tic jetikc epistmec).
To prwtogenc ulik twn shmeisewn autn (kai thc lhc kat' epktash) prorqetai ap tic exairetikc shmeiseic tou kajhght
FRS,
Nigel J. Hitchin
Pra ap th metfrash twn shmeisewn sta ellhnik gine kai mia prospjeia na analujon perisstero poll shmea all kai na emploutisjon
me kpoiec epiplon efarmogc.
tchin
Nigel J. Hi-
Megalooikonmou gia thn poltimh bojei tou sthn exeresh kai qrsh ellhnikc kdoshc tou
twn shmeisewn all kai sthn Elisbet Giannotsou pou eqe thn filologik epimleia twn shmeisewn.
proc touc foithtc gia ton enjousiasm touc, thn dijesh gia melth, thn
enjrrunsh, tic parathrseic kai ta poikla sqli touc.
H didaskala e-
nai amfdromh diadikasa kai qwrc th dik touc sumbol enai amfbolo an
to mjhma ja eqe aut th morf. H elpda enai na mhn apogohtejhkan oi
foithtc kai epshc na mhn apogohteujon kai oi tuqn loipo anagnstec.
Ajna, Mioc 2006
I.P.Z.
Prlogoc
Klein
Klein.
Oi par-
F. Klein
maz
Erlangen
P.B. Halmos: -
Eisagwg
A.
Probolc
P,
sto qro.
A,
P A.
An parembloume
mia difanh ojnh metax tou matio kai tou antikeimnou, aut tmnei thn
eujea
PA
se na shmeo, stw
A0 .
Metabllontac to shmeo
tsi ste
ep thc ojnhc
suniston thn probol tou fusiko antikeimnou pnw sth dosmnh ojnh.
Aut akri-
B.
Eidik
Jewra
Sqetikthtac
Poincare,
strof
Wick,
Minkowski
Lorentz gnetai
+1)
stic 4 diastseic.
H omda
G.
Poincare mwc
P GL2 (C) tou
C2 .
Tomografa
Mia diaforetik pleur thc gewmetrac enai h melth qi twn shmewn all
twn eujein twn epipdwn sto qro. Gia pardeigma mpore kanec na rwtsei poia enai h gewmetra tou qrou twn eujein tou Eukledeiou 3-distatou
qrou. Mia eujea mpore epshc na orisje ap ta shmea tomc thc me do
eppeda sto qro, opte mpore na kajorisje msw do paramtrwn. Sunepc o qroc twn eujein tou Eukledeiou 3-distatou qrou apotele qro
distashc 2, all qi Eukledeio qro. 'Eqei th dik tou gewmetra, pwc ja
dome.
scanners)
aforon sarwtc (
fa.
qro.
Me aut ton
trpo parnoume mia sunrthsh me pedo orismo to qro twn eujein tou
R3 .
orismo to
R3 ,
qreiazmaste th sqsh metax shmewn kai eujein. Gia pardeigma, oi eujeec pou dirqontai ap dosmno shmeo, diagrfoun na eppedo sto qro twn
eujein. Aut h gewmetra, pou den enai Eukledeia, lgetai gewmetra
(proc timn tou Germano majhmatiko
Klein
s tou 19ou wc tic arqc tou 20ou aina), kai thn opoa ja meletsoume se
aut to mjhma. Egkuklopaidik anafroume epshc, pwc o sunduasmc thc
gewmetrac
tra) apotele (ektc twn llwn) kai mia prospjeia gia thn enopohsh lwn
twn fusikn allhlepidrsewn.
10
D.
Gewmetrik
Optik
R3
Uprqoun kai pollo lloi tomec pou enai qrsimh h probolik gewmetra: gia pardeigma, an ant tou smatoc twn pragmatikn arijmn
R epil-
projective
varieties)
H algebri-
Atiyah-Langlands
11
Proboliko
3.1
Stoiqea
Qroi
Grammikc
'Algebrac
prsjesh
bajmwt
pollaplasiasm
Orismc 1.
To snolo
To zegoc
(V, +)
V ).
1 a = a,
pou
1 F to
F.
Pardegma 1:
roume to sma tan enai safc gia poio sma milme (sunjwc ja enai oi
pragmatiko arijmo).
v+w V
v, w V
12
me ta stoiqea
tic gnwstc idithtec twn dianusmatikn qrwn (prosetairistik, epimeristik kai antimetajetik).
Orismc
tou
V,
2.
enai na uposnolo
U V
v U .
Me lla lgia, to
v, w U
kai
F,
v+w U
isqei ti
Orismc 3.
En
U1
kai
U2
V.
Orismc 4.
V,
dhlad
U1 U2
V
U1
tou
orzetai
so kai
U2 .
Orismc
5.
V,
vV
mpore na grafe
v=
n
X
i v i
(1)
i=0
pou
i F,
me
i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
sewn enc dianusmatiko qrou enai stajer kai onomzetai distash tou
dianusmatiko qrou. H distash exarttai ap to sma.
Ja
asqolhjome
ma,
dimF V = n + 1.
13
{vi }(i=0,1,...,n)
ston
V,
vV
v=
n
X
i v i
(2)
i=0
kai oi suntelestc
diansmatoc
v V
i F,
me
i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n,
R2
distashc
2
2, ta diansmata (1, 0) kai (0, 1) apotelon th legmenh
tou R .
3
Anloga gia to dianusmatik qro R distashc 3, ta diansmata (1, 0, 0),
3
(0, 1, 0) kai (0, 0, 1) apotelon th legmenh
tou R . H genkeush
n
enai profanc qi mno gia to dianusmatik qro R
me opoiadpote peperasmnh distash n N all kai gia kje sma F.
sunjh bsh
sunjh bsh
Orismc
6.
Mia apeiknish
sma
F.
kai
, F.
H basik sqsh isodunamac metax twn dianusmatikn qrwn enai h nnoia tou
isomorfismo
Orismc 7.
Do dianusmatiko qroi
kai
classification problem)
kai mac
Jerhma
to dio sma)
1.
Do
dianusmatiko
enai ismorfoi
qroi
(peperasmnhc
14
distashc
kai
me
Prtash
1.
An
dianusmatiko qrou
U1
V,
kai
U2
Orismc Proboliko
'Estw
Qrou
Orismc 1.
qrou
probolikc qroc
peperasmnhc
distashc
dianusmatikn upoqrwn
'Estw
x P (V )
tou
P (V )
orzetai
wc
to
snolo
twn
monodistatwn
V.
Se aut bsei
Vx V
dimVx = 1.
apoteletai
ap la ta bajmwt pollaplsia
mhdeniko diansmatoc
shmeou
Vx
tou
v V.
To
me
x P (V ) pou orzetai ap
V . Kje llo mh-mhdenik
v apotele
x P (V ). Sune-
Par' ti to
P (V )
den
Prtash 1.
simh)
O probolikc qroc
pollaplthta
dhlad
me distash
P (V )
kat na mikrterh ap th
distash
tou
dimP (V ) = (dimV ) 1.
Paratrhsh 1: Ap ton orism thc pollaplthtac prokptei ti o probolikc qroc apotele qro pou mno topik moizei (dhlad enai omoiomorfikc) me to dianusmatik qro
Apdeixh:
R(dimV )1 .
anagnsthc mpore na bre thn apdeixh se poll bibla diaforikc gewmetrac, pou meletntai diaforsimec pollaplthtec), all ja thn exhgsoume:
jewrntac ti
dimV = n + 1,
15
bsh, qreiazmaste
ta diansmata tou
perigryoume ta
tte
dimP (V ) = n.
qroc
P (V )
lgetai probolik
qroc
P (V )
lgetai probolik
An
eujea
dimV = n + 1,
An
eppedo
Shmewsh 1:
R2
twn
elejerwn
dianusmatik qro
qrhsimopointac to dinusma jshc tou shmeou: Dhlad, kje shmeo antistoiqe sto elejero dinusma pou qei arq thn arq twn axnwn kai prac
to en lgw shmeo.
ep metax tou sunlou twn shmewn tou gewmetriko epipdou ( tou qrou) me ta stoiqea tou pragmatiko dianusmatiko qrou
R2
twn elejerwn
R3
twn
Gia pardeigma, stw ti tautzoume to gewmetrik eppedo me ton pragmatik dianusmatik qro
R2
x0 x,
xona tetagmnwn ton y y , arq to shmeo tomc O me suntetagmnec (0, 0) kai
parnontac wc bsh ta gnwst orjokanonik monadiaa diansmata
i = (0, 1)
kai
j = (1, 0). Tte o probolikc qroc P (R2 ) smfwna me ton orism ja
rntac Kartesianc suntetagmnec sto eppedo me xona tetmhmnwn ton
R2 .
thn
arq
twn
axnwn
O.
dimP (R2 ) = 1.
Shmei-
16
shmea tou epipdou all ston probolik qro olklhrh h eujea antistoiqe
se na kai mno shmeo tou proboliko qrou.
Me bsh thn parapnw tatish tou gewmetriko epipdou ( tou fusiko 3-distatou qrou) me ton 2-distato dianusmatik qro
3-distato dianusmatik qro
( me ton
R2
apotelon dianusmatikoc
R2
sto qro antstoiqa) all den pernon ap thn arq twn axnwn
den apo-
O.
leptomreia diti to men snolo twn dierqmenwn ap thn arq twn axnwn
eujein tou epipdou, kai pou ex orismo apotele ton probolik qro
P (R2 ),
Diaforikc
Gewmetr-
ac
Mobius.
P (R2 )
3.3
Upqwroi tou
Proboliko
Qrou
U V.
Afo to dio to
P (V )
apo-
P (U )
tou U .
P (V ),
dhlad an
17
tou proboliko
3.4
Basikc
Idithtec Probolikn
Qrwn
Prtash 1.
ap do
P (V ).
boliko qrou
'Estw tra
P (U 0 )
x, y P (U ).
Tte afo
diansmata
den
isqei
Prtash 2.
, dhlad
tmnetai
uprqei
nnoia
thc
parallhlac
sthn
probolik
gew-
metra
'Estw
18
U1 = U1 + U2
nistsa
shmanei
Ja qoume loipn
dim(U1 + U2 ) 3. 'Omwc U1 + U2
dim(U1 + U2 ) = 3. Efarmzontac th sqsh pou
kai
dimV = 3,
opte
3.5
Omogenec
kai
Anomogenec Suntetagmnec
Enai nomzoume anagkao se aut to shmeo na katanosoume kaltera th sqsh metax eujein kai epipdwn ston probolik qro me tic gnwstc mac eujeec kai ta eppeda sto fusik 3-distato qro. Ja exetsoume
prta th genik perptwsh enc tuqaou dianusmatiko qrou
dimV = n + 1
distashc
V = R3
{v0 , v1 , v2 , ..., vn }
(0 , 1 , 2 , ..., n ) pou
v=
n
X
tou
V.
Kje dinusma
vV
i v i
qei
(3)
i=0
P (V )
(V 3 v 6= 0).
19
P (V )
dimP (V ) = n
me
apotele pollaplthta,
Rn ,
mporome, tou-
lqiston topik, na anaparistome ta shmea tou me na snolo suntetagmnwn (pou den enai lec mhdn), qontac up' yin ti an
suntetagmnwn thc morfc
(0 , 1 , 2 , ..., n )
(0 , 1 , 2 , ..., n ).
Oi sun-
P (V )
V.
suntetagmnec
i
.
0
xi :=
P (V ).
V = R4 .
(x1 , x2 , x3 ).
P (R4 )
dimP (R4 ) = 3,
suntetagmnec ~
x=
Tte afo
apoteletai ap to snolo
b(0 , 1 , 2 , 3 ) = 0,
me
a, b R.
An
0 , 0 6= 0,
a(0 , 1 , 2 , 3 ) +
mporome na qrhsimopoi-
xi =
i
0
yi =
i
,
0
kai
pou
i = 1, 2, 3,
dianusmtwn tou
R4
me anomogenec suntetagmnec
a
b
b
)~x + (
)~y = ~x +
(~y ~x).
a+b
a+b
a+b
a, b R ddei thn exswsh eujeac metax twn shmewn
~x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) kai ~y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ).
20
P (R4 )
R3
0 6= 0 se na
X P (R4 ) me 0 6=
tmnei ta shmea me
X se sunhjismnec eujeec kai eppeda. O plrhc 3P (R4 ) apokttai an sumperilboume kai ta shmea me 0 =
0. Afo ta antiproswpeutik diansmata (0, 1 , 2 , 3 ) suniston nan 34
distato dianusmatik upqwro tou R , o antstoiqoc probolikc qroc ja
`
`
4
3
qei distash 2. 'Ara P (R ) = R
P (R3 ) pou to smbolo
dhlnei thn
xnh nwsh (disoint union) metax twn sunlwn.
eppeda tmnoun to
distatoc qroc
3.6
Paradegmata
Probolikn Qrwn
Ac dome kpoia paradegmata pragmatikn kai migadikn probolikn qrwn stic diforec diastseic.
dimR V = 1
1.
V enai ismorfoc me to R, dhlad V = R. Aut shmanei pwc o antstoiqoc probolikc qroc ja qei dimP (R) = 0. Gia na dome ti shmanei aut:
P (R) ja apoteletai ap touc monodistatouc dianusmatikoc upoqrouc tou R. 'Omwc to R qei distash 1, sunepc qei mno na monodistato
dianusmatik upqwro, ton eaut tou. 'Ara to P (R) ' , dhlad o probolikc qroc P (R) apoteletai ap na kai monadik shmeo pou to sumbolzoume
pwc sthn topologa me . H distash auto tou qrou enai prgmati 0.
qroc
V
= R,
R wc mia eujea,
x0 x tou epipdou ( tou qrou), pnw
sthn opoa qoume orsei na tuqao shmeo wc arq O . O probolikc qroc
orzetai wc to snolo twn eujein pou dirqontai ap thn arq O all pou
lgou qrin ton xona twn tetmhmnwn
enai tautqrona kai upqwroi tou en lgw dianusmatiko qrou, dhlad thc
diac thc eujeac. Profanc mno mia eujea uprqei me autc tic idithtec, o
xonac
shmeo.
2.
dimR V = 2
1.
21
O probolikc qroc
gwna
x x.
pou
An me-
trme tic gwnec se aktnia, h gwna ja parnei tic timc sto kleist disthma
[0, ].
gwna
0,
pou enai o
x0 x
gwna , pou enai kai pli o xonac x x. An sto kleist disthma [0, ],
pou topologik enai na eujgrammo tmma, tautsoume ta kra tou, 0 ,
dioc o xonac
x0 x
x x,
tautzetai
P (R2 ) enai
P (R2 ) ' S 1 .
omoiomorfikc me ton
(x, y)
sumpagopohsh
enc
shmeou
thc eujeac.
O aploste-
roc trpoc gia na to dei aut kpoioc pou den enai exoikeiwmnoc me thn
topologa enai na skefje wc exc: Jewrome mia eujea kai pnw se autn
epilgoume aujareta na shmeo
O.
22
S 1 tuqaac aktnac
O.
'Estw
O0
pou den qei eikna sthn eujea kat thn parapnw apeiknish enai to dio
to
O0
O0
miac kai to
O0
enai parllhlh
afo ta shmea
kai
O0 ,
isodnama sthn
Paratrhsh 1:
pardeigma to baj topologik nhma thc algebrikc prtashc 3.4.2 per thc
mh parxhc parallhlac ston probolik qro.
3.
dimR V = 3
2.
O.
R3
O probolikc qroc
P (R3 )
R3 .
P (R3 )
tautzetai
gwnec
O,
tou Kartesiano Sustmatoc Suntetagmnwn. An metrme tic gwnec se aktnia, h kje gwna ja parnei tic timc sto kleist disthma
23
[0, ],
sunepc
o qroc twn dieujnsewn ja proljei ap to qro twn paramtrwn pou ddetai ap to kartesian ginmeno
[0, ] [0, ]
[0, ] [0, ].
snoro
(permetro)
tou tetragnou tautzontai (kat' analoga me aut pou sunbh sthn perptwsh thc distashc 2 tou amswc prohgomenou paradegmatoc sta sunoriak
shmea
0 kai
[0, ]).
tautseic twn dieujnsewn ston 3-distato fusik qro enai pio polploka:
Kat' arqn efodizoume to tetrgwno (qroc twn paramtrwn) me na no
Kartesian Ssthma Suntetagmnwn
(0, ).
kai
(x, 0) ( x, ),
me
x [0, ].
Tautqrona mwc ja prpei na tautiston kai ta shmea twn kjetwn pleurn tou tetragnou metax touc wc exc:
(0, y) (, y),
me
y [0, ].
topological
tautqrona kje for gia kje zeugri kai mia topologik strof (
twist).
Boy.
Enai mia
lea pollaplthta me distash 2, sumpagc, pollapl sunektik kai mhprosanatolsimh. H epifneia aut den mpore na
3-distato qro
qro
, mpore mno na
embaptisje
emfuteuje
immersed)
embedded) ston
ston 3-distato
sto Parrthma, sthn pargrafo 17 sto tloc). 'Opwc ja dome sto mjhma
thc Diaforikc Gewmetrac sto sqetik keflaio pou ja meletsoume thn
topologa twn epifanein, h parapnw perigraf msw tou qrou twn paramtrwn mac ddei na eppedo montlo gia thn perigraf thc epifneiac
pou apotele mh-prosanatolsimh epifneia me
fneia me na
cross cap,
Boy
k = 1 (mh-prosanatolsimh epi-
staurwt skofo).
O,
eujgrammwn tmhmtwn mkouc 2 (wc proc kpoia monda mtrhshc) pou dir-
24
O,
pou to shmeo
O.
kntro to
S2
distashc 2 me
Boy.
Boy
z,
sto qro
jtoume:
z(1 z 4 )
3
],
g1 = Im[
2
z 6 + 5z 3 1
3
z(1 + z 4 )
g2 = Re[
],
2
z 6 + 5z 3 1
g3 = Im(
1 + z6
1
) ,
6
3
2
z + 5z 1
Im
kai
Re
g1
,
g
g2
y= ,
g
g3
z= ,
g
x=
25
Boy
sto qro
frasmnh
R3 .
embptish
Boy
ston qro
R3 ,
den
4.
dimC V = 1
5.
P (C) ' .
dimC V = 2
P (C2 ) '
dimV = n,
Grn,k (V ), pou
kai me
n, k N, me 1 k n, wc to snolo twn
dianusmatikn upoqrwn distashc k tou V . Oi qroi auto lgontai qroi
Grassmann kai apotelon kai pli pollaplthtec distashc k(n k). Profanc an k = 1 parnoume ton probolik qro.
oi
n, k
Sqlio 2:
nN
pe-
P (Rn+1 ) ' Rn
Sqlio 3:
P (Rn )
Iatrikc enai anamfbola autc tou axoniko kai tou magnhtiko tomogrfou.
Radon.
Qwrc na anafroume
26
x cos +y sin = s,
axnwn kai h gwna pou
y0y,
tte
R[f ](, s) =
Stic 3 diastseic enai nac oloklhrwtikc metasqhmatismc miac sugkekrimnhc sunrthshc (oloklhrwtikc purnac) sto qro twn eujein tou qrou,
dhlad to pedo orismo tou oloklhrwtiko metasqhmatismo enai mia epifneia
Boy.
Radon
R3
Boy,
3.7
Parrthma:
Stereografik Probol
Gia eukola ston anagnsth, parajtoume ta basik stoiqea thc stereografikc probolc tou
epipedou
Riemann
Argand.
(x, y) sto eppedo (2 diastseic)
x0 x, xona tetagmnwn ton y 0 y kai arq to shmeo O.
stw
enai 1-1, ep kai suneqc, sunepc to snolo twn migadikn arijmn enai
omoiomorfik me to eppedo (wc topologiko qroi) isodnama to snolo
twn migadikn arijmn enai ismorfo me to
sma to
dikn
R).
To
arijmn
gewmetrik
pwc
lgetai
eppedo
parapnw
eppedo
tan
R2
tautzetai
me
B kai N
snolo
twn
miga-
pou
Argand.
to
S2
27
p(x, y, z) :=
Apodeiknetai ti h
x + iy
1z
p1 : C S 2 {B}( R3 )
+ i
||2 1
,
,
)
p () := (
1 + ||2 i(1 + ||2 ) 1 + ||2
1
pou
dhlad an
= x + iy ,
tte
arijmo
pou wc gnwstn
= ei cot( )
2
i
e = cos + isin.
28
Proboliko
4.1
Basiko
Metasqhmatismo
Orismo
Orismc
'Estw
1.
kai
F.
T : V W
Mia apeiknish
ja lgetai
) an isqei to exc:
grammikc metasqhmatismc
kai
, F.
O purnac thc
h eikna thc
Ker(T ) := {v V |T v = 0}
Im(T ) := {w W |w = T v}.
orzetai wc to snolo
orzetai wc to snolo
en
'Estw
Tte to snolo
Ker(T ) = 0,
Ker(T ) V
pe-
'Estw
dinusma.
V
tou Vv
tou
T :V W
Vv V
Sumbolzoume me
msw thc
tikoc
Tv W.
upqwrouc
ankoun
ston
Sunepc
tou
purna
pou
thc
W,
v.
T (Vv ) W
. Tte an
kpoio tuqao
vV
apeikonzei
pargontai
stouc
touc
ap
ta
antstoiqouc
monodistatouc
diansmata
: P (V ) P (KerT ) P (W )
29
tou
monodistatouc
dianusma-
pou
den
dianusmati-
An h
enai
, tte
antistryimh
P (V )
KerT = 0
opte h
orzetai se olklhro
: P (V ) P (W )
Smfwna me ta parapnw loipn qoume ton akloujo orism:
Orismc 2.
P (V )
P (W )
enai h apeiknish
: P (V ) P (W )
pou
orzetai pwc perigryame pio pnw msw enc antistryimou grammiko metasqhmatismo
T : V W.
Shmewsh 1:
T ,
pou
F,
Paradegmata:
1.
R2
Metasqhmatismo
Mobius
P (R2 ).
'Estw
T : R2
bsh tou
R2
T (0 , 1 ) = (a0 + b1 , c0 + d1 ),
qei tpo:
(0 , 1 ) h
2
diansmatoc tou R ,
pou
suntetagmnh
(x) =
a + bx
c + dx
M
obius.
2.
T :R R
P (R3 ).
'Estw
R3
33
anti-
stryimou pnaka:
a0 a1 a2
T = b0 b1 b2
c0 c1 c2
me mh-mhdenik orzousa
detT 6= 0.
'Estw
30
anomogenec suntetagmnec
probolik metasqhmatism
(x1 , x2 ) = (
4.2
Shmea
x1 := 10 kai x2 := 20 parnoume
: P (R3 ) P (R3 ) me tpo:
ton antstoiqo
b0 + b1 x 1 + b2 x 2 c 0 + c1 x 1 + c 2 x 2
,
).
a0 + a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 a0 + a1 x 1 + a2 x 2
se Genik Jsh
(ra
Paradegmata:
1.
P (R2 )
(x1 , x2 , x3 )
v2
x1
kai
x2 ,
v2
v1
kai
v1 = v2 gia kpoio R.
Tte mwc ta
v1 kai
R2
opte
2.
pdou
P (R3 )
deigma).
Jerhma 1.
'Estw
x0 , x1 , ..., xn+1
na snolo ap
31
P (V )
dimV = n+1) pou brskontai se genik jsh. 'Estw epshc y0 , y1 , ..., yn+1
(n + 2)-wc proc to pljoc shmea enc llou pragmatiko
proboliko qrou P (W ) me dimP (W ) = n (kai ra dimW = n + 1) pou
ra
na snolo ap
: P (V ) P (W )
me
(xi ) = yi
i = 0, 1, ..., n + 1.
gia la ta
'Estw
peutik diansmata
v0 ,v1 ,...,vn .
Aut ta
(n + 1)-wc
diti af' enc enai grammik anexrthta, af' etrou enai se pljoc t-
vn+1 =
n
X
i v i
i=0
i 6= 0 gia la ta i =
0, 1, ..., n diti sthn antjeth perptwsh pou ja eqame i = 0 gia kpoio i = k ,
tte ja eqame to en lgw antiproswpeutik dinusma vk wc grammik sunduasm twn upolopwn antiproswpeutikn dianusmtwn v0 , v1 , ..., vk1 , vk+1 , ..., vn
gia kpoia
i R .
pou enai topo lgw thc genikc jshc twn arqikn shmewn. Sunepc kje
bajmwt pollaplsio
i v i
enai la mh-mhdenik).
vn+1 =
n
X
vi
i=0
dhlad me
i = 1, i = 0, 1, ..., n.
an sque
vn+1 =
n
X
i=0
32
i v i
gia kpoia
i R
me
i = 0, 1, ..., n,
0=
n
X
(i 1)vi
i=0
Ap th genik jsh twn arqikn shmewn mwc, ta antiproswpeutik dia-
nsmata
sunepc
i 1 = 0, i =
xi P (V )
vi V
me
W.
i = 0, 1, ..., n + 1
vn+1 =
n
X
vi
i=0
kai epilgoume epshc antiproswpeutik diansmata
gia ta shmea
yi P (W )
wi W
me
i = 0, 1, ..., n+
wn+1 =
n
X
wi .
i=0
Orzoume katpin th grammik apeiknish
T :V W
wc exc:
n
n
X
X
T(
i vi ) :=
i wi
i=0
Ap th grammikthta thc
i = 0, 1, ..., n
i=0
T vi = wi
gia
en
T vn+1
n
n
X
X
= T(
vi ) =
wi = wn+1
i=0
i=0
v0 ,v1 ,...,vn tou dianusmatiko qrou V sta diansmata thc bshc w0 ,w1 ,...,wn
tou dianusmatiko qrou W shmanei pwc h T enai nac isomorfismc metax twn dianusmatikn qrwn V kai W (apeiknish 1-1 kai ep), opte enai kai antistryimh.
: P (V ) P (W ) pou prokptei ap ton parapnw grammik metasqhmatiT : V W apeikonzei ta shmea xi P (V ), i = 0, 1, ..., n+1, sta shmea
sm
33
yi P (W ), i = 0, 1, ..., n + 1,
dhlad isqei
(xi ) = yi
gia
i = 0, 1, ..., n + 1
wn+1
n
X
i
wi
=
n+1
i=0
diti ta
'Omwc ap th monadikthta
thc kfrashc
n
X
wn+1 =
wi
i=0
n+1 = i = R.
'Ara
.
petai ti
4.3
T = T
opte oi
Proboliko Metasqhmatismo
kai
kai
T0
orzoun ton
Sqdio
Epanerqmaste se aut thn pargrafo sto praktik prblhma pou antimetpize o floc mac o zwgrfoc (kallitqnhc) thc Anagnnhshc gia na
dexoume ti tan zwgrafzoume mia diaforetik ktoyh enc antikeimnou,
ousiastik aut pou epiteletai enai nac probolikc metasqhmatismc.
R3 .
se kpoio shmeo
x R3
R3
me
x
/
Afo loipn
pc to shmeo
dimVx = 1,
x R3
kai
R3 P (R4 ),
en to eppedo
x P (R4 ), sune4
upqwro Vx R me
petai ti kai
34
Vx + V
to opoo, efarmzontac
R4
= Vx + V
(ant gia to smbolo tou isomorfismo suqn qrhsimopoiome apl to smbolo thc isthtac).
v R4 grfetai me
v V antstoiqa.
v = vx + v
me
vx Vx
kai
p : R4 V me tpo p (v) = v (probol sthn v sunistsa). Kajar Ker(p ) = Vx diti ta stoiqea tou Vx
qontac ex orismo v sunistsa 0 apeikonzontai msw thc p sto 0. Kat
sunpeia h p orzei nan probolik metasqhmatism
Orzoume th grammik apeiknish
$ : P (R4 ) P (Vx ) P (V ).
P (Vx ) = x, pou antistoiqe sto shmeo pou brsketai to
mti tou zwgrfou en P (V ) = , pou antistoiqe ston kamb tou zwgrfou.
Upenjumzoume ti
y 6= x, tte to y qei na
antiproswpeutik dinusma R 3 v(y) = v(y)x + v(y) me v(y) 6= 0 (diti
an v(y) = 0, tte v(y) = v(y)x , dhlad v Ker(p ), topo). Sunepc
to dinusma v(y) = v(y) v(y)x ja brsketai ston 2-distato dianusmatik
4
upqwro tou R pou pargetai ap ta diansmata v(y) kai v(y)x (afo pwc
H apeiknish
$ (y),
tou opoou to
v(y)
kai
y.
$ ),
'Omwc to shmeo
$ (y) P (V ),
shmeo pou zwgrafzei o zwgrfoc ston kamb tou, pou apeikonzei to shmeo
tou qrou.
35
se kpoio diaforetik
R4
= Vx + V
= Vx + V0
p0 : R4 V0 me tpo p0 (v) =
v0 . Profanc tra kai pli Ker(p0 ) = Vx . Jewrome sth sunqeia ton
4
periorism p 0 |V thc p me pedo orismo qi olklhro to R all mno to V ,
dhlad jewrome th grammik apeiknish p 0 |V : V V 0 . Profanc tra
afo Vx V = {0}, h grammik apeiknish p 0 |V (dhlad o periorismc thc
p sto V ) ja enai antistryimh opte orzei ton probolik metasqhmatism
Jewrome tra th grammik apeiknish
$ : P (V ) P (V0 )
Sunepc edame pwc
anaparstash
miac
diaforetikc
ktoyhc
enc
an-
probolik metasqhmatism
Paratrhsh 1: To Jerhma 4.2.1 gia thn eidik perptwsh tou proboliko epipdou, mac lei pwc mia tetrda shmewn se genik jsh antistoiqe
msw enc proboliko metasqhmatismo se opoiadpote llh tetrda shmewn se genik jsh. An aut sunduaste me to Pardeigma 4.2.2 pou lei ti
kje tetrda shmewn sto probolik eppedo sthn opoa den uprqei kama
suneujeiak trida brskontai se genik jsh, lambnoume wc apotlesma ti
sto probolik eppedo, nac probolikc metasqhmatismc apeikonzei opoiadpote tetrda shmewn pou den qei suneujeiak trida se mia opoiadpote
llh tetrda shmewn pou den periqei suneujeiak trida.
Me apl lgia
Gia pardeigma na
orjognioi
36
(gi' aut lgontai kai isometrec). Kat' epktash diathron anallowtec kai
tic gwnec (jumhjete ton orism tou sunhmitnou thc gwnac do dianusmtwn
wc to phlko tou eswteriko ginomnou autn dia tou ginomnou twn mtrwn
touc). To snolo twn orjogniwn metasqhmatismn apotele omda.
metasqhmatismo
mkh.
smmorfoi
37
Dusmc
5.1
Dukc
Probolikc
Qroc
kai Arq
Dusmo
'Estw
2.
bsh
Orismc 3.
kai stw
P (V )
'Estw
dimV = n + 1
probolikc qroc P (V )
pou apoteletai ap touc monodistatouc dianusmatikoc upoqrouc tou duko dianusmatiko qrou
tou
V apoteletai ap la
Ker(f ) apotele dianusmatik upqwro tou V , dhlad qoume ti Ker(f ) V me dim[Ker(f )] = dimV 1. Faner o dianusmatikc
upqwroc Ker(f ) tou V enai anexrthtoc ap thn epilog tou antiproswpeutiko diansmatoc f diti Ker(f ) = Ker(f ) an 6= 0. 'Ara loipn
P (V ) (me antiproswpeutik dinusma thc morfc f me
R kai f V ),
V
dimV 1
Ker(f ) , isodnama
P (V )
f
R
f V
P (V )
dimP (V ) 1 (pou enai o
P (Ker(f ))).
Sunepc to
na
tuqao
shmeo
tou
anaparist
(pou
enai
na
dianusmatik
na
na
grammik
Antstrofa, an
upqwro
tou
W V
me
upqwro
tuqao
me
tou
shmeo
kai
distashc
tou
), anapa-
distashc
dimW = dimV 1,
38
{w0 , w1 , ..., wn1 } tou W kai thn epektenoume sthn {w0 , w1 , ..., wn1 , wn } pou
apotele mia bsh tou V . An {f0 , f1 , ..., fn } enai h duk thc bsh tou V ,
tte ap ton orism thc dukc bshc petai ti W = Ker(fn ).
Kje dianusmatikc upqwroc
me ton parapnw trpo, sunepc
uprqei
me
mia
apeiknish
1-1
kai
ep
P (V )
dimP (V ) 1.
W V
metax
P (V )
Dhlad h arq tou dusmo mac lei pwc uprqei antistoiqa 1-1 kai ep
metax twn shmewn tou
P (V )
P (V ).
Paradegmata.
En
: P (V ) P (V )
h opoa ousiastik apotele nan probolik metasqhmatism. An epilxoume
Ker(f )
v = a1 v0 a0 v1
(a0 , a1 ) = (a1 , a0 )
pou apotele antistryimo grammik metasqhmatism, ra orzetai o antstoiqoc probolikc metasqhmatismc.
2.
3.
T : V V
me
V 3 v 7 T v V
T v(f ) = f (v)
pou
v V , T v V
kai
V
= V , tte
P (V ) ' P (V ).
Afo
qrwn
f V ,
dhlad
f :V R
grammik apeiknish.
P (V ) mac lei
pwc ta shmea tou P (V ) antistoiqon sta upereppeda tou P (V ). An efar
msoume kai pli thn arq dusmo, aut th for metax twn qrwn P (V )
kai P (V
) ja proume ti ta shmea tou P (V ) antistoiqon sta uperep
40
P (V )
kai
P (V )
Ta shmea tou
P (V )
tou
ep me ta upereppeda tou
5.2
P (V )
P (V ).
Mhdenistc Dianusmatiko
Orismc
n + 1.
1.
'Estw
Qrou
kai Dusmc
U V
dimV =
mporome na antistoiqsoume
0
jewrome th duk thc bsh {f0 , f1 , ..., fn } tou V . O mhdenistc U pargetai
ap ta grammik anexrthta diansmata {fr , fr+1 , ..., fn }, opte
An epilxoume mia bsh
1),
Prtash
U V
1.
kai stw
'Estw
U0
U.
Tte
isqoun ta exc:
( )
(
ti
(U 0 )0 = U .
Upenjumzoume ti h arq dusmo pou edame sthn prohgomenh pargrafo aforose thn antistoiqa metax shmewn (upqwroi distashc
0)
kai
41
thn arq dusmo metax upqwrwn opoiasdpote distashc. Aut epitugqnetai wc exc:
U V
na dianusmatik upqwro
P (U 0 ) P (V ).
P (U ) P (V )
U0 V
Afo
stw
V V
dimV = dimV = n + 1
P (V ) P (V )
dimP (V ) = dimP (V ) = n
U V, dimU = k, (0 < k < n + 1) U 0 V , dimU 0 = n + 1 k
Arq
Dusmo:
P (U ) P (U 0 )
dimP (U ) = k 1 dimP (U 0 ) = n k
Ap ton parapnw genik pnaka dusmo, blpoume gia pardeigma pwc
P (U 0 ) P (V )
0
tou duko proboliko qrou distashc mhdn, dhlad dimP (U ) = 0
n k = 0 n = k ), antistoiqon se upoqrouc P (U ) P (V ) me distash
ta shmea tou
P (V )
42
dimP (U ) = k 1 = n 1,
P (V ),
fwne me ta parapnw.
dimP (V ) = n = 3, tte oi eujeec tou proboliko qrou P (V ) pou antistoiqon se upoqrouc P (U ) P (V ) me distash
dimP (U ) = k 1 = 1 k = 2, antistoiqon se upoqrouc P (U 0 ) P (V )
tou duko proboliko qrou distashc n k = 1, dhlad se eujeec tou
Tloc parathrome ti an
5.3
Efarmogc Dusmo:
ma
Jerhma
Desargues
, Jerh-
Pppou
P (V ),
me
dimP (V ) = 2,
(P (U ) =)x P (V )
kpoio shmeo, tte (P (U ) =)x P (V ) ja qei distash 1 opte ja apo0
Jerhma 1.
probolik qro
'Estw
P (V )
P, A, A0 , B, B 0 , C, C 0
AB
kai
A0 B 0 , BC
AA0 , BB 0
P.
kai
kai
CC 0
na enai dia-
B 0 C 0 , CA kai C 0 A0
R, S, T
antstoiqa,
enai suneujeiak.
Apdeixh:
43
p, a, a0 , b, b0 , c, c0
gia ta shmea
P, A, A0 , B, B 0 , C, C 0 P (V ) antstoiqa.
Ap to Pardeigma
4.2.1 gnwrzoume pwc mia trida diaforetikn shmewn se mia eujea brskontai pnta se genik jsh, sunepc mporome na epilxoume antiproswpeutik
diansmata pwc sthn apdeixh tou Jewrmatoc 4.2.1 entc twn trin disdistatwn dianusmatikn upoqrwn tou
qroi enai oi eujeec
P AA , P BB
P CC 0 ston P (V ). Me
a, a , b, b0 , c, c0 V tsi ste
kai
lla lgia
p = a + a0
p = b + b0
p = c + c0
0 = a+a0 bb0
dinusma r brsketai
b 0 a0 = a b = r ,
pou
a, b
autn), tte to
Gia na proume th duk kdosh tou parapnw jewrmatoc, arke na parathrsoume pwc an
qro
P (V )
Desargues :
1'.
'Estw
44
RST
Desargues
P ).
pou:
Jerhma
2.
'Estw
A, B, C
kai
A0 , B 0 , C 0 0
do tuqaec diatetag-
kai
Shmewsh 1:
AB 0 A0 B , AC 0 A0 C
kai
BC 0 B 0 C ), enai suneujeiak.
45
Kamplec b'
6.1
bajmo
Quadrics
Digrammikc Morfc
V dianusmatikc qroc me sma F peperasmnhc distashc dimF V = n + 1. Mia summetrik digrammik morf B ston V enai
mia apeiknish B : V V F ttoia ste:
i B(v, w) = B(w, v) (h idithta aut anafretai sto qarakthrism summeOrismc 1.
'Estw
( )
trik)
( )
B(v, w) = 0 w V v = 0.
To klasik pardeigma miac summetrikc digrammikc morfc enai to gnwst eswterik ginmeno twn dianusmtwn tou qrou
B(
x ,
y)=
x
y.
B : R3 R3 R
me
x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) kai
y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ), tte
x
y = x1 y1 +x2 y2 +x3 y3 .
|
x | :=
x
x
x
y
cos(
x ,
y ) :=
| x || y |
'Estw
T : V V
BT
meta-
Bij = B(vi , vj ).
En to dinusma
(0 , 1 , ..., n ),
B orzei na summetrik
Bij qei mh-mhdenik orzousa
morf B enai mh-ekfulismnh.
tte h
O summetrikc pnakac
vV
wc proc th bsh
46
morf
B(v, v) =
n
X
Bij i j
i,j=0
O kajorismc thc digrammikc morfc msw thc tetragwnikc morfc isqei
mno an to sma
kai
2,
dhlad an
1 + 1 6= 0,
pou
Jerhma
qro
1.
'Estw
B(v, v)
( )
An
F = C,
B(v, v) = 20 + 21 + ... + 2r
r = rank(Bij ) h txh tou summetriko pnaka Bij kai profanc r
dimC V .
ii An F = R, tte uprqei mia bsh tou V wc proc thn opoa h tetragwnik
pou
s dimR V
h txh kai
r (s r)
s = dimR V
r = dimC V
(migadik perptw-
(pragmatik perptwsh).
2.
B(v, v) = 0,
pou
V.
Shmewsh 2.
Epeid gia tic tetragwnikc morfc isqei B(v, v) =
2 B(v, v), petai ti to snolo twn shmewn thc tetragwnikc kamplhc enai
47
B(v, v) = B(T 1 T v, T 1 T v) = B T (T v, T v)
miac kai
B T (T v, T v) = 0
en
B(v, v) = 0.
i
Shmewsh 3.
B(v, v) = 20 + 21 + ... + 2r .
H paraktw prtash ousiastik apotele to antstrofo thc Shmewshc
2 parapnw:
Apdeixh:
An
F = C,
{v0 , v1 , ..., vn }
tou
isqei
0 = B 0 (v, v) = 20 + 21 + ... + 2r
(4)
pou to dinusma
(0 , 1 , ..., n ),
me
0 = B(v, v) =
n
X
Bij i j
(5)
i,j=0
diti en gnei den mporome na upojsoume ti to Jerhma 6.1.1.( ) ikanopoietai tautqrona gia th
kai th
B0
nn
pnakec
A, B
48
en
metatjentai
, dhlad en
AB = BA.
En oi pnakec diagwniopoiontai
vi V
B 0 (v, v) = 0
{v0 , v1 , ..., vn } tou
qoun suntetagmnec
oi opoec profanc
B11 = B22
kai
B12 = 0.
Epanalambnoume thn
i
Bij = 0 gia i < j r. An r < n
parnoume diansmata me suntetagmnec (0, 0, ..., r+1 , r+2 , ..., n ) opte apoktme Bij = 0 an i j r (profanc i, j, r n + 1).
6.2
Paradegmata
kai
Kampuln
b' bajmo
Jerhma
Adrneiac
tou
Sylvester,
ii
49
dimC V = 2 opte
Jerhma 6.1.1. i
kai
1.
dimC P (V ) = 1
Ap to
( )
0 , 1 C,
(0 , 1 ),
20 + 21 = 0
dhlad
0 = i1
Apoteletai sunepc ap 2 mlic shmea, aut me anomogenec suntetagmnec
i.
1'.
1, sunepc dimR V = 2.
Uprqoun mno
do
dimR P (V ) =
2 kai ma me upograf 0.
+2,
20 + 21 = 0
pou
0 , 1 , 2 R
Ac dome th deterh perptwsh, thn kamplh pou prokptei ap thn pragmatik summetrik digrammik morf me upograf
0,
20 21 = 0
pou
0 , 1 R
anomogenec suntetagmnec
x1 :=
1
, tte h exswsh
0
20 21 = 0
50
0 6= 0
kai pme se
gnetai
x21 = 1
pou qei lsh do shmea me anomogenec suntetagmnec
1.
Genik, kje mh-ekfulismnh tetragwnik kamplh tou proboliko epipdou onomzetai kwnik kamplh (
conic).
2.
dimC P (V ) = 2
opte
'Estw
dimC V = 3
ko proboliko epipdou enai isodnamh (msw enc proboliko metasqhmatismo), me anlogo skeptik pwc sto prohgomeno antstoiqo pardeigma,
me to snolo twn shmewn pou ikanopoion thn algebrik exswsh
20 + 21 + 22 = 0
pou
dou.
2'.
dimR V = 3,
uprqoun mno
do
istimec
kai ma me upograf
1.
+3,
20 + 21 + 22 = 0
pou
Ac dome th deterh perptwsh, thn kwnik pou prokptei ap thn pragmatik summetrik digrammik morf me upograf stw
20 21 22 = 0
pou
0 , 1 , 2 R
epipdou. An epilxoume
0 6= 0
x1 :=
51
1
0
kai
x2 :=
2
,
0
tte h exswsh
20 21 22 = 0
gnetai
x21 + x22 = 1
pou wc gnwstn apotele thn exswsh (monadiaou) kklou sto pragmatik
probolik eppedo.
6.3
Genikeumnec
Kwnikc
P (R2 ) ' S 1 ,
mia apeiknish pou enai 1-1 kai ep (toulqiston) metax twn shmewn thc
probolikc eujeac kai tou kklou. To parapnw genikeetai: pwc mac lei
to Jerhma 6.3.1, ja dome pwc kje mh-ekfulismnh kwnik (kai qi mno o
kkloc), enai se antistoiqa 1-1 kai ep me thn probolik eujea gia opoiodpote sma
F:
1.
'Estw
Shmewsh 1: To Jerhma aut apotele thn probolik kdosh kai genkeush thc stereografikc probolc (sthn distash 1) gia opoiodpote sma.
Apdeixh:
'Estw ti h
grammik morf
tou shmeou
dinusma
52
merikc aplc prxeic [qrhsimopointac ton orism thc kwnikc kai th sqsh
anaparstashc miac summetrikc digrammikc morfc se morf summetriko
pnaka me thn epilog miac bshc
ap na
summetrik
33
ja anaparstato
0 0
0 0
F),
o opooc pnakac
B|Vu
enai
{v0 , u}
tou
Vu ,
B|Vu
B(0 v0 + 1 u, 0 v0 + 1 u) =
0 0 B(v0 , v0 ) + 0 1 B(v0 , u) + 1 0 B(u, v0 ) + 1 1 B(u, u) =
20 1 B(v0 , u) + 21 B(u, u) = 0 1 + 21
(6)
(7)
(8)
pou jsame
petai pwc
epipdou
H kwnik
P (Vu )
sta shmea
kai
(y).
wn
x, y
kai
suntetagmnec
53
Gia ta shmea
kai
Gia to shmeo
(y)
qoume
(, 0)
= 0, (y) = (, 0) = x
diti to shmeo
(1, 0)
kai
: P (U ) C fanetai
z C me z 6= x diti h
eujea pou ennei to shmeo x kai to shmeo z sunant thn eujea P (U ) se
na shmeo y . Afo aut to shmeo enai monadik, h apeiknish enai 1-1
sto snolo C {x}.
pariston to dio shmeo. O orismc thc apeiknishc
parapnw.
6.4
Mia
Efarmog
ap
thn Algebrik
Gewmetra
'Estw
F = Q,
tikn) arijmn.
P (Q3 )
me
dimQ P (Q3 ) = 2,
20 21 22 = 0
pou
0 , 1 , 2 Q
epipdou.
Epilgoume to shmeo
54
0 = (21 + 22 )
1 = 21 22
kai
2 = 21 2
se anomogenec suntetagmnec, an jsoume
t :=
1
,
2
ja proume
x1 =
1 t2
1
=
0
1 + t2
x2 =
2
2t
.
=
0
1 + t2
kai
t=
me
p, q Z
x21 + x22 = 1
p
q
t = pq
suntetagmnec parnoume
x1 =
kai
x2 =
q 2 p2
q 2 + p2
2qp
+ p2
q2
opte h sqsh
(q 2 p2 )2 + (2qp)2 = (q 2 + p2 )2
ddei th genik lsh stouc akraiouc thc exswshc
55
apokttai
x2 + y 2 = z 2 .
Grafdec
drics
7.1
qro
B0
Diagwniopohsh
'Estw
Pencils of Qua-
Tetragwnikn
kai
B1
Zegouc
Pinkwn
(0))
B0
grfetai wc
B0 (v, v) = 20 + 21 + ... + 2n
v = (0 , 1 , ..., n ) oi suntetagmnec enc tuqaou diansmatoc v V
(0). En h B0 enai mh-ekfulismnh, tte dimV = n + 1
kai o pnakac thc B0 wc proc aut th bsh (0) enai B0 = I o monadiaoc
(n + 1) (n + 1) pnakac. 'Estw ti wc proc th bsh (0) h tetragwnik morf
B1 anaparstatai ap to summetrik pnaka B . Upenjumzoume ti kje migapou
wc proc th bsh
'Estw
shc
kai
vl
kai
vm
Upojtoume ti o migadikc
summetrikc pnakac
do idiodiansmata tou
n
X
xk yk =
k=0
n
X
Bkj xj yk =
xj Bjk yk = l
m , l 6= 0,
afo
n
X
xj yj
j=0
j,k=0
Sunepc an
Bjk xj yk =
j,k=0
j,k=0
n
X
n
X
m 6= l
gia
l 6= m
(pou
n
X
xj yj = 0.
j=0
Me lla lgia ja prpei na isqei
B0 (vl , vm ) = 0 an l 6= m.
B0 (vl , vl ) 6= 0.
56
Epeid h
B0
enai
'Ara an jsoume
vl
vl0 := p
B0 (vl , vl )
(10 ), wc proc
B0 (v, v) = 20 + 21 + ... + 2n
kai
B1 (v, v) = 0 20 + 1 21 + ... + n 2n
h opoa bsh diagwniopoie tautqrona kai tic do tetragwnikc morfc
B0
kai
B1 .
H gewmetra pou sqetzetai me zegh tetragwnikn morfn afor tic legmenec grafdec tetragwnikn kampuln:
'Estw
grafda tetragwnikn (
57
ton orism thc grafdac prokptei mesa pwc mia grafda tetragwnikn enai
mia (probolik) eujea ston probolik qro
P (W ),
pou
o dianusmatikc
V.
(, )
det(B0 + B1 ) = 0
pou parnoume thn orzousa enc antiproswpeutiko pnaka (me thn epilog
miac bshc).
B0
enai
B1
diag(0 , 1 , ..., n ).
Sthn
= i
pou
i = 0, 1, ..., n.
Oi idiotimc
tetragwnikn kai den apaitetai epilog bsewn gia ton orism touc.
7.2
Grafdec
sto
Migadik Probolik
Eppedo
B0
kai
B1
dimC V = 3,
dimC P (V ) = 2. Upojtoume ti oi
ti oi idiotimc i , i = 0, 1, 2 enai lec
opte
diaforetikc metax touc. Ap thn prohgomenh pargrafo petai pwc uprqei mia bsh
{v0 , v1 , v2 }
B0
kai
B1
diagwniopoiontai
Jerhma
{v0 , v1 , v2 }.
1.
'Estw
C0
kai
C1
sto migadik probolik eppedo pou orzontai ap tic summetrikc digrammikc morfc
C1
i
B0
kai
B1
C0
kai
( )
ii
jein pou prokptoun ennontac xna zegh autn twn tessrwn shmewn.
iii
58
Apdeixh:
( )
C0 : 20 + 21 + 22 = 0
kai
C1 : 0 20 + 1 21 + 2 22 = 0
0
roume
(0 1)21 + (0 2 )22 = 0
C1 qoun antiproswpeutik
u = ( 1 2 , 2 0 , 0 1 )
C0
me
kai
i = 0, 1, 2
diansmata
Afo
C,
petai pwc
(B0 + B1 )(u, u) = 0 ,
Antstrofa, ap to Jerhma 4.2.1, kje tetrda shmewn tou migadiko proboliko epipdou mpore na metasqhmatiste msw kpoiou proboliko metasqhmatismo se mia llh tetrda shmewn twn opown oi omogenec
suntetagmnec enai
kai
(1, 1, 1).
B(u, u) = 0 ja prpei na qei B00 = B11 = B22 = 0 kai B12 = B23 = B32 = 0.
Oi parapnw enai tssereic grammik anexrthtec exisseic sto dianusmatik qro (migadikc) distashc
opte orzoun (oi tssereic grammik anexrthtec exisseic) na dianusmatik upqwro distashc
kwnikn.
2.
ii
C0
kai
C1 .
(B1 i B0 )(v, v) = 0
59
1 0 1 + 2 2 0 = 0
kai
1 0 1 2 2 0 = 0
( 1 2 , 2 0 , 0 1 )
kai
( 1 2 , 2 0 , 0 1 )
iii
(1, 0, 0),
bshc v0 .
enai to shmeo
dinusma
Aut
rzei
gewmetrik
kanec
pte
do
ii
parapnw enai
1 = 2 = 0
pou
anaparstash
tetragwnikc
miac
morfc
grafdac
den
bohj
mporon
na
sto
na
anagnw-
diagwniopoihjon
tautqrona
'Estw ti qoume
C0 : 20 + 21 + 22 = 0
kai
C1 : 0 20 + 1 21 + 2 22 = 0
En oi
C0
kai
C1
den mpore
0 = 1 6= 2 .
(1, i, 0)
kai
2 = 0
2
kai 0
21
= 0,
dhlad ta do
(1, i, 0).
Sunepc oi tetragwnikc morfc pou anapariston do kwnikc pou tmnontai se tra shmea den mporon na diagwniopoihjon tautqrona.
Hilbert
60
aprosdioristac tou
Heisenberg
pwc den enai dunatn na metrhjon me apluth akrbeia h orm kai h jsh
enc swmatidou. Sto bjoc, aut ofeletai sto gegonc ti h orm kai h jsh apotelon asumbbasta fusik megjh, dhlad oi telestc thc ormc kai
thc jshc den metatjentai, sunepc den diagwniopoiontai tautqrona (bl
Parapomp sthn Apdeixh thc Prtashc 6.1.1). Aut h majhmatik idithta
ekfrzei to
dusm
kmatoc
Planck
kai
aktinobolac
sth fsh.
To fusik nhma
Gia pardeigma, na
llo zegoc asumbbastwn fusikn megejn (ektc thc jshc kai thc ormc)
enai h enrgeia kai o qrnoc.
61
Grammiko Qroi
8.1
To
'Estw
Orjognio
Tetragwnikn
Sumplrwma
pragmatikoc arijmoc an kai to detero den enai kajoristik) efodiasmnoc me mia mh-ekfulismnh summetrik digrammik morf
V,
U V
B.
En
U V
nac
wc to snolo
U := {v V |B(u, v) = 0, u U }
An h
tik qro
x
y
orjognio sumplrwma
genik o
qroc.
sto dianusma-
U tou U
all
wc dianusmatikc
V
= V .
= V
V , den uprqei
kai
genik fusikc isomorfismc metax enc dianusmatiko qrou kai tou du-
V enai efodiasmnoc
B , mporome na th qrhsimopoisoume kai
: V V wc exc:
v (w) := B(v, w)
V 3 v 7 v V . Dhlad to v wc stoiqeo tou V enai
apeiknish v : V R. Me ton parapnw orism ja qoume
pou
mia grammik
B(v, u) = 0, u U v (u) = 0, u U
dhlad an
v U 0 .
Sunepc
(U ) = U 0 .
Ap thn Prtash 5.2.1 qoume thn paraktw:
'Estw U , U1 kai U2
V . Tte:
i U = (U ) .
ii An U1 U2 , tte U2 U1 .
iii (U1 + U2 ) = U1 U2 .
Prtash
1.
tiko qrou
( )
(
(
62
iv (U1 U2 ) = U1 + U2 .
v dimU + dimU = dimV .
(
(
orisje msw thc B ete msw thc B , me R . Sunepc gia kje grammik
upqwro P (U ) distashc k tou P (V ), h tetragwnik orzei llon na qro
P (U ) distashc
Me gewmetrikoc rouc h digrammik morf
Prtash 2.
kc
mia
B ),
enai h
(efaptomnh miac kwnikc kaletai mia eujea pou tmnei thn kwnik se
na mno shmeo).
Apdeixh:
Tte to
v0
tou shmeou
'Estw
v0
x)
enai h eujea
P (U ).
Upojtoume ti h
{v1 , v2 }
tou
U .
v1
tmnei
x.
l (polik
thn C se na
kai
Tte ja qoume
B(v1 + v2 , v1 + v2 ) = 0 = 0
B(v1 , v1 ) = 0 (diti x C )
'Omwc B(v1 , v0 ) = 0 ex orismo
thc B ).
tou U , prgma pou enai topo diti
h C upojsame pwc enai mh-ekfulismnh. Sunepc (me sma to C), uprqoun
do shmea, ta x1 , kai x2 sthn tom C l me antiproswpeutik diansmata v1
kai v2 . Tra
B(v0 + v1 , v0 + v1 ) = 2 B(v0 , v0 )
'Omwc tte
kai
B(v0 , v0 ) 6= 0,
thc C en kai mno en = 0.
Me lla lgia h eujea pou ennei ta shmea x kai x1 tmnei thn C mno sto
shmeo x1 , ra enai efaptomnh. Parmoia gia to shmeo x2 .
B(v0 , v1 ) = 0 kai epshc B(v1 , v1 ) = 0.
opte to v0 + v1 anaparist na shmeo
diti
63
Afo
x
/ C,
tte
8.2
Paradegmata
Tetragwnikn
Kampuln
kai
Epi-
fanein
U U ,
U V
ikanopoie th sqsh
B(u, u) = 0
gia
U U ,
tte B(u, u) = 0, u U , opte olklhroc o grammikc upqwroc P (U ) ankei sthn tetragwnik kamplh. Antstrofa, an o P (U ) ankei sthn tetragwnik kamplh, tte h tetragwnik morf B mhdenzetai tan perioriste ston
U pwc kai h sqetizmenh digrammik morf. Opte B(u, u0 ) = 0, u, u0 U
U V
me
dimU1
ikanopoie thn
1
dimU dimV.
2
P (V ),
P (U )
brsketai se mia
tte
1
dimP (U ) [dimP (V ) 1].
2
An
dimP (V ) = 2,
tte
dimP (U ) = 0
An
dimP (V ) = 3,
tte
dimP (U ) 1
((0 , 1 ), (0 , 1 )) = (0 0 , 0 1 , 1 0 , 1 1 )
An
z0 z3 = 0 0 1 1 = z1 z2
64
Antstrofa, jewro-
De mhdenzontai lec oi
z0 6= 0 kai 0 0 = 00 00 , 0 1 = 00 01 , 1 0 = 01 01 ,
0 0 , parnoume
Gia pardeigma, an
tte diairntac dia
1
0
= 10
0
0
kai
1
0
= 10
0
0
opte h
enai amfeiknish.
(0 , 1 ), sthn prth
probolik eujea kai h eikna auto tou uposunlou msw thc enai h eujea
Sthn sunqeia, kajorzoume na tuqao shmeo, stw
1 z0 0 z2 = 0
1 z1 0 z3 = 0.
Anloga, kajorzontac to
(0 , 1 ),
1 z0 0 z1 = 0
1 z2 0 z3 = 0.
Sunepc h tetragwnik (epifneia) qei 2 mono-parametrikc oikogneiec eujein pnw thc.
tetragwnik
z0 z3 = z1 z2
ston pragmatik probolik qro
P (R4 )
xi :=
to tmma thc tetragwnikc gia to opoo
zi
,
z0
z0 6= 0,
enai to
x21 x23 = 1
Aut periqei tic do oikogneiec eujein kai mpore na paraqje ap qordc
idou mkouc se do daktulouc peristrfontac ton na se sqsh me ton llo.
dimC P (V ) = 2n + 1
1
dimU dimV.
2
An th jsoume sth morf tou Jewrmatoc 6.1.1, ja qoume
20 + 21 + ... + 22n+1 = 0
h opoa mpore na metasqhmatisje qrhsimopointac thn
z2j = 2j + 2j+1
kai
z2j+1 = 2j 2j+1
sth morf
1 z0 0 z2 = 0
1 z1 0 z3 = 0
1 z4 0 z6 = 0
1 z5 0 z7 = 0
.
.
.
orzoun nan ttoio upqwro.
66
pou enai h
To Exwterik
9.1
Ginmeno
ginomnou
Tra ja
grammik lgebra to opoo sth sunqeia ja qrhsimopoisoume gia na epilsoume na gewmetrik prblhma, thn perigraf twn probolikn eujein msa
ston probolik qro trin diastsewn.
jeec ston trisdistato probolik qro), perptwsh pou perilambnei kai tic
koinc eujeec ston koin trisdistato fusik qro.
F
qei qarakthristik mhdn, dhlad a 1 =
a F kai 0, 1 to mhdenik kai to monadiao stoiqeo tou
smatoc antstoiqa kai h eswterik prxh tou pollaplasiasmo sto sma).
Upojtoume pwc to sma
0 a = 0
den
(pou
Wc knhtro gia thn eisagwg twn exwterikn dunmewn jewrome to prblhma thc perigrafc twn probolikn eujein sto pragmatik probolik
eppedo. Sthn pargrafo 5 to lsame qrhsimopointac to duk qro enc
dianusmatiko qrou. Mia probolik eujea sto probolik eppedo (jewroopte dimV = 3), perigrfetai ap na 2-distato
U V (dimU = 2 opte dimP (U ) = 1), pou ddetai
me ti
dimP (V ) = 2,
dianusmatik upqwro
An
V = R3 efodiasmnoc
me to gnwst Eukledeio eswterik ginmeno), tte me to gnwst sumbolism thc dianusmatikc lgebrac, o 2-distatoc dianusmatikc upqwroc
67
U,
r
a = 0,
pou
U.
r = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) kai
a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), tsi ste f (v) = x1 a1 +x2 a2 +x3 a3 .
To kjeto dinusma
tou epipdou
kai
a =
u
v
grammikthta:
( )
(1
u 1 + 2
u2 )
v = 1 (
u1
v ) + 2 (
u2
v)
ii
u
v =
v
u
Prosoq!
Upenjumzoume
ti
den
isqei
prosetairistik
idithta
sto
exw-
terik ginmeno.
U,
kai
enai do lla
tte stw ti
u = a
u + b
v
kai
v = c
u + d
v
pou
a, b, c, d R,
opte
u v 0 = (a
u + b
v ) (c
u + d
v ) = (ad bc)
u
v
dhlad to dinusma
diansmatoc
u
v
u v0
P (R3 ).
U V enc 4-distatou
V = R3 , edame ti to dinusma
V.
68
a =
u
v pou enai to exwterik ginmeno do grammik anexrthtwn dia
dimP (V ) 3,
(dhlad
dimV 4),
apaitetai mia
P (V )
pou ja th dome amswc paraktw kai pou lgetai sfhnoeidc ginmeno (wedge
product). Ja kataskeusoume na dinusma pou ja to sumbolzoume uv W
se na no dianusmatik qro W ton opoo ja orsoume me katllhlo trpo,
me u, v V . To sfhnoeidc ginmeno ja ikanopoie toulqiston tic do basi-
( )'
grammikthta:
(1 u1 + 2 u2 ) v = 1 (u1 v) + 2 (u2 v)
ii
)'
u v = v u
pou
1 , 2 R kai u1 , u2 , u, v V
en
uv W .
qwroc
to
mia eujea
9.2
ja orzei
na shmeo ston
'Estw
ston
kai to
sfhnoeidc ginmeno
uv
h enai
( )'
)'
B(u, v) := (u v)
69
opte h
B : V V F
tec:
grammikthta:
( ')'
antisummetrikthta:
')'
B(u, v) = B(v, u)
Dhlad h
To snolo twn
B(V ).
apotele
Jtoume ex orismo ti
B(V ) := W
{vi }(i=0,1,...,n) tou V , tte kje
B tou V anaparstatai msw enc antisum(n + 1) (n + 1) pnaka Bij = B(vi , vj ) pou Bij = Bji .
dimV = n + 1.
'Estw
Orismc 1.
V2
digrammikn morfn
B(V )
tou
V,
dhlad
V2
V := [B(V )] .
V2
V.
B(V ) = W [B(V )] = W = W =
Orismc
2.
To exwterik ginmeno
uv
V2
do dianusmtwn
V2
( )'
(1 u1 + 2 u2 ) v = 1 (u1 v) + 2 (u2 v)
kai
ii
)'
u v = v u
pontai mesa ap ton orism.
70
{vi }(i=0,1,...,n)
'Estw
Bij B(vi , vj ).
Gnwrzoume ap th grammik lgebra ti o dianusmatikc qroc twn anti-
summetrikn tetragwnikn
Sunepc, an
(kl)
Jewrome ta diansmata
th duk bsh tou
V2
V2
vi vj
Prtash
1.
Aut sqhmatzoun
V.
Tte
uv =
afo ap thn
)'
uv
v 6= u.
Epektenoume to
V2
V2V
V
tou
tiko qrou
{u, v}
mh-mhdenik (antijetoantistrof).
stoiqea
i < j.
(kl)
Bkl =
i, j, k, l =
pou
(profanc
An
Antstrofa, stw
opte to
gia
i, j
k < l,
v = u, tte u v = u u = (u u) = 0
ii qoume pwc u u = u u.
Apdeixh.
idithta
uV
F.
'Estw
gia kpoio
me
0 v = u
(kl)
Bij
n(n+1)
.
2
sth morf
uv
V2
V,
kai sunepc
de
u, v V .
Kpoia
dome na pardeigma:
stw
(a0 , b0 ) enai mh-mhdenik ston R2 (suntetagmnec wc proc th sunjh bsh). 'Omwc a0 b2 a2 b0 = 0 kai a0 b3 a3 b0 = 0,
opte ta diansmata (a2 , b2 ) kai (a3 , b3 ) enai bajmwt pollaplsia tou (a0 , b0 )
a2 b 3 a3 b 2 = 1
pou prokptei ap touc suntelestc tou diansmatoc
v2 v3 .
P (V )
me
dimP (V ) = 3
opte
Den
afo
enai
mwc
dimV = 4,
V2
P
(
V)
. Prgmati,
V2
V2
dim[ V V
] = 6 kai dim[P ( V )] = 5, opte kje
2
qrou P (
V ) enai na shmeo se na qro 5 dia-
kje
tte
shmeo
tou
autc
thc
morfc
diastewn kajorzetai ap
n1
paramtrouc, sunepc mia eujea ston probolik qro pou mac endiafrei,
afo autc qei distash 5, ja kajorzetai ap 4 paramtrouc. Prpei loi-
V2
V
V
P ( 2 V ) (opte h ex-
V,
dhlad apaitetai na
Shmewsh 1:
roc
U R
me
'Ena eppedo
dimU = 2,
tou
R3 ,
V.
sto eppedo
a U
pou
72
P (R4 )
P (U )
apaitontai 4 parmetroi.
V ),
antistoiqon
se
shmea
tou
P (Q).
P (V ).
Jloume
(pou ja prokptei
P (VV)
W = 2V
oi eujeec tou
ja
pou orsame plhsase to stqo all den ton ptuqe akribc, ja qreiaste
lgh doulei akmh pou ja th dome sthn epmenh pargrafo.
73
10
H Exwterik
10.1
Anterec
ko
'Estw
'Algebra
exwterikc
dunmeic
enc
dianusmati-
qrou
n + 1.
Orismc 1.
pou
p N,
p (antisymmetric
M : |V V {z
V ... V} F
p
ao
(9)
( )
antisummetrikthta:
grammikthta:
Dhlad h
Orismc
2.
p-exwterik
dnamh
Vp
enai o dukc qroc tou dianusmatiko qrou twn antisummetrikn polugrammikn morfn bajmo
tou
V.
enc dianusmatiko q-
V1
rou
V2
74
V0
smatik qro
Dojntwn
V0
to sma, dhlad
p-wc
enai o
kai tautzetai me
u1 , u2 ,..., up VV
, kat' anau1 u2 ... up p V wc th
grammik apeiknish
polugrammikn
{vi }(i=0,1,...,n)
polugrammik apeiknish
dianusmtwn enai nac grammikc sunduasmc twn timn thc sta diansmata
bshc tou
Vp
vm = vn
H diatetagmnh
Prtash 1.
qrou
Vp
V:
dim[
Ta diansmata
tou
Vp
An
p
^
V]=
dimV
p
vi1 vi2 ... vip , me i1 < i2 < ... < ip , apotelon mia bsh
V.
p > dimV ,
tte
trikc morfc en an
ta bajmwt
tou
V.
Isqei to antstoiqo thc prtashc 9.2.1:
75
Prtash
2.
'Estw
enai grammik
Apdeixh:
An
p
X
i u i = 0
i=1
kai ta
up V
i F,
me
i = 0, 1, ..., p,
p
X
uj =
u1 , u2 ,...,
ja isqei
i u i
i=1,i6=j
opte
u1 u2 ... uj ... up =
p
X
i=1,i6=j
u1 u2 ... u1 ... up
Eisgoume mia prxh pollaplasiasmo, to exwterik ( sfhnoeidc) ginmeno, metax twn stoiqewn
dinusma
ab
Vp+q
Vp
V,
kai
Vq
gia na proume to
V.
Vp
a=
X
i
76
i ai
Vp
decomposable
) dianusmtwn ai
V , pou i F kai
V
V
i = 1, 2, ..., dim p V . 'Ena stoiqeo ai p V lgetai aposunjsimo an
p
1
2
1
mpore na grafe sth morf ai = ui ui ... ui , gia kpoia diansmata ui ,
V
q
p
2
ui ,..., ui V . An to b
V antstoiqa grfetai wc grammikc sunduasmc
X
b=
j b j
aposunjsimwn (
j
aposunjsimwn dianusmtwn
ginmeno
ab=
i j ai b j
pou
qi
kai
wc stoiqea twn
Vp+q
ab
kai
Vq
a b(M ) =
Vp
i j (ai bj )(M ) =
(p + q)
kai an to
ja proume
M (u1i , ..., upi , v1 , v2 , ..., vq ) enai mia antisummetrik polugrammik morf bajmo q opte h parapnw kfrash exarttai mno
Vq
ap to b
V . Anloga, an kajorsoume ta vji , h M exarttai mno ap
Vp
to a
V , sunepc to a b enai kal orismno.
An kajorsoume ta
uji ,
To sfhnoeidc ginmeno
den
v1 v2 ... vq
Upenjumallzei to
prshmo, sunepc
Prtash
3.
'An
Vp
kai
Vq
V,
tte
a b = (1)qp b a
77
10.2
Paradegmata
V
a = u v 2 V , pou u, v V , tte a a = u v u v = 0
diti h enallag twn u, v sto dex mloc allzei prshmo en sto arister
mloc to a a den allzei.
1.
An
2.
An
a = v0 v1 + v2 v3 ,
me
v0 , v1 , v2 , v3 V
grammik anexrthta
diansmata, tte
a a = (v0 v1 + v2 v3 ) (v0 v1 + v2 v3 ).
An ektelsoume epimeristik tic prxeic ja proume:
a a = v0 v1 v0 v1 + v0 v1 v2 v3 + v2 v3 v0 v1 + v2 v3 v2 v3 =
= v0 v1 v2 v3 + v2 v3 v0 v1 = 2v0 v1 v2 v3
v0 v1 v2 v3 enai mh-mhdenik, pou
a = v0 v1 + v2 v3 , den mpore na grafe sthn
kpoia diansmata u, v V (o pargontac 2 mac to
a = u v,
gia
apagoreei).
'Estw {v0 , v1 , ..., v2n , v2n+1 }, mia bsh enc dianusmatiko qrou V me
dimV = 2n + 2 kai stw a = v0 v1 + v2 v3 + ... + v2n v2n+1 . Tte orzoume
3.
an+1 := a
a ... a}
| a {z
(n + 1)
ao
(10)
Apodeiknetai ekola ti
An
Vp
me
aa=0
Sqlia:
1.
An
dimV
[
q
^
q=0
78
V,
kai prxeic
sfhnoeidc ginmeno
graded linear
algebra).
2.
To smbolo
wedge),
lgetai sfna (
dc ginmeno.
3.
kai logismc
79
11
11.1
H Tetragwnik
Klein
sunjkh aposnjeshc
Prtash
1.
U V.
a = u 1 u2 ,
'Estw
An
pou ta
u1 , u2
Apdeixh:
vV
isqei
a v = 0,
u1 , u2 .
ap na shmeo tou
decomposable).
Oi
Jerhma
1.
'Estw
V2
Apdeixh:
u2 V .
An to
Tte to
a a = 0.
a = u1 u2
gia kpoia
u1 ,
Tte mwc
a a = u1 u 2 u 1 u2 = 0
smfwna me to pardeigma 10.1
dimV = 2.
V.
V2
{v
,
v
}
mia bsh tou V . Tte dim[
V ] = 1 kai o
0
1
V2
V pargetai ap to 2-dinusma v0 v1 to opoo ex
'Estw
dianusmatikc qroc
80
V
V2
dimV V= 3. 'Estw a 2 V (pou dim[ V
V ] = 3), tuqao 2-dinusma.
4
Afo dim[
V ] = 0,Vfaner a a = 0, a 2 V . Jewrome th grammik
3
apeiknish A : V
V , pou orzetai ap th sqsh A(v) = a v . Afo
V3
dim[ V ] = 1, tte dim[Ker(A)] 2 kai stw u1 , u2 do grammik anexrthta diansmata tou Ker(A). Ta epektenoume se mia bsh {u1 , u2 , u3 } tou
V
V kai smfwna me ta parapnw h antstoiqh paragmenh bsh tou 2 V ja
enai h {u1 u2 , u2 u3 , u3 u1 }, opte mporome na gryoume
a = 1 u 2 u3 + 2 u 3 u 1 + 3 u1 u2
0 = a u1 = 1 u2 u3 u1 , opte 1 = 0. Omowc, 0 = a u2 =
2 u3 u1 u2 , opte 2 = 0 kai a = 3 u1 u2 pou enai aposunjsimo.
'Omwc
me distash
dimV = n + 1
me bsh
a=
n1
X
i<j
gia
a0
An
toume
V2
aij vi vj =
V0
aij vi vj +
u V 0.
a0 = 0, tte a = u vn ,
0
ti a 6= 0.
Afo
ain vi vn = a0 + u vn
i=0
i<jn1
kai
n1
X
a a = 0,
opte to
qoume
0 = (a0 + u vn ) (a0 + u vn ) = a0 a0 + 2u vn a0
'Omwc afo to
a0 a0
den perilambnei to
vn ,
prpei na isqei
a0 a0 = 0
kai
u vn a = 0.
Ap epagwg
a0 = u01 u02
gia kpoia
u01 , u02 V 0 ,
opte
u vn u01 u02 = 0.
'Etsi, ap thn Prtash 10.1.2 prokptei ti aut ta 4 diansmata enai gram-
vn
/ V 0 all ta uploipa 3 diansmata ankoun ston
0
0
diansmata u, u1 , u2 na enai grammik exarthmna. 'Estw
V 0,
ja prpei ta
81
to
11.2
gewmetrik ermhnea
thc
tetragwnikc
Klein
V4
dimV
=
4
, (opte dimP (V ) = 3), tte dim
V =
V4
1, opte h exswsh ( V 3)a a = 0 enai mia exswsh gia to a. Epilgontac
mia bsh {v0 , v1 , v2 , v3 } tou V , mporome na gryoume
Sthn perptwsh pou
a = x1 v0 v1 + x2 v0 v2 + x3 v0 v3 + y1 v2 v3 + y2 v3 v1 + y3 v1 v2
opte tte
opte h exswsh
ddetai ap th sqsh
x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 = 0
'Eqoume sunepc to paraktw jerhma:
Jerhma
1.
Apdeixh:
U V
aa
tou
V
P ( 2 V ).
a = u1 u2
V2
V.
Ap
thn Prtash 11.1.1 aut ddei mia antistoiqa 1-1 metax tou dianusmatiko
upoqrou
V
P( 2 V )
pou anaparstatai ap to
a.
Ap
aa = 0
qei th morf
x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 = 0
isodnama
82
dimV = n > 4,
sthn exswsh
kai ja thn
Q(V ).
An
tte uprqoun
a a = 0,
n
4
exisseic pou perilambnontai
V
P ( 2 V ),
h gewmetrik fsh
tou qrou twn eujein se aut thn perptwsh enai arket pio polplokh.
Shmewsh 1: En
dimV = n,
tte kje
83
Vn1
enai aposunjsimo.
12
12.1
Klein
Klein
'Otan meletsame tic tetragwnikc sthn pargrafo 8 edame ti mia tetragwnik se nan probolik qro distashc 5 qei eppeda (ra kai eujeec)
pou brskontai ex oloklrou msa se autn. Edame epshc sthn prohgomenh
Ja dome epshc pwc tso oi eujeec so kai ta eppeda thc tetragwnikc epidqontai gewmetrikc ermhneac ston
P (V ).
Prtash 1.
Do eujeec ston
Apdeixh:
U2 V
Q(V ).
Upenjumzoume pwc
dimV = 4
kai
dimP (V ) = 3.
'Estw
U1 ,
H eujea tou
V
P( 2 V )
V2
{0}
kai
V.
{u0 , u1 }
tou
U1
kai
a = 1 u 0 u 1 + 2 u 2 u 3 ,
tte
a a = 21 2 u0 u1 2 u3
84
{u2 , u3 }
tou
U2
ddei
p kai q
ennei ta shmea
An jewrsoume na shmeo
to
x P (V ),
Prtash
2.
x P (V ) sunist
gwnik Q(V ).
'Estw
Apdeixh:
Q(V ):
v0
x P (V ).
Epektenoume to
shmea thc
Q(V )
v0
pou periqei to
se mia bsh
{v0 , v1 , v2 , v3 }
tou
kai jewrome ta
thc morfc
v0 (0 v0 + 1 v1 + 2 v2 + 3 v3 ) = 1 v0 v1 + 2 v0 v2 + 3 v0 v3
Aut apotelon nan 3-distato dianusmatik upqwro tou
na eppedo sthn
opte orzoun
Q(V ).
apoteletai ete
ap tic eujeec pou dirqontai ap na stajer shmeo tou P (V ) ete ap tic
eujeec pou periqontai se na stajer eppedo tou P (V ).
Prtash
3.
'Estw
Apdeixh:
kai stw
'Estw
p, q , r
na eppedo thc
Q(V ).
Tte to
kai to
P (V )
kai
kai
Q(V )
Afo h euje-
a pou ennei ta
brsketai sto
brsketai sthn
r),
x.
H eujea
kai
85
tte
Anloga, h eujea
Q(V ),
x.
kai
r
q.
ii
H eujea
Estw
ti
isqei
perptwsh
kai
( ).
se diaforetik shmea.
'Estw
v0
na antiproswpeutik dinu-
pargetai ap ta diansmata
v0
kai
v1
p.
'Estw akmh ti o
v2
q.
An h eujea
dirqetai ap to shmeo
x,
v0
kai
tte orzetai
v3 .
orzetai ap ton 3-distato dianusmatik upqwro pou pargetai
v0 v1 , v0 v2 , kai v0 v3 , dhlad ap na dinusma thc morfc
ap ta
v0 (1 v1 + 2 v2 + 3 v3 )
Autc mwc enai oi eujeec pou dirqontai ap to shmeo
ii
).
An h eujea
x.
v1
q
v2
kai
kai
v1 v2
V2
V.
To eppedo
1 v 0 v 1 + 2 v 0 v 2 + 3 v 1 v 2
VV pou paV
{v0 , v1 , v2 }, tte ja isqei ti 2 W 2 V , opte anaparist lec tic eujeec tou P (V ) pou brskontai sto eppedo P (W ).
En sumbolsoume me
rgetai ap ta diansmata
tte to dio ja prpei na isqei kai gia ta shmea tou P (V ) (dhlad gia ta
eppeda tou P (V )).
tetragwnik.
smatik upqwro
Onomzontai
-eppeda
tom do
86
ap do shmea
kai
y.
An ta
-eppeda
do
tmnontai se na shmeo.
-epipdou
me na
v0 (0 v0 + 1 v1 + 2 v2 ) = 1 v0 v1 + 2 v0 v2
opte suniston mia (probolik) eujea.
12.2
Sqlia
Egkuklopaidik anafroume ti ta
-eppeda
kai ta
-eppeda
parousi-
twistor
geometry)
tou
Roger Penrose.
sgqronh (
1.
sh twn exissewn
gewmetrac.
2.
skeu
son,
Simon K. Donald-
epshc bajei sqsh kai me thn jewrhtik fusik (idiatera de me thn kosmologa), lgw tou ti pwc mac eddaxe o
87
ap th doulei tou
To krio prblhma sthn enopohsh twn fusikn allhlepidrsewn ofeletai sthn asumbatthta thc Genikc Jewrac thc Sqetikthtac tou
A. Einstein
pou perigrfei th barutik allhlepdrash, me tic kbantikc jewrec twn hlektrasjenn kai twn isqurn purhnikn allhlepidrsewn. Aplousteontac,
ja lgame ti oi topologikc kbantikc jewrec epiloun aut thn asumbatthta perpou kat to misi diti enai ta monadik mqri stigmc gnwst
paradegmata kbantikn jewrin stic opoec isqei h arq tou geniko su-
nalloitou (
H arq au-
t sqetzei thn adraneiak me th barutik mza twn swmtwn kai enai h arq
aut pou den qei enswmatwje akmh stic kbantikc jewrec kai dhmiourge
megla problmata sthn katanhsh thc mzac kai kat' epktash sthn kosmo-
88
13
Prosggish
Klein
parallhlik Gewmetra
13.1
rloc
twn omdwn
H suneisfor tou
Felix Klein
metasqhmatismn
Eisgage na no tr-
Erlangen,
1872).
F. Klein
entopsthke sthn
perigraf tou ti enai h gewmetra, eidik h probolik gewmetra, epeid akribc, pwc edame sthn pargrafo 4, oi nnoiec thc apstashc kai thc gwnac
den qoun nhma sthn probolik gewmetra!
poiec
allagc katyewn
idithtec
enc
antikeimnou
paramnoun
ame-
H prosggish
Klein
An uiojetsei kanec aut thn prosggish thc gewmetrac, to prto zhtomeno enai o kajorismc thc omdac metasqhmatismn.
89
13.2
GLn
Omda
twn
Genikn
Grammikn
Metasqh-
matismn
nusmatiko qrou
peperasmnhc distashc
L(V )
Oi prxeic
o bajmwtc pollaplasiasmc
orzetai wc
(f )(v) := [f (v)],
pou
f L(V ), v V
kai
R,
f, g L(V )
kai
v V.
An
dimV = n,
tte
dimL(V ) = n2 .
n,
pragma-
V
= Rn
prsjesh pinkwn.
dianusmatiko qroi
L(V )
kai
Mn (R)
dimV = n)
oi pragmatiko
enai ismorfoi:
L(V )
= L(Rn )
= Mn (R).
'Enac antistryimoc grammikc metasqhmatismc
prgma me nan isomorfism. En
shc
T :V V
enai to dio
90
isomorfismc
}.
LI (V )
apotele (mh-
V,
nn pragmatikoc
en qei mh-mhdenik
. Sumbolzoume me
orzousa
Profanc
nn
prag-
Me bsh tic
GLn (R)
LI (V )
kai
GLn (R)
enai ismorfec
dwn enai kpwc diaforetik ap thn nnoia tou isomorfismo metax dianu-
kai
mia
g1 , g2 G
kai
f (g1 ), f (g2 ) H .
Shmewsh 1:
O dianusmatikc qroc
Mn (R)
efodiasmnoc epiplon me
Orismc
1.
'Estw
tuqao sma.
T : Fn Fn apotele
thn omda GLn (F) twn genikn grammikn metasqhmatismn (General Linear
group). H eswterik prxh thc omdac enai h snjesh apeikonsewn. Me
bsh ta sa ekjsame parapnw gia thn perptwsh F = R, h omda GLn (F)
grammikn metasqhmatismn (dhlad isomorfismn)
nn
91
kai esw-
probolikn metasqhmatismn, oi opooi pwc edame prokptoun ap touc antistryimouc grammikoc metasqhmatismoc, dhlad ap thn omda
GLn (R).
GLn (R).
13.3
Stoiqea
'Estw
(G, )
Jewrac
Omdwn
thc
ja th
lme pollaplasiasm (qwrc kat' angkh na tautzetai me to gnwst pollaplasiasm, en to oudtero stoiqeo thc prxhc ja to lme sumbolik monda
kai ta summetrik stoiqea ja ta sumbolzoume me to smbolo tou antstro-
Sthn omda
wc exc:
g1 g2 x G|g1 = xg2 x1 .
N thc omdac G ja lgetai kanonik upoomda kai ja
sumbolzetai N C G, en isqei to exc: n N kai g G isqei ti
g n g 1 N , dhlad me lla lgia mia upoomda enai kanonik en kai
Mia upoomda
g n g 1 = g g 1 n = 1 n = n N .
'Estw
G.
Orzoume
N G G, (n, g) 7 n g
pou lgetai pollaplasiasmc ap arister me thn
N.
den enai Abelianc, qei shmasa ap poi meri, dexi arister, pollaplasizoume).
92
G, tte oi troqic twn stoiqewn thc N lcosets) thc N sthn G. Sunepc do stoiqea
g1 , g2 G ja ankoun sto dio (arister) sunsnolo thc N sthn G en kai
mno en g2 = n g1 gia kpoio stoiqeo n N , dhlad isodnama en to
g2 g11 N . H nnoia tou sunsunlou apodeiknetai pwc orzei mia deterh sqsh isodunamac sthn omda G (diaforetik thc suzugac pou edame
pio pnw) pou lgetai
G
N : do
En
arister
sunsnolo
thc
ap
thn
upoomda
Oi
G/N .
Isqei to paraktw basik jerhma sth jewra omdwn (to ddoume qwrc apdeixh, o anagnsthc mpore na koitxei gia thn apdeixh se na kal
biblo lgebrac, lgou qrin ston prto tmo thc 'Algebrac twn
sto biblo 'Algebrac twn
Jerhma 1.
to
Bourbaki
MacLane-Birkhoff ):
To snolo phlko
G/N
G.
13.4
pou
P GLn
kai
nn
pragmatikn pinkwn.
GLn (R), (diti to ginmeno diagniwn pinkwn enai epshc diagnioc pnakac,
93
dhlad to snolo
I C GLn (R).
Tra ap ton orism twn probolikn metasqhmatismn msw antistreptn grammikn metasqhmatismn (bl.
GLn (R)/I ,
Orismc
1.
I C GLn (R).
P GLn (R) =
Orismc
2.
'Estw
GLn (R)
.
I
Sym() := { : |
To snolo
Sym()
Sym()
}.
sewn, oudtero stoiqeo enai h tautotik apeiknish (kje stoiqeo antistoiqe ston eaut tou) en to summetrik kje stoiqeou enai h antstrofh
apeiknish (h opoa uprqei diti oi apeikonseic enai 1-1 kai ep).
Orismc
3.
morfismc omdwn
P (R )
se na snolo
f : G Sym().
P GLn (R)
na me thn prosggish
Klein
P (Rn )
klp. Smfw-
h (pragmatik) probolik gewmetra sunstatai sth melth twn posottwn pou paramnoun anallowtec ktw ap th drsh thc omdac
94
F.
P GLn (R).
13.5
omda
eujeac
twn
probolikn
metasqhmatismn
kai Omoparallhliko
thc
Metasqhmatismo
(a0 + b1 , c0 + d1 )
1 2),
(0 , 1 ) 7
wc diansmata
(0 , 1 ) 7 (0 , 1 )
a c
b d
= (a0 + b1 , c0 + d1 ).
cross-ratio):
Orismc 1.
bolikc eujeac
(r0 r1 ; r2 r3 ) :=
(x0 y2 x2 y0 )(x1 y3 x3 y1 )
.
(x0 y3 x3 y0 )(x1 y2 x2 y1 )
Shmewsh 1: Allag tou antiproswpeutiko diansmatoc afnei thn parapnw kfrash ametblhth, ra enai kal orismnh.
Prtash 1.
metasqhmatismoc.
Apdeixh:
Sta shmea
ri = (xi , yi ), i = 0, 1, 2, 3,
efarmzoume nan
probolik metasqhmatism
(xi , y1 ) 7
(x0i , yi0 )
= (xi , yi )
a c
b d
= (axi + byi , cxi + dyi ).
gia
x00 y20 x02 y00 = (ax0 +by0 )(cx2 +dy2 )(ax2 +by2 )(cx0 +dy0 ) = (adbc)(x0 y2 x2 y0 )
'Oloi auto oi pargontec thc orzousac aplopoiontai opte h arqik kfrash tou staurwto phlkou paramnei anallowth.
Klein gia na aplopoisoume th gewmetra. Jewrome thn upoomda thc P GL2 (R) pou afnei na shmeo, stw r0 = (x0 , y0 ),
ametblhto, dhlad sqhmatik jloume na isqei r0 A = r0 . Parathrome
pwc an to shmeo aut qei omogenec suntetagmnec r0 = (0, 1), h parapnw
apathsh ikanopoietai gia kje pnaka A GL2 (R) thc morfc
A=
0
mopoisoume thn prosggish
Pio analutik
ja qoume
(0, 1)
a c
0 d
= (0, d)
pou sthn probolik eujea antistoiqe sto dio shmeo diti oi omogenec suntetagmnec diafroun kat na bajmwt pollaplsio
r = (x, y).
(x, y) 7 (x , y ) = (x, y)
a c
0 d
dhlad analutik
x 7 x0 = ax
kai
y 7 y 0 = cx + dy
r0 = (0, 1),
q := x/y , opte
An exairsoume to shmeo
suntetagmnec, stw
q 0 = x0 /y 0 =
c d
cx + dy
= + q = C + Dq
ax
a a
96
pou jsame
C := c/a
kai
D := d/a.
q 7 q 0 = Dq + C
To staurwt phlko enai sunepc mia anallowth posthta twn trin
shmewn
r1 , r2 , r 3
An loipn ston
(x0 , y0 ) = (0, 1)
ja proume ti
q3 q1
q2 q1
(r0 r1 ; r2 r3 ) :=
pou jsame
r0 =
qi := xi /yi ,
me
i = 1, 2, 3,
(x0 x1 ; x2 x3 ) :=
x3 x1
x2 x1
pou enai h arnhtik tim tou lgou ston opoo diaire to shmeo
grammo tmma
x1
to euj-
x2 x3 .
x 7 x0 = ax + b.
x2 x3
x1
Sthn probolik eujea, h parapnw enai mia idiaterh ditaxh shmewn pou
lgontai shmea armonik qwrismna:
Orismc
2.
1.
Jerhma 1.
'Estw
97
Jewrome ta shmea
Apdeixh:
nsmata
kai
(1, 1)
x0 , x1
kai
x2
me antiproswpeutik dia-
xi 7 (xi ),
soume ti o
ti
=1
me
i = 0, 1, 2.
pou antistoiqe ta
(h tautotik apeiknish).
1
(x0 x1 ; x2 x3 ) = 1 x1 = (x2 + x3 )
2
Sunepc
(x0
opte afo o
1
x; x 0) = 1
2
qoume
1
(x ( x); (x) 0) = 1
2
kai sunepc
1
1
( x) = (x)
2
2
Anloga ja qoume
(x0
opte
Sunepc
1
(x + y); x y) = 1
2
1
(x0 ( (x + y)); (x) (y)) = 1.
2
1
1
( 2 (x + y)) = 2 ( (x) + (y)) opte ap thn
parapnw sqsh ja
proume
(x + y) = (x) + (y).
'Epetai ekola ti
(x) = x (1) = x1 = x
(x x; 1 x2 ) =
(1 x)(x2 + x)
= 1
(x2 x)(1 + x)
98
x.
diathre
(x2 ) = (x)2 .
Dhlad o
(x y) = (x) (y),
tte o
x kpoioc rrhtoc arijmc kai (x) > x. Upr'Omwc tte q > x opte q = (q) > (x) pou enai
metax touc.
topo, sunepc h
arijmoc.
Klein,
jeac.
x 7 x0 = ax + b.
GL1 (R) = R, se megal-
dimV = n,
opte
enai pwc aut apoteletai ap thn omda twn omoparallhlikn metasqhmatismn h opoa, genikeontac aut pou edame sthn perptwsh thc probolikc
eujeac, apoteletai ap thn omda twn genikn grammikn metasqhmatismn
GLn1 (R) maz me tic metatopseic pou enai na epiplon antgrafo tou Rn1 .
99
14
Optik kai
Eidik
Jewra Sqetikthtac
Ja meletsoume wc efarmogc do gewmetrec pou orzontai ap do sugkekrimnec omdec metasqhmatismn pou qoun meglh praktik shmasa.
14.1
Optik
Gauss
Gauss.
thleskpia, ta mikroskpia, prgmati qoun nan xona summetrac. An jewrsoume pwc o xonac summetrac enai o xonac
x0 x
R3
xy
eppedo.
Jewrome to eppedo
xy
me omogenec suntetagmnec
P (R3 )
y = x2 /x0
(x0 , x1 , x2 )
tsi ste
x = x1 /x0
kai
Orismc 1.
smn
T : F Fn
me
det(T ) = +1
H optik tou
th
drsh
thc
ddetai ap th
Gauss
SL2 (R)
SLn (F)
omdac
sto
pragmatik
probolik
eppedo
P (R3 )
pou
sqsh
SL2 (R)
enai o pnakac
T =
a b
c d
pou
100
H omda
SL2 (R)
P (R3 )
kajc
T SL2 (R).
x0 x.
(0, 1, 0).
T sunstatai ap tic aktnec pou dirqonT (0, 1, 0) = (b, d, 0) me qrsh anomogenn suntetagmnwn
x = d/b kai y = 0. H apstash x = d/b enai h estiak apstash thc optikc
ditaxhc.
smfwna me th sqsh
x 7
dx + c
bx + a
Sunepc,
ap thn Prtash
x0 x
enai to dio
me aut twn eiknwn touc ktw ap thn epdrash thc optikc ditaxhc.
f.
( f ; 0 u) = (T () T (f ); T (0) T (u)) = (f ; 0 v)
Sunepc ap ton orism 13.5.1 tou staurwto phlkou prokptei ti
0f
u + f
=
,
f
vf
dhlad
1 1
1
+ = ,
u v
f
pou den enai llh ap th gnwst sqsh thc optikc.
101
14.2
Eidik
Jewra Sqetikthtac
A. Einstein
(x1 , x2 , x3 , t),
R4
me sun-
Minkowski
(h stajer
enai h ta-
Orismc
1.
Lorentz enai
v
7 Av + u, pou
A : R4 R4 enai nac
th metrik Minkowski,
4
kpoio u R .
T :R R
thc morfc
Q(Av) = Q(v), v R4
kai gia
En
Lorentz.
v 1 , v2 R 4 ,
tte
Q(v1 v2 ) = Q[A(v1 v2 )] = Q[(Av1 + u) (Av2 + u)], sunepc h posthta Q(v1 v2 ) apotele mia anallowth posthta enc zegouc diaforetikn
4
shmewn tou R .
En exeidikesoume th melth mac sthn upoomda thc omdac
x 2 = x 3 = 0,
(x, t) 7 (x + t + b1 , x + t + b2 )
kai
=
cosh u
c sinh u
c1 sinh u cosh u
Lorentz
qei th morf
Lorentz pou
pou
sinh u
kai
cosh u
Lorentz
susqet-
En o parathrhtc me suntetagmnec
tetagmnwn
x = 0 t,
(x, t)
(x0 , t0 )
parathre
x0 = c(sinh u)t + b1
kai
t0 = (cosh u)t + b2
dhlad parathre na antikemeno pou kinetai me omal taqthta
dx0
= c tanh u = v,
dt0
prgma pou prosddei stouc parapnw metasqhmatismoc thn gnwst ap th
fusik morf
1
x0 = q
1
kai
t0 = q
En
x = ct,
taqthta tou
v2
c2
(x + vt) + b1
(
v2
c2
vx
+ t) + b2
c2
tte
kinontai me thn
kinontai me thn
dia taqthta kai se kje llo ssthma anaforc. Gia tic llec taqthtec
mwc uprqei mia analogik diaforopohsh. Den enai to katllhlo mroc gia
na mpome se perissterec leptomreiec gia thn eidik jewra sqetikthtac.
Epanalambnoume me mfash to gewmetrik gegonc pwc ta basik stoiqea
thc eidikc jewrac sqetikthtac prokptoun mesa ap thn analloithta
ktw ap thn omda
Lorentz
Lorentz
me touc probolikoc
103
15
Upoomdec
thc
Probolikc
Migadiko Epipdou
H omda
P GL2 (C)
ep'
tou
P GL2(C)
Omdac
peiron
shmeou
P (C2 ).
O qroc
stouc migadikoc
Topologi-
S2
pwc edame sto pardeigma 3.6.5, kti pou fanetai kai ap thn paraktw
amfeiknish
(z0 , z1 ) 7 (
z0 z 0 z1 z 1 z1 z 0 + z0 z 1 z1 z 0 z0 z 1
,
,i
)
z0 z 0 + z1 z 1 z0 z 0 + z1 z 1 z0 z 0 + z1 z 1
C2 C2
22
GL2 (C)
S :
(i)S(z0 , z1 ) = (0, z 0 ), S 2 = 0
(ii)S(z0 , z1 ) = (z 1 , z 0 ), S 2 = 1
(iii)S(z0 , z1 ) = (z 0 , z 1 ), S 2 = +1
Autc oi prxeic den apotelon grammikoc metasqhmatismoc sto sma twn
migadikn arijmn all par' la aut, toulqiston stic do teleutaec periptseic, ddoun mia kal orismnh apeiknish ap th migadik probolik
eujea ston eaut thc, miac kai
S(z0 , z1 ) = S(z0 , z1 ),
En
T GL2 (C)
T =
a, b, c, d C
kai
C
: P (C2 ) P (C2 ).
apeikon-
me
opte h
ad bc 6= 0,
a b
c d
kai en h
,
S
tte
ST (z0 , z1 ) = (0, az 0 + bz 1 )
104
(i),
kai
T S(z0 , z1 ) = (bz 0 , dz 0 ),
tte parathrome ti
meo
(0, 1)
T S = ST b = 0
kai
paramnei kajorismno ap la ta
z = z1 /z2 .
T
C
d = a.
Enai o metasqhmatismc
z 7 a1 (az + b) = ei z + k
Afo
|T z1 T z2 | = |ei z1 + k ei z2 k| = |z1 z2 |,
o parapnw apotele metasqhmatism pou diathre th gnwst apstash thc
Eukledeiac gewmetrac kai ra diathre th gnwst eppedh Eukledeia gewmetra. H omda aut mwc den sumperilambnei kai tic anaklseic pou epshc
diathron tic apostseic. H plrhc Eukledeia omda se tuqaec diastseic
ddetai ston paraktw orism:
Orismc 1.
A : R n Rn
T :R R
uR
thc morfc
n-diastseic
v 7 Av + u,
Q(Av) = Q(v), v Rn
kai
tetragwnik morf
R2 = C
sm.
thc perptwshc
(ii).
shmeo thc 2-distathc sfarac sto antidiametrik tou shmeo. Sthn perptwsh aut
ST (z0 , z1 ) = (cz 0 + dz 1 , az 0 bz 1 )
kai
T S(z0 , z1 ) = (az 1 bz 0 , cz 1 dz 0 ).
Sunepc
T S = ST b = c
kai
a = d.
105
thc perptwshc
(ii),
metatjetai
me thn antidiametrik apeiknish (autn pou antistoiqe kje shmeo sto antidiametrik tou). Sunepc an
'Estw
x, y P (C2 )
= .
y 6= (x).
T-
(x y; (y) (x)) = ( (x) (y); ((y)) ((x))) = ( (x) (y); ( (y)) ( (x))).
Sunepc aut h sunrthsh twn zeugn shmewn enai anallowth ktw ap
thn omda twn probolikn metasqhmatismn pou metatjentai me thn
Mpo-
y = (w0 , w1 ),
Jtoume
x = (z0 , z1 )
(x y; (x) (y)) =
(z0 w0 + z1 w1 )(w0 z 0 + w1 z 0 )
(z0 z 0 + z1 z 1 )(w0 w0 + w1 w1 )
x,
y R3 enai do monadiaa diansmata
x kai y msw thc amfeiknishc metax thc dis-
x
y :=
(z0 z 0 z1 z 1 )(w0 w0 w1 w1 ) + (z1 z 0 + z0 z 1 )(w1 w0 + w0 w1 )
(z0 z 0 + z1 z 1 )(w0 w0 + w1 w1 )
(z1 z 0 z0 z 1 )(w1 w0 w0 w1 )
=
(z0 z 0 + z1 z 1 )(w0 w0 + w1 w1 )
z0 w0 + z1 w1 )(w0 z 0 + w1 z 0 )
.
(z0 z 0 + z1 z 1 )(w0 w0 + w1 w1 )
wc
(iii)
S.
thc
S ddei apl
GL2 (C) pou metatupoomda P GL2 (R)
Tra h
enai h omda
GL2 (R)
P GL2 (C).
En to
(z0 , z1 )
x3 = 0.
P GL2 (R).
x3 < 0.
P GL2 (R)
Afo to shmeo
(0, 1) P (C )
H,
pou orzetai
z = z1 /z0
h opoa apeikonzei to
sto nw hmieppedo
Argand,
dhlad stouc
To shmeo
sto ktw
(z w; w z) =
|z w|2
4=(z)=(w)
d(z, w) := sinh1
p
(z w; w z)
Argand,
P GL2 (R)
sto nw hmie-
Jewra Sqetikthtac.
107
16
16.1
To Axwma
To
thc
Eukledeio
Parallhlac
Athma
P GL2 (R),
perigraf tou enai axwma kaltera athma thc parallhlac, miac kai o
roc athma, shmanei akribc aut:
all den mporome na thn apodexoume. Me ta lgia tou diou tou Eukledh,
aut perigrfetai wc exc: ...an mia eujea tmnei do llec eujeec tsi ste
h eswterik gwna thc diac pleurc na enai mikrterh ap do orjc gwnec,
tte oi do eujeec an proektajon aperirista ja sunanthjon sthn pleur
sthn opoa oi gwnec enai mikrterec ap do orjc.
P
P
l,
l.
Playfair
Oi perissterec prospjeiec gia thn apdeixh autc thc prtashc qrhsimopoiosan th mjodo thc
na katalxoun tan pwc to jroisma twn gwnin enc trignou tan mikrtero ap do orjc, wstso lec oi apodexeic eqan ken. 'Eprepe na perimnoume mqri thn emfnish twn
gia na apodeiqje
ektc
ap to axwma
thc parallhlac. Me lla lgia, o Eukledhc eqe knei ljoc sthn eikasa
tou kai fusik lec oi apodexeic pou eqan parousiaste tan ntwc lanjasmnec diti aplostata h prtash pou prospajosame na apodexoume tan
ljoc:
(H perptwsh
swc jumzei thn gnwst istora me to axwma thc epilogc kai ta uploipa 9
108
aximata
16.2
Zermelo-Fraenkel
Ta
Aximata
thc
Eukledeiac
Gewmetrac
D. Hilbert sta tlh tou 19ou, arqc tou 20ou aina. Ta aximata thc
Eukledeiac gewmetrac tou Hilbert xekinon me kpoiec prwtarqikc nnoiec
ap ton
shmeou
h nnoia tou
periqesjai
nce
eujeac
, h nnoia thc
sumfwnac (
congrue-
sumfwnac (
congruence
metax gwnin.
Ta aximata enai ta paraktw pnte (qrhsimopoisame thn agglik metfrash tou rgou twn
I.
Aximata
Perstashc
Axioms of Incidence)
1.
2.
3.
II.
1.
Aximata
Ditaxhc
Axioms of Order)
En
kai
ston na shmeo
3.
kai
B.
Kje eujea pou tmnei mia pleur enc trignou, ete pern kai ap thn
apnanti (trth) koruf tou trignou ete tmnei kai kpoia llh pleur.
III.
1.
Aximata
Sumfwnac
Axioms of Congruence)
stic do meric enc dosmnou shmeou. To eujgrammo tmma pou kataskeuzetai me ton trpo autn enai smfwno (
tmma.
2.
AB kai A0 B 0 enai do smfwna eujgramma tmmata kai en ta shC kai C 0 pou brskontai sta AB kai A0 B 0 antstoiqa enai ttoia ste
En
mea
109
AB
diairetai ap to
A0 B 0
C 0,
AB
na enai
diairetai ap
AB.
congruent)
me th dosmnh gwna.
enc llou trignou kai en kai oi perieqmenec stic do autc pleurc antstoiqec gwnec enai sec, tte ta trgwna enai smfwna (
IV.
Ap
Axwma
kje
th dosmnh
V.
1.
Parallhlac
shmeo
AB
Axiom of Parallelism)
eujeac
dirqetai
monadik
eujea
pou
den
tmnei
eujea
Aximata
En
ektc
congruent).
kai
Sunqeiac
CD
Axioms of Continuity)
nested segments),
congruent
wc sm-
moioc
congruence: the
congruent.
Den uiojet-
same aut th metfrash gia trec lgouc: o prtoc enai aut pou gryame
parapnw gia thn ermhnea tou rou sthn Agglik.
similar.
O tr-
congruent
ap ton
Hilbert
Ex orismo,
do trgwna lgontai sa en oi pleurc touc enai sec ma proc ma. To axwma III 5 tou
Hilbert
110
congruence, congruent
uprqei
kai sth jewra arijmn kai shmanei thn idithta do akraiwn arijmn pou an
diairejon kai oi do me ton dio trto akraio arijm afnoun to dio uploipo.
16.3
probolik
gewmetra
kai
ta
aximata
tou
Eu-
kledh
d(z, w) := sinh1
p
(z w; w z).
(z1 , w1 )
kai
(z2 , w2 )
d(z1 , w1 ) = d(z2 , w2 )
H omda
P GL2 (R) emplketai sthn nnoia thc sumfwnac msw thc paraktw
prtashc:
Prtash
1.
'Estw
(z1 , w1 )
w2 = (w1 ).
Apdeixh:
kai ta shmea
z1 , w1 , w1 C P (C2 ),
z2 , w2 , w2 . Ap to jerhma 4.2.1 uprqei monadikc proboli P GL2 (C) ttoioc ste (z1 ) = z2 , (w1 ) = w2 ,
kc metasqhmatismc
(w1 ) = w2 .
(w1 ) = (w1 ).
(z 1 ) = z 2 .
az + b
az + b
=
.
cz + d
cz + d
111
(z 1 ) = (z1 ) kai
z = z 1 kai z = w1 sto
Opte qoume
z ),
me fantastikoc suntele-
stc:
z1
kai
w1
qoun arnhtik
az + b
az + b
=
cz + d
cz + d
isqei ek tautthtoc, opte o probolikc metasqhmatismc
th (migadik) suzuga, opte
metatjetai me
P GL2 (R).
uprqei na stoiqeo
16.4
Eujeec
tou
nw
migadiko
hmiepipdou
H . O orismc pou
w1 enai to snolo
zH
z1
kai
(z 1 w1 ; w1 z) R
Faner, ap thn analloithta tou staurwto phlkou, h omda
P GL2 (R)
z1 = i kai w1 = ia.
Ap thn Prtash 16.3.1 kje eujea enai isodnamh, ktw ap thn drsh thc
omdac, me mia eujea autc thc morfc. Apoktme loipn
(z 1 w1 ; w1 z) = (i ia; ia z) =
(1 a)(z ia)
(z + i)2
enai fantastik.
112
Sunepc
P GL2 (R)
iat + b
ict + d
z=
pou
(an
iex ,
1 kai
III 1 kai III 3, kajc kai ta aximata II 1 kai II 2 maz me ta aximata I 2 kai
I 3.
To gegonc ti uprqei monadik gramm pou ennei do diaforetik shmea, prokptei faner ap to gegonc ti loi oi kkloi (pou antiproswpeoun
tic eujeec), tmnoun to fantastik xona to pol se na shmeo.
16.5
Gwnec
sto
nw
migadik
hmieppedo
'Eqontac orsei tic eujeec thc gewmetrac mac (pou pwc edame enai ete
eujeec parllhlec sto fantastik xona ete kkloi), seir qoun oi gwnec.
Uprqei mia arijmhtik gwna metax do eujein h opoa diathretai anallowth ktw ap th drsh thc omdac
sto eppedo (
Argand) R2 = C.
z 7
az + b
cz + d
Prtash
1.
113
P GL2 (R)
pou apeikonzei
Apdeixh:
z = it (t 1).
(it) =
ap to opoo petai ti
enai
c=0
kai
iat + b
= is, t 1
ict + d
b = 0.
En
(i) = i,
tte
a/d = 1,
opte to
0 = .
wH
z H,
ta zeugria na tautzetai. H sumfwna gwnin kajorzetai ap to en tautzontai kai oi llec do hmieujeec ap ta jewromena do zegh hmieujein.
...na topojethje
(sthn kajemi pleur miac dosmnhc hmieujeac...), pou anagrfetai sto axwma III 4.
P GL2 (R)
y0y
z 7 z
diathre epshc tic apostseic, afo
(z w; w z) = (z w; w z)
Aut h anklash se mia hmieujea mpore na qrhsimopoihje gia thn plrh
dikaiolghsh kai ikanopohsh tou Aximatoc III 4.
16.6
Suzuga
Trignwn
z0 , z1 , z2
114
P GL2 (R)
tismc
ttoioc ste
(z0 ) = w0
kai
'Omwc, to axwma thc parallhlac olofnera den isqei: uprqounn pollc eujeec pou dirqontai ap to shmeo stw
z
/ iR
fantastik xona.
'Etsi
blpei
Einstein.
115
A.
17
Parrthma
'Estw
apeiknish
prxh
'Estw to zegoc
Orismc 1.
nolo
(G, )
To zegoc
(G, )
ja lme ti
Isqei h
prosetairistik idithta
a (b c) = (a b) c, a, b, c G.
(b).
),
xhc
(g).
Apodeiknetai ekola pwc to oudtero stoiqeo kai to summetrik stoiqeo (kje stoiqeou) se mia omda enai monadik.
dhlad
Orismc 2.
Mia trida
(a).
To zegoc
(b).
Sthn prxh
(g).
H prxh
En h prxh
116
daktlioc me monda.
dhlad ta
Orismc 3.
Mia trida
(a).
H trida
(b).
En
to
Orismc 4.
'Estw
eswterik prxh
pou ja th lme
+
sma kai
pou ja th lme
bajmwt
prsjesh
pollaplasiasm
(V, +)
F)
. H tetrda
(F, V, +, )
ja lgetai
(a).
To zegoc
(b).
, F kai a, b V ):
(a + b) = a + b
( + ) a = a + a
() a = ( a), pou
ti
1 a = a,
pou
1F
F.
117
Mia pentda
Orismc 5.
V,
mh-ken snolo
do eswterikc prxeic
sto
V,
dhlad
: FV V,
F, en isqoun ta exc:
(F, V, +, ) apotele dianusmatik qro me sma to F.
H trida (V, +, ) apotele daktlio me monda.
Isqei h exc idithta: (f g) = ( f ) g = f ( g), F
f, g V .
(a).
H tetrda
(b).
(g).
kai
Mn (R),
(gia
nN
me
1 < n < ),
twn
nn
pnaka.
C0 (R) := {f : R R|f
le to snolo
suneqc kai
f (x) < , x R}
twn peperasmnwn suneqn pragmatikn sunartsewn miac pragmatikc meH prsjesh kai o pollaplasiasmc sto C0 (R) orzontai kat
pointwise), qrhsimopointac tic antstoiqec prxeic sto R wc exc:
(f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x), kai (f g)(x) := f (x)g(x), f, g C0 (R). O baj-
tablhtc.
shmeo (
mwtc pollaplasiasmc orzetai pli kat shmeo qrhsimopointac ton pollaplasiasm metax twn pragmatikn arijmn wc exc:
f C0 (R)
( f )(x) := f (x),
R.
kai
Gia na dsoume ton orism thc emfteushc kai thc embptishc, prpei na
gnwrzoume orismnec basikc nnoiec ap thn topologa.
Arqzoume me ton
paraktw orism:
Orismc
6.
'Estw
XT
T,
(b).
(g).
pou
Isqei ti
(X, T )
uposunlwn tou
en ikanopoiontai ta paraktw:
(a).
To zegoc
kai
to ken snolo.
T.
T.
kje for (ap ton orism fanetai kajar pwc kje snolo epidqetai pol-
118
X.
An sto snolo
R orsoume wc anoikt uposnola ta gnwst anoikt diastmata (x, x+) me kntro kpoio tuqao shmeo x R kai aktna , pou
kpoioc jetikc pragmatikc arijmc, tte o dianusmatikc qroc R apotele topologik qro kai h sugkekrimnh topologa lgetai sunjhc topologa
tou
R.
Rn ,
x Rn
kai
.
'Estw
pollc leptomreiec, mpore kanec na katalbei pwc oi epifneiec (kai geniktera oi pollaplthtec), apotelon autmata topologikoc qrouc diti ex'
orismo enai topik omoiomorfikc me ton topologik qro
me ton
Orismc
7.
Ja lme ti h epifneia
globally)
so
locally),
R3
en
En h emfteush den
R2
(geniktera
kai geniktera to
R2
tte ja lme
teujon ston
R3
enai h epifneia
Klein.
Boy
Boy
Tloc shmeinoume pwc uprqei kai lloc isodnamoc orismc gia thn emfteush kai thn embptish pollaplottwn all apaite proqwrhmnec gnseic jewrac pollaplottwn pou xepernon ton skop tou en lgw majmatoc
(qrsh efaptmenwn desmn kai efaptmenwn qrwn pollaplottwn).
Gia
119
Kobayashi, Nomizu).