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EISAGWGH STHN

PROBOLIKH GEWMETRIA
Iwnnhc P. Zhc

E-mail: i.zois@exeter.oxon.org
10 Dekembrou 2006

Perieqmena

Prlogoc

Eisagwg

Proboliko

Qroi

12

3.1

Stoiqea Grammikc 'Algebrac

3.2

Orismc Proboliko Qrou

3.3

Upqwroi tou Proboliko Qrou

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

3.4

Basikc Idithtec Probolikn Qrwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

3.5

Omogenec kai Anomogenec Suntetagmnec

. . . . . . . . . . .

19

3.6

Paradegmata Probolikn Qrwn

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

3.7

Parrthma: Stereografik Probol

Proboliko

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Metasqhmatismo

12
15

27

29

4.1

Basiko Orismo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

4.2

Shmea se Genik Jsh

31

4.3

Proboliko Metasqhmatismo kai Sqdio

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .

Dusmc

34

38

5.1

Dukc Probolikc Qroc kai Arq Dusmo

5.2

Mhdenistc Dianusmatiko Qrou kai Dusmc . . . . . . . . .

5.3

Efarmogc Dusmo: Jerhma

Kamplec

b'

bajmo

Desargues,

. . . . . . . . .

Jerhma Pppou

Quadrics

38
41
43

46

6.1

Digrammikc Morfc

6.2

Paradegmata Kampuln b' bajmo

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

49

6.3

Genikeumnec Kwnikc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

52

6.4

Mia Efarmog ap thn Algebrik Gewmetra

54

Grafdec

Tetragwnikn

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pencils of Quadrics

7.1

Diagwniopohsh Zegouc Pinkwn

7.2

Grafdec sto Migadik Probolik Eppedo

Grammiko

Qroi

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

Tetragwnikn

To Orjognio Sumplrwma

8.2

Paradegmata Tetragwnikn Kampuln kai Epifanein

To

9.1

Exwterik

56

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.1

46

56
58

62

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .

Ginmeno

62
64

67

Anaparstash epipdwn tou qrou msw tou exwteriko ginomnou . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

9.2

Deterh exwterik dnamh enc dianusmatiko qrou kai to


sfhnoeidc ginmeno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 H

Exwterik

'Algebra

74

10.1 Anterec exwterikc dunmeic enc dianusmatiko qrou


10.2 Paradegmata

11 H

Tetragwnik

. . .

74

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

Klein

80

11.1 H sunjkh aposnjeshc

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Klein

11.2 H gewmetrik ermhnea thc tetragwnikc

12 Grammiko

69

Upqwroi

thc Tetragwnikc

80

. . . . . . . . .

82

Klein

84

12.1 Gewmetrik ermhnea twn upoqrwn thc Tetragwnikc

Klein .

84

12.2 Sqlia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

13 Prosggish

Klein

thc

Gewmetrac

kai

Omoparallhlik

Gew-

metra

89

13.1 O rloc twn omdwn metasqhmatismn


13.2 H Omda

GLn

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

twn Genikn Grammikn Metasqhmatismn

13.3 Stoiqea Jewrac Omdwn

89

. . .

90

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

13.4 H Omda twn Probolikn Metasqhmatismn

P GLn

. . . . . .

93

13.5 H omda twn probolikn metasqhmatismn thc eujeac kai


Omoparallhliko Metasqhmatismo

14 Optik

kai

14.1 Optik

Eidik

Gauss

Jewra

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sqetikthtac

95

100

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

14.2 Eidik Jewra Sqetikthtac

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

15 Upoomdec thc Probolikc Omdac tou Migadiko Epipdou

P GL2 (C)
16 To

Axwma

104

thc

Parallhlac

108

16.1 To Eukledeio Athma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108


16.2 Ta Aximata thc Eukledeiac Gewmetrac

. . . . . . . . . . . . 109

16.3 H probolik gewmetra kai ta aximata tou Eukledh


16.4 Eujeec tou nw migadiko hmiepipdou
16.5 Gwnec sto nw migadik hmieppedo
16.6 Suzuga Trignwn

. . . . . 111

. . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

17 Parrthma

116

Sntomo

biografik

shmewma tou

suggrafa:

O Iwnnhc Panagitou Zhc gennjhke to 1968 sth Broia.

Met to

prac twn proptuqiakn tou spoudn sto Tmma Fusikc tou Panepisthmou Ajhnn, ap' pou apofothse me 'Arista, sunqise tic metaptuqiakc
tou spoudc sthn Aggla:

Mster (

Part III of the Mathematical Tripos)

sto Panepistmio tou Kimpritz (Kollgio Emmanoul) kai Didaktorik sto


Panepistmio thc Oxfrdhc (Kollgio 'Exeter). H trimelc epitrop thc di-

Simon K. Donaldson FRS (Fields Medal 1986, Crafoord Prize 1996), Roger Penrose FRS kai
Sheung-Tsoun Tsou. 'Htan uptrofoc, metax llwn, thc Eurwpakc 'Enwdaktorikc tou diatribc apartiztan ap touc kajhghtc

shc, thc Brettanikc Kubrnhshc, tou IKU ('Idruma Kratikn Upotrofin),


tou Koinwfeloc Idrmatoc A.S. Wnshc kai tou Koinwfeloc Idrmatoc
A.G. Lebnthc. 'Eqei ergasje sto pareljn wc ereunhtc kai panepisthmiakc dskaloc sta Panepistmia thc Oxfrdhc kai tou Kimpritz thc Agglac,

Institut des Hautes Etudes


Scientifiques (IHES) (wc mloc thc ereunhtikc omdac tou kajhght Alain ConnesFields Medal 1982, Crafoord Prize

2002) kai sthn Ecole


Normale Superieure (ENS) sto Parsi thc Gallac

sto

kai allo.

Ta ereunhtik tou endiafronta empptoun sta gnwstik anti-

kemena thc Mh-metajetikc Gewmetrac, thc Topologac kai Gewmetrac twn


Pollaplottwn (eidiktera twn Pollaplottwn Qamhln Diastsewn) kai
efarmogc autn sth Jewrhtik Fusik (Kosmologa, Jewrec Enopohshc,
Jewra Qordn/Membrann). 'Eqei dhmosiesei mqri stigmc perpou ekosi
rjra se diejn ereunhtik episthmonik periodik (se hlektronik kai ntuph
morf).

in girum imus nocte et consumimur igni

Ant

Bibliografac:

Oi didaktikc autc shmeiseic proljan ap to mjhma tou 3ou examnou


(2ou touc) Probolik Gewmetra pou o suggrafac ddaxe kat to akadhmak toc 2005-2006 sthn Antath Sqol Topografac thc Gewgrafikc
Uphresac Strato (GUS), sqol pou akolouje to prgramma spoudn thc
sqolc Topogrfwn Mhqanikn tou Ejniko Metsobou Poluteqneou thc
Ajnac (EMP).

H lh tou majmatoc bassthke en polloc sto mjhma tou 3ou trimnou


tou prtou touc Grammik Gewmetra to opoo o suggrafac eqe didxei
sto pareljn stouc proptuqiakoc foithtc twn Majhmatikn Tmhmtwn twn
Panepisthmwn thc Oxfrdhc kai tou Kimpritz thc Agglac.

(Shmeinoume

pwc sthn pio gkurh prsfath diejn lsta me ta 200 korufaa panepistmia tou ksmou twn efhmerdwn
tou periodiko

Time,

Times

Londnou kai N. Urkhc kajc kai

ta en lgw panepistmia brskontai stic jseic 1 kai 2

sthn ep mrouc kattaxh pou afor ta majhmatik kai tic jetikc epistmec).

To prwtogenc ulik twn shmeisewn autn (kai thc lhc kat' epktash) prorqetai ap tic exairetikc shmeiseic tou kajhght

FRS,

Nigel J. Hitchin

smera sto Panepistmio thc Oxfrdhc all palaitera sto Panepi-

stmio tou Kimpritz thc Agglac.

Pra ap th metfrash twn shmeisewn sta ellhnik gine kai mia prospjeia na analujon perisstero poll shmea all kai na emploutisjon
me kpoiec epiplon efarmogc.

Tautqrona sumperielfjhsan kai arketo

orismo ap llouc kldouc twn majhmatikn (kurwc ap thn 'Algebra all


kai ap thn Topologa, th Gewmetra k..) ste na gnoun oi shmeiseic autc
kat to dunat autodnamec sthn melth touc. H prjesh tan af' enc na
prosferje na mjhma uyhlo proptuqiako epipdou smfwna me ta diejn
prtupa, all tautqrona h lh na enai prosit kai se na akroatrio me
teqnologik katejunsh.

Ekfrzontai jermc euqaristec arqik proc ton kajhght

tchin

Nigel J. Hi-

gia th shmantik sumbol tou sto lo egqerhma, proc ton Emmanoul

Megalooikonmou gia thn poltimh bojei tou sthn exeresh kai qrsh ellhnikc kdoshc tou

Latex to opoo qrhsimopoijhke gia thn daktulogrfhsh

twn shmeisewn all kai sthn Elisbet Giannotsou pou eqe thn filologik epimleia twn shmeisewn.

Tloc idiaterec euqaristec ekfrzontai kai

proc touc foithtc gia ton enjousiasm touc, thn dijesh gia melth, thn
enjrrunsh, tic parathrseic kai ta poikla sqli touc.

H didaskala e-

nai amfdromh diadikasa kai qwrc th dik touc sumbol enai amfbolo an
to mjhma ja eqe aut th morf. H elpda enai na mhn apogohtejhkan oi
foithtc kai epshc na mhn apogohteujon kai oi tuqn loipo anagnstec.
Ajna, Mioc 2006
I.P.Z.

Prlogoc

Oi didaktikc autc shmeiseic aforon to kommti thc gewmetrac pou


ja mporose genik na qarakthrisje grammik, se antidiastol me th mhgrammik jewra thc topologac thc diaforikc gewmetrac. Ap th qrsh
tou rou grammik katalabanei ekola kpoioc ti h grammik lgebra pazei
shmantik rlo. Gi' aut xekinme me tic paragrfouc 3-8 pou anafroume
ousiastik stoiqea ap th jewra twn dianusmatikn qrwn (peperasmnhc
distashc), ta opoa mwc apokton gewmetrik upstash msw thc probolikc gewmetrac. Oi pargrafoi 9 kai 10 epektenoun aut th grammik lgebra orzontac diaforikc morfc kai to exwterik ginmeno metax autn.
To knhtro prorqetai ap thn prospjeia perigrafc eujein ston trisdistato Eukledeio qro.

Oi pargrafoi 11 kai 12 epiloun to prblhma

thc perigrafc twn eujein diatupnontac thn antistoiqa


grafoi 13-15 perigrfoun thn prosggish

Klein

Klein.

Oi par-

thc gewmetrac wc melth

anallowtwn posottwn ktw ap kpoia omda metasqhmatismn, prosg-

Erlangen, (Erlangen Programm),

gish pou enai gnwst wc prgramma


me kpoiec efarmogc ap th fusik.

F. Klein

to 1872 tan gine kajhghtc sto panepistmio thc plhc

pou brsketai kont sth Nurembrgh).

maz

(To prgramma aut rqise ap ton

Erlangen

Tloc h pargrafoc 16 exetzei to

uperbolik eppedo up to prsma thc klasikc axiwmatikc prosggishc thc


gewmetrac msw twn axiwmtwn tou Eukledh. Sto Parrthma (Pargrafoc
17) brskontai sugkentrwmnoi diforoi qrsimoi pijanc gia ton anagnsth
orismo.

'Oson afor ta proapaitomena gia th melth twn shmeisewn autn,


epishmanetai ti, an kai katabljhke prospjeia oi shmeiseic na enai majhmatik autnomec, ja tan qrsimo oi anagnstec na qoun sto pareljn
parakoloujsei na mjhma grammikc lgebrac pou na kalptei th basik
lh ap th jewra (pragmatikn kurwc) dianusmatikn qrwn peperasmnhc
distashc. 'Ena klasik sggramma gia th melth twn dianusmatikn qrwn
peperasmnhc distashc enai gia pardeigma to biblo tou

P.B. Halmos: -

Finite Dimesnional Vector Spaces.


Oi diforec protseic, orismo, jewrmata, anafrontai arqik me ton
arijm thc paragrfou sthn opoa brskontai, akoloujomeno ap to sugkekrimno arijm thc prtashc msa sthn en lgw pargrafo. Gia pardeigma
h prtash 4.1.2 anafretai sthn prtash 2 thc paragrfou 4.1, en to tloc
miac apdeixhc sumbolzetai me na leuk tetrgwno.

Eisagwg

Enai elogo na anarwthje kpoioc gia poio lgo na meletsei kanec


llh gewmetra ektc ap thn Eukledeia gewmetra stic 3 diastseic, pou
anaparist to fusik mac ksmo msa ston opoo zome kai h opoa perigrfetai majhmatik ap ta diansmata efodiasmna me to eswterik kai to
exwterik ginmeno autn. Gia na dsoume mia peistik apnthsh sto parapnw erthma, h opoa tautqrona ja mac dsei kai knhtra gia th melth
tou en lgw majmatoc, ja anafroume orismna paradegmata sta opoa h
qrsh thc Eukledeiac gewmetrac den enai h plon katllhlh.

A.

Probolc

Oi kallitqnec (gia pardeigma zwgrfoi all qi mno) thc Anagnnhshc


antimetpizan to prblhma thc anaparstashc tou fusiko ksmou se kpoio
pnaka.

Pio sugkekrimna jelan na anaparastsoun diforec 2-distatec

yeic (katyeic) 3-distatwn antikeimnwn. O trpoc pou lusan to prblhma


tan na jewrsoun to mti tou kallitqnh wc na shmeo, stw

P,

sto qro.

Kje shmeo tou pragmatiko antikeimnou pou jelan na anaparastsoun,


stw

A,

orzei mia eujea me to mti sto qro, thn

P A.

An parembloume

mia difanh ojnh metax tou matio kai tou antikeimnou, aut tmnei thn
eujea

PA

se na shmeo, stw

A0 .

Metabllontac to shmeo

na kalyei lo to antikemeno, tte ta antstoiqa shmea

tsi ste

ep thc ojnhc

suniston thn probol tou fusiko antikeimnou pnw sth dosmnh ojnh.

To shmerin antstoiqo tou kallitqnh thc Anagnnhshc, ektc bbaia


ap touc sgqronouc kallitqnec, enai oi sqediastc kai oi mhqaniko, oi
opooi pollc forc, se antjesh me touc kataskeuastc montlwn maketn pou douleoun sto qro twn 3 diastsewn, qreizetai na apeikonsoun
na 3-distato antikemeno sto eppedo ap diaforetikc yeic.

Aut akri-

bc epitugqnetai msw thc probolikc gewmetrac. Sthn pragmatikthta, oi


anaparastseic sto eppedo enc 3-distatou antikeimnou ap diaforetik
optik gwna prokptoun pwc ja dome, msw probolikn metasqhmatismn.

B.

Eidik

Jewra

Sqetikthtac

A. Einstein 1905), basik rlo pazei h


Lorentz twn legmenwn yeudo-orjogniwn metasqhmatismn (me orzousa sh me +1) ston eppedo qwrqrono 4-diastsewn (strofc pou diathron anallowth th metrik Minkowski). Gia na brome mwc thn plrh omda

Sthn Eidik Jewra Sqetikthtac, (


omda

summetrac prpei na sumperilboume kai tic metatopseic stic 4-diastseic,


opte katalgoume sthn omda

Poincare,

h opoa apotele antstoiqh thc

omdac metasqhmatismn tou Galilaou thc klasikc fusikc. Knontac mia

strof

Wick,

Minkowski
Lorentz gnetai

dhlad jewrntac to qrno fantastik, h metrik

apokt Eukledeia upograf (se 4 diastseic) kai h omda

h omda twn eidikn orjogniwn metasqhmatismn (orjognioi metasqhmatismo me orzousa sh me

+1)

stic 4 diastseic.

H omda

mpore na jewrhje wc h omda probolikn metasqhmatismn


migadiko epipdou

G.

Poincare mwc
P GL2 (C) tou

C2 .

Tomografa

Mia diaforetik pleur thc gewmetrac enai h melth qi twn shmewn all
twn eujein twn epipdwn sto qro. Gia pardeigma mpore kanec na rwtsei poia enai h gewmetra tou qrou twn eujein tou Eukledeiou 3-distatou
qrou. Mia eujea mpore epshc na orisje ap ta shmea tomc thc me do
eppeda sto qro, opte mpore na kajorisje msw do paramtrwn. Sunepc o qroc twn eujein tou Eukledeiou 3-distatou qrou apotele qro
distashc 2, all qi Eukledeio qro. 'Eqei th dik tou gewmetra, pwc ja
dome.

Uprqoun tso majhmatik so kai praktik problmata, sta opoa oi


eujeec enai pio shmantikc ap ta shmea. Gia pardeigma, periptseic pou

scanners)

aforon sarwtc (
fa.

aktnwn Q. H epistmh aut lgetai tomogra-

O sarwtc pargei aktnec Q kat mkoc diafrwn dieujnsewn sto

qro.

'Otan ma ap autc dirqetai msa ap to sma enc asjenoc (

msa ap opoiodpote antikemeno), ekteletai mia mtrhsh pou anaparist


th msh puknthta lhc kat mkoc thc dierqmenhc aktnac.

Me aut ton

trpo parnoume mia sunrthsh me pedo orismo to qro twn eujein tou

R3 .

To zhtomeno enai mia sunrthsh thc puknthtac tou smatoc me pedo

orismo to

R3 ,

dhlad to qro twn shmewn. Gia na gnei aut h metatrop,

qreiazmaste th sqsh metax shmewn kai eujein. Gia pardeigma, oi eujeec pou dirqontai ap dosmno shmeo, diagrfoun na eppedo sto qro twn
eujein. Aut h gewmetra, pou den enai Eukledeia, lgetai gewmetra
(proc timn tou Germano majhmatiko

Klein

Felix Klein, pou zhse sto detero mi-

s tou 19ou wc tic arqc tou 20ou aina), kai thn opoa ja meletsoume se
aut to mjhma. Egkuklopaidik anafroume epshc, pwc o sunduasmc thc
gewmetrac

Klein me touc probolikoc metasqhmatismoc thc Eidikc Jewrac

thc Sqetikthtac (bl.

pardeigma 2 parapnw) apotelon th bsh thc pe-

twistor geometry) tou korufaou diejnc


Roger Penrose h opoa (sustrofik gewme-

rfhmhc sustrofikc gewmetrac (


smera majhmatiko kosmolgou

tra) apotele (ektc twn llwn) kai mia prospjeia gia thn enopohsh lwn
twn fusikn allhlepidrsewn.

10

D.

Gewmetrik

Optik

O qroc twn eujein tou

R3

emfanzetai sth fusik kai me kpoio diaforeti-

k trpo, sth melth optikn diatxewn (susthmtwn katptrwn kai fakn).


Se aut thn perptwsh oi fwteinc aktnec diajtoun kai for didoshc, opte
apotelon kateujunmenec eujeec. 'Otan mia fwtein aktna (kateujunmenh
eujea) mpei se mia optik ditaxh, ja uposte seir anaklsewn, diajlsewn,
klp. kai sthn xodo thc optikc ditaxhc ja proume mia llh fwtein aktna
(kateujunmenh eujea). H optik ditaxh sunepc aske na metasqhmatism
ston (majhmatik) qro twn kateujunmenwn eujein tou fusiko qrou. H
melth autn twn metasqhmatismn apotele th bsh thc gewmetrikc prosggishc sthn optik.

Uprqoun kai pollo lloi tomec pou enai qrsimh h probolik gewmetra: gia pardeigma, an ant tou smatoc twn pragmatikn arijmn

R epil-

xoume na llo peperasmno sma, h probolik gewmetra qrhsimopoietai sth


jewra kwdkwn, sthn kruptografa, ston sqediasm logismiko gia progrmmata sqedashc se H/U all kai sth jewra arijmn.

Genkeush thc pro-

projective

bolikc gewmetrac apotele h melth twn probolikn poikilin (

varieties)

h opoa ankei sto qro thc algebrikc gewmetrac.

H algebri-

k gewmetra qei stentath sqsh me th jewra arijmn kai to prgramma

Atiyah-Langlands

gia thn enopohsh twn majhmatikn.

11

Proboliko

3.1

Stoiqea

Qroi

Grammikc

'Algebrac

Upenjumzoume orismnec basikc nnoiec ap th grammik lgebra.

F sma me qarakthristik diforh tou 2 (dhlad isqei ti 1+1 6= 0,


pou 0 kai 1 ta oudtera stoiqea thc prsjeshc kai tou pollaplasiasmo
sto sma antstoiqa) kai V na mh-ken snolo efodiasmno me mia eswterik
prxh + pou ja th lme
, (dhlad h prxh + enai mia apeiknish
+ : V V V ) kai me mia exwterik prxh  pou ja th lme
, (dhlad h prxh enai mia apeiknish : F V V ).
'Estw

prsjesh

bajmwt

pollaplasiasm

Orismc 1.

To snolo

efodiasmno me tic parapnw prxeic ja lge-

tai dianusmatikc qroc me sma

F (sunjwc to sma ja enai oi pragmatiko

oi migadiko arijmo) an ikanopoiontai oi exc idithtec:

To zegoc

(V, +)

apotele Abelian omda (dhlad isqoun h prosetairi-

stik idithta, h antimetajetik idithta kai uprqei oudtero stoiqeo kajc


kai to summetrik kje stoiqeou tou

V ).

O bajmwtc pollaplasiasmc ikanopoie tic exc idithtec (upojtoume ti


, F kai a, b V ):
(a + b) = a + b
( + ) a = a + a
() a = ( a), pou sthn arister parnjesh ennoetai o pollaplasiasmc metax twn stoiqewn tou smatoc

1 a = a,

pou

1 F to
F.

monadiao stoiqeo (oudtero stoiqeo tou pollapla-

siasmo) sto sma

Pardegma 1:

To snolo twn elejerwn dianusmtwn tou epipdou

tou qrou apotelon paradegmata pragmatikn dianusmatikn qrwn me


prxeic thn gnwst prsjesh dianusmtwn (kannac parallhlogrmmou) kai
bajmwt pollaplasiasm ton gnwst pollaplasiasm pragmatiko arijmo
ep dinusma.

Shmewsh 1: Sth sunqeia gia aplopohsh tou sumbolismo ja paralepoume to smbolo

tou bajmwto pollaplasiasmo.

Epshc den ja anaf-

roume to sma tan enai safc gia poio sma milme (sunjwc ja enai oi
pragmatiko arijmo).

Mporome na prosjtoume diansmata


sma

v+w V

v, w V

gia na proume to dinu-

kai na pollaplasizoume ta stoiqea tou

12

me ta stoiqea

F kai na parnoume to stoiqeo v V .

Autc oi do prxeic ikanopoion

tic gnwstc idithtec twn dianusmatikn qrwn (prosetairistik, epimeristik kai antimetajetik).

Orismc

tou

V,

2.

'Enac dianusmatikc upqwroc

enai na uposnolo

to opoo enai kleist wc proc thn prsjesh kai to bajmwt pol-

laplasiasm, dhlad, an gia kje


kai

U V

v U .

Me lla lgia, to

v, w U

kai

F,

v+w U

isqei ti

apotele to dio na no dianusmatik qro

peperasmnhc distashc me tic diec prxeic kai to dio sma pwc to

Orismc 3.

En

U1

kai

U2

V.

enai do diaforetiko dianusmatiko upqwroi

U1 V kai U2 V , tte orzoume


to (euj) jroisma U1 + U2 twn upoqrwn U1 kai U2 tou V wc to snolo twn
dianusmtwn v V ta opoa mporon na grafon sth morf v = u1 + u2 me
u1 U1 kai u2 U2 antstoiqa.

tou diou dianusmatiko qrou

Orismc 4.

V,

H tom twn dianusmatikn upoqrwn

wc to snolo twn stoiqewn tou


ston

dhlad

U1 U2

V
U1

tou

pou periqontai tso ston

orzetai
so kai

U2 .

Shmewsh 2: Upenjumzoume ti tso h tom so kai to (euj) jroisma


dianusmatikn upoqrwn enc dianusmatiko qrou apotelon nouc dianusmatikoc upoqrouc (den sumbanei bbaia to dio kai me thn nwsh dianusmatikn upoqrwn).

Orismc

5.

Mia bsh tou

{v0 , v1 , ..., vn } tou V

apoteletai ap na snolo dianusmtwn

ta opoa enai metax touc grammik anexrthta (dhlad

kanna touc den mpore na grafe wc grammikc sunduasmc twn upolopwn)


kai ta opoa pargoun ton

V,

dhlad kje stoiqeo

vV

mpore na grafe

wc grammikc sunduasmc autn,

v=

n
X

i v i

(1)

i=0
pou

i F,

me

i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.

Kje dianusmatikc qroc peperasmnhc

distashc qei toulqiston mia bsh.

To pljoc twn dianusmtwn twn b-

sewn enc dianusmatiko qrou enai stajer kai onomzetai distash tou
dianusmatiko qrou. H distash exarttai ap to sma.

Ja

asqolhjome

. Sto parapnw pardeig-

me dianusmatikoc qrouc peperasmnhc distashc

ma,

dimF V = n + 1.

13

An epilxoume mia bsh

{vi }(i=0,1,...,n)

ston

V,

tte kje dinusma

vV

grfetai me monadik trpo wc

v=

n
X

i v i

(2)

i=0
kai oi suntelestc
diansmatoc

v V

i F,

me

i = 0, 1, 2, ..., n,

lgontai suntetagmnec tou

wc proc th sugkekrimnh bsh (oi suntetagmnec exar-

tntai ap thn epilog bshc).

Shmewsh 3: Upenjumzoume pwc gia to dianusmatik qro

R2

distashc

2
2, ta diansmata (1, 0) kai (0, 1) apotelon th legmenh
tou R .
3
Anloga gia to dianusmatik qro R distashc 3, ta diansmata (1, 0, 0),
3
(0, 1, 0) kai (0, 0, 1) apotelon th legmenh
tou R . H genkeush
n
enai profanc qi mno gia to dianusmatik qro R
me opoiadpote peperasmnh distash n N all kai gia kje sma F.
sunjh bsh

sunjh bsh

Orismc

6.

Mia apeiknish

V kai W do dianusmatiko qroi me to dio


f : V W ja lgetai grammik an isqei to exc:
'Estw

sma

F.

f (v1 + v2 ) = f (v1 ) + f (v2 )


v1 , v2 V

kai

, F.

H basik sqsh isodunamac metax twn dianusmatikn qrwn enai h nnoia tou

isomorfismo

Orismc 7.

Do dianusmatiko qroi

W (me to dio sma) lgontai

V = W , an uprqei metax touc

kai

ismorfoi, gegonc pou ja to sumbolzoume


grammik apeiknish pou na enai 1-1 kai ep.

To paraktw jerhma epilei to prblhma thc kathgoriopohshc twn dia-

classification problem)

nusmatikn qrwn peperasmnhc distashc (

kai mac

lei pwc h basik anallowth posthta stouc dianusmatikoc qrouc enai h


distas touc:

Jerhma
to dio sma)

1.

Do

dianusmatiko

enai ismorfoi

qroi

(peperasmnhc

en kai mno en qoun

Isqei h paraktw qrsimh prtash:

14

distashc

kai

thn dia distash

me

Prtash

1.

An

dianusmatiko qrou

U1
V,

kai

U2

enai do dianusmatiko upqwroi tou idou

tte isqei h exc jemelidhc sqsh metax twn

diastsewn tou ajrosmatoc kai thc tomc dianusmatikn upoqrwn:

dim(U1 + U2 ) = dimU1 + dimU2 dim(U1 U2 )


3.2

Orismc Proboliko

'Estw

Qrou

pragmatikc dianusmatikc qroc peperasmnhc distashc (dh-

lad wc sma jewrome to sma twn pragmatikn arijmn).

Orismc 1.
qrou

probolikc qroc

peperasmnhc

distashc

dianusmatikn upoqrwn

'Estw

x P (V )

tou

P (V )

orzetai

enc pragmatiko dianusmatiko

wc

to

snolo

twn

monodistatwn

V.

na shmeo tou proboliko qrou.

Se aut bsei

tou parapnw orismo antistoiqe nac dianusmatikc upqwroc

Vx V

dimVx = 1.

apoteletai

'Enac monodistatoc dianusmatikc upqwroc tou

ap la ta bajmwt pollaplsia
mhdeniko diansmatoc
shmeou

Vx

tou

v V.

To

me

v , pou R, enc sugkekrimnou mhv lgetai antiproswpeutik dinusma tou

x P (V ) pou orzetai ap
V . Kje llo mh-mhdenik

to sugkekrimno monodistato upqwro

v apotele
x P (V ). Sune-

(bajmwt) pollaplsio tou

diaforetik antiproswpeutik dinusma tou diou shmeou

pc uprqei mia plhjra antiproswpeutikn dianusmtwn gia kje shmeo


tou proboliko qrou.

Par' ti to

apotele dianusmatik qro, o probolikc qroc

P (V )

den

apotele dianusmatik qro. Pio sugkekrimna isqei to exc:

Prtash 1.
simh)

O probolikc qroc

pollaplthta

dhlad

me distash

P (V )

apotele (pragmatik), (diafor-

kat na mikrterh ap th

distash

tou

dimP (V ) = (dimV ) 1.

Paratrhsh 1: Ap ton orism thc pollaplthtac prokptei ti o probolikc qroc apotele qro pou mno topik moizei (dhlad enai omoiomorfikc) me to dianusmatik qro

Apdeixh:

R(dimV )1 .

Den ja apodexoume ed thn Prtash 1 (o endiafermenoc

anagnsthc mpore na bre thn apdeixh se poll bibla diaforikc gewmetrac, pou meletntai diaforsimec pollaplthtec), all ja thn exhgsoume:
jewrntac ti

dimV = n + 1,

prgma pou shmanei pwc an epilxoume mia

15

n + 1 paramtrouc (suntetagmnec) gia na perigryoume


V , tte qreiazmaste mia suntetagmnh ligterh gia na
shmea x tou proboliko qrou P (V ) exaitac thc eleuje-

bsh, qreiazmaste
ta diansmata tou
perigryoume ta

rac pou uprqei sthn epilog tou antiproswpeutiko diansmatoc (la ta


bajmwt pollaplsia enc antiproswpeutiko diansmatoc apotelon epshc isodnama antiproswpeutik diansmata), me dedomno ti o probolikc
qroc wc pollaplthta, toulqiston topik, apotele epshc dianusmatik
qro. 'Ara an

tte

dimP (V ) = n. 

dimP (V ) = 1 tte o probolikc


(profanc tte dimV = 2).

qroc

P (V )

lgetai probolik

dimP (V ) = 2 tte o probolikc


(profanc tte dimV = 3).

qroc

P (V )

lgetai probolik

An

eujea

dimV = n + 1,

An

eppedo

Shmewsh 1:

An jewrsoume to snolo twn shmewn tou 2-distatou

epipdou ( tou 3-distatou fusiko qrou antstoiqa) efodiasmno me na


Kartesian Ssthma Suntetagmnwn, tte mporome na tautsoume ta shmea tou epipdou ( tou qrou antstoiqa) me ton pragmatik dianusmatik
qro

R2

twn

dianusmtwn tou epipdou, ( me ton pragmatik

elejerwn

dianusmatik qro

twn elejerwn dianusmtwn tou qrou antstoiqa),

qrhsimopointac to dinusma jshc tou shmeou: Dhlad, kje shmeo antistoiqe sto elejero dinusma pou qei arq thn arq twn axnwn kai prac
to en lgw shmeo.

Me autn ton trpo apoktme mia antistoiqa 1-1 kai

ep metax tou sunlou twn shmewn tou gewmetriko epipdou ( tou qrou) me ta stoiqea tou pragmatiko dianusmatiko qrou

R2

twn elejerwn

dianusmtwn tou epipdou ( tou pragmatiko dianusmatiko qrou

R3

twn

elejerwn dianusmtwn tou qrou antstoiqa).

Gia pardeigma, stw ti tautzoume to gewmetrik eppedo me ton pragmatik dianusmatik qro

R2

twn elejerwn dianusmtwn tou epipdou, jew-

x0 x,
xona tetagmnwn ton y y , arq to shmeo tomc O me suntetagmnec (0, 0) kai
parnontac wc bsh ta gnwst orjokanonik monadiaa diansmata
i = (0, 1)
kai
j = (1, 0). Tte o probolikc qroc P (R2 ) smfwna me ton orism ja
rntac Kartesianc suntetagmnec sto eppedo me xona tetmhmnwn ton

apoteletai ap to snolo twn monodistatwn dianusmatikn upoqrwn tou

R2 .

Gewmetrik, aut antistoiqe sto snolo twn eujein pou dirqontai ap

thn

arq

twn

axnwn

O.

'Omwc gia na perigryoume mia eujea sto eppedo,

apaitetai mno ma parmetroc, gia pardeigma h gwna pou sqhmatzei h en


lgw eujea me ton xona twn tetmhmnwn, sunepc

dimP (R2 ) = 1.

Shmei-

noume pwc mia eujea tou epipdou apoteletai ap peira (uperarijmsima)

16

shmea tou epipdou all ston probolik qro olklhrh h eujea antistoiqe
se na kai mno shmeo tou proboliko qrou.

Me bsh thn parapnw tatish tou gewmetriko epipdou ( tou fusiko 3-distatou qrou) me ton 2-distato dianusmatik qro
3-distato dianusmatik qro

upoqrouc distashc 1 tou dianusmatiko qrou


nusmatiko qrou

( me ton

antstoiqa), parathrome pwc mno oi eu-

jeec pou dirqontai ap thn arq twn axnwn

R2

apotelon dianusmatikoc

R2

( isodnama tou dia-

), diti oi llec eujeec pou uprqoun sto eppedo (

sto qro antstoiqa) all den pernon ap thn arq twn axnwn

den apo-

telon dianusmatikoc upoqrouc diti den periqoun to mhdenik dinusma


(pou enai to oudtero stoiqeo thc prsjeshc metax twn dianusmtwn) kai
pou tautzetai me thn arq twn axnwn

O.

To parapnw enai mia shmantik

leptomreia diti to men snolo twn dierqmenwn ap thn arq twn axnwn
eujein tou epipdou, kai pou ex orismo apotele ton probolik qro

P (R2 ),

ja dome pwc apotele pollaplthta distashc 1 pou enai omoiomorfik me


ton kklo

S 1 , en to snolo genik lwn twn eujein tou epipdou, pwc ja

dome sthn topologa twn epifanein sto mjhma thc

Diaforikc

Gewmetr-

, apotele (mh-prosanatolsimh, pollapl sunektik, lea) pollaplthta

ac

distashc 2 pou enai omoiomorfik me th dsmh

Anafroume tloc pwc o probolikc qroc

Mobius.
P (R2 )

mpore isodnama to-

pologik na jewrhje kai wc o qroc phlko pou prokptei ap to snolo


lwn twn eujein tou epipdou an to diairsoume me th sqsh isodunamac
pou orzetai ap thn parallhla metax twn eujein tou epipdou, dhlad o
probolikc qroc
tou epipdou.

P (R2 ) mpore na tautisje kai me to

qro twn dieujnsewn

Upenjumzoume pwc sthn topologa h nnoia tou omoiomorfi-

smo enai ma ap tic basikc sqseic isodunamac: do (topologiko) qroi


lgontai omoiomorfiko en uprqei matax touc mia apeiknish pou na enai
1-1, ep, suneqc kai h antstrof thc (pou uprqei afo h arqik enai 1-1
kai ep) enai epshc suneqc.

3.3

Upqwroi tou

Proboliko

Qrou

Gia na orsoume (grammikoc) upqwrouc enc proboliko qrou


xekinme ap na dianusmatik upqwro

U V.

Afo to dio to

P (V )
apo-

P (U )
tou U .

tele dianusmatik qro, mporome na orsoume ton probolik qro


pou apoteletai ap touc monodistatouc dianusmatikoc upqwrouc
O probolikc qroc
qrou

P (V ),

P (U ) apotele na grammik upqwro


U V , tte P (U ) P (V ).

dhlad an

17

tou proboliko

3.4

Basikc

Idithtec Probolikn

Qrwn

Kpoiec idithtec twn probolikn qrwn enai smfwnec me th diasjhs


mac, pwc aut pou perigrfei h paraktw prtash (h opoa isqei kai sthn
Eukledeia gewmetra):

Prtash 1.
ap do

Uprqei monadik probolik eujea pou ennei kje zegoc

tuqaa diaforetik shmea

enc proboliko qrou

P (V ).

'Estw x, y P (V ) me x 6= y do diaforetik shmea tou proP (V ). Epilgoume antiproswpeutik diansmata v V gia to


x kai w V gia to y . Afo x 6= y tte to w den enai bajmwt pollaplsio
tou v , me lla lgia ta diansmata v, w enai grammikc anexrthta kai
sunepc pargoun na dianusmatik upqwro U V me dimU = 2. Tte
dimP (U ) = 1 kai ex orismo ta shmea x, y P (U ), sunepc h P (U ) enai h
Apdeixh:

boliko qrou

zhtomenh probolik eujea.

'Estw tra

P (U 0 )

ma llh probolik eujea pou pern ap ta shmea

dimP (U 0 ) = 1 petai ti dimU 0 = 2 kai o dianu0


smatikc upqwroc U V epshc periqei ta antiproswpeutik diansmata
v, w twn shmewn x, y antstoiqa. Afo mwc ta diansmata v, w U 0 , tte
0
kai loi oi grammiko sunduasmo touc epshc ja ankoun ston U (diti to
0
U wc dianusmatikc upqwroc tou V ja enai kleist wc proc tic prxeic

x, y P (U ).

Tte afo

tou dianusmatiko qrou prsjesh kai bajmwt pollaplasiasm). 'Omwc ta

v, w pargoun to dianusmatik upqwro U V opte U U 0 .


0
0
0
'Omwc afo U U kai dimU = dimU , petai ti U = U , opte h probolik
eujea P (U ) enai monadik. 

diansmata

Antjeta, h paraktw idithta-kleid twn probolikn qrwn

den

isqei

sthn Eukledeia gewmetra:

Prtash 2.

, dhlad

tmnetai

Se na probolik eppedo kje zeugri probolikn eujein


den

uprqei

nnoia

thc

parallhlac

sthn

probolik

gew-

metra

P (V ) to probolik eppedo, dhlad dimP (V ) = 2,


opte dimV = 3 kai stw P (U1 ) kai P (U2 ) do tuqaec diaforetikc probolikc eujeec tou P (V ). 'Eqoume dhlad dimP (U1 ) = dimP (U2 ) = 1 opte
U1 , U2 V kai dimU2 = dimU2 = 2. Jewrome to euj jroisma U1 + U2 .
Profanc U1 U1 + U2 opte dimU1 dim(U1 + U2 ).
Apdeixh:

'Estw

18

dimU1 = dim(U1 + U2 ). Tte mwc


U2 ja ankei kai ston U1 (h u1 sumhdenzetai), opte U2 U1 . Afo dimU1 = dimU2 = 2, aut ja
ti U1 = U2 opte kai P (U1 ) = P (U2 ), topo, diti upojsame dia-

'Estw ti isqei isthta, dhlad

U1 = U1 + U2
nistsa
shmanei

opte kje dinusma tou

foretikc probolikc eujeec.

Sunepc anagkastik ja prpei

2 = dimU1 < dim(U1 + U2 ).

dimU1 < dim(U1 +U2 ).

Ja qoume loipn

'Omwc h distash twn dianusmatikn qrwn

dim(U1 + U2 ) 3. 'Omwc U1 + U2
dim(U1 + U2 ) = 3. Efarmzontac th sqsh pou

enai fusikc arijmc, ra ja prpei

kai

dimV = 3,

opte

sundei th distash thc tomc me th distash tou eujwc ajrosmatoc twn


dianusmatikn upoqrwn (Prtash 3.1.1), parnoume:

dim(U1 + U2 ) = dimU1 + dimU2 dim(U1 U2 )


dimU1 = dimU2 = 2 kai dim(U1 + U2 ) =
dim(U1 U2 ) = 1. 'Ara loipn
uprqei monadikc dianusmatikc upqwroc tou V me distash 1, o U1 U2 , o
opooc periqetai ston U1 kai ston U2 . Dhlad uprqei monadik shmeo pou
ankei sthn probolik eujea P (U1 ) all kai sthn probolik eujea P (U2 )
kai to shmeo aut enai o probolikc qroc P (U1 U2 ) pou qei distash 0
afo dim(U1 U2 ) = 1, ar prkeitai gia na kai mno shmeo. Sunepc oi
probolikc eujeec P (U1 ) kai P (U2 ) tmnontai. 

An antikatastsoume tic timc

sthn parapnw sqsh ja proume ti

3.5

Omogenec

kai

Anomogenec Suntetagmnec

Enai nomzoume anagkao se aut to shmeo na katanosoume kaltera th sqsh metax eujein kai epipdwn ston probolik qro me tic gnwstc mac eujeec kai ta eppeda sto fusik 3-distato qro. Ja exetsoume
prta th genik perptwsh enc tuqaou dianusmatiko qrou

dimV = n + 1

distashc

kai sth sunqeia ja dome thn eidik perptwsh pou

V = R3

(pou tautzetai me to fusik 3-distato qro).

{v0 , v1 , v2 , ..., vn }
(0 , 1 , 2 , ..., n ) pou

Epilgoume mia bsh


suntetagmnec

v=

n
X

tou

V.

Kje dinusma

vV

i v i

qei

(3)

i=0

P (V )
(V 3 v 6= 0).

Ta antiproswpeutik diansmata twn shmewn tou proboliko qrou


enai aut twn opown lec oi suntetagmnec den enai mhdn

19

Epeid o probolikc qroc

P (V )

dimP (V ) = n

me

apotele pollaplthta,

dhlad qro pou topik moizei me to dianusmatik qro

Rn ,

mporome, tou-

lqiston topik, na anaparistome ta shmea tou me na snolo suntetagmnwn (pou den enai lec mhdn), qontac up' yin ti an
suntetagmnwn thc morfc

(0 , 1 , 2 , ..., n )

pou anaparist kai to snolo twn suntetagmnwn

6= 0, tte kje snolo

anaparist to dio shmeo

(0 , 1 , 2 , ..., n ).

Oi sun-

tetagmnec autc onomzontai omogenec suntetagmnec. Dhlad oi omogenec


suntetagmnec anapariston shmea tou

P (V )

qrhsimopointac mwc ousia-

stik tic suntetagmnec twn antiproswpeutikn dianusmtwn tou

V.

x P (V ) pou anaparistntai ap tic omogenec


(0 , 1 , 2 , ..., n ) me 0 6= 0. Kje ttoio shmeo kajorzetai
safc kai ap tic suntetagmnec (1, 1 /0 , 2 /0 , ..., n /0 ), dhlad ap n-wc
proc to pljoc suntetagmnec (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) pou jsame
Jewrome tra ta shmea

suntetagmnec

i
.
0

xi :=

Oi suntetagmnec autc onomzontai anomogenec suntetagmnec tou proboliko qrou

P (V ).

Ac dome merik paradegmata: stw

V = R4 .

ta shmea auto ja anaparstantai ap tic anomogenec

(x1 , x2 , x3 ).

Mia (probolik) eujea ston

P (R4 )

dimP (R4 ) = 3,
suntetagmnec ~
x=

Tte afo

apoteletai ap to snolo

twn mh-mhdenikn dianusmtwn me omogenec suntetagmnec

b(0 , 1 , 2 , 3 ) = 0,

me

a, b R.

An

0 , 0 6= 0,

a(0 , 1 , 2 , 3 ) +

mporome na qrhsimopoi-

soume anomogenec suntetagmnec

xi =

i
0

yi =

i
,
0

kai

pou

i = 1, 2, 3,

opte h probolik eujea enai to snolo twn mh-mhdenikn

dianusmtwn tou

by2 , ax3 + by3 )

R4

me anomogenec suntetagmnec

(a + b, ax1 + by1 , ax2 +

h opoa se anomogenec suntetagmnec apoteletai ap dian-

smata thc morfc

a
b
b
)~x + (
)~y = ~x +
(~y ~x).
a+b
a+b
a+b
a, b R ddei thn exswsh eujeac metax twn shmewn
~x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) kai ~y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ).

H parapnw sqsh gia


me diansmata jshc

20

'Ena (probolik) eppedo ston


sunhjismno eppedo.

P (R4 )

enai na antgrafo tou

R3

0 6= 0 se na
X P (R4 ) me 0 6=

tmnei ta shmea me

Sunepc to snolo twn shmewn

pou oi probolikc eujeec kai ta probolik

X se sunhjismnec eujeec kai eppeda. O plrhc 3P (R4 ) apokttai an sumperilboume kai ta shmea me 0 =
0. Afo ta antiproswpeutik diansmata (0, 1 , 2 , 3 ) suniston nan 34
distato dianusmatik upqwro tou R , o antstoiqoc probolikc qroc ja
`
`
4
3
qei distash 2. 'Ara P (R ) = R
P (R3 ) pou to smbolo
dhlnei thn
xnh nwsh (disoint union) metax twn sunlwn.

eppeda tmnoun to
distatoc qroc

3.6

Paradegmata

Probolikn Qrwn

Ac dome kpoia paradegmata pragmatikn kai migadikn probolikn qrwn stic diforec diastseic.

dimR V = 1

1.

V qei distash 1. Tte o

V enai ismorfoc me to R, dhlad V = R. Aut shmanei pwc o antstoiqoc probolikc qroc ja qei dimP (R) = 0. Gia na dome ti shmanei aut:

'Estw ti o pragmatikc dianusmatikc qroc

epame pwc o probolikc qroc orzetai wc to snolo twn monodistatwn


dianusmatikn upoqrwn enc dianusmatiko qrou, sunepc o probolikc

P (R) ja apoteletai ap touc monodistatouc dianusmatikoc upoqrouc tou R. 'Omwc to R qei distash 1, sunepc qei mno na monodistato
dianusmatik upqwro, ton eaut tou. 'Ara to P (R) ' , dhlad o probolikc qroc P (R) apoteletai ap na kai monadik shmeo pou to sumbolzoume
pwc sthn topologa me . H distash auto tou qrou enai prgmati 0.
qroc

Enallaktik, mpore kanec na qrhsimopoisei th gewmetrik eikna: afo

V
= R,

qrhsimopoiome th gewmetrik anaparstash tou

R wc mia eujea,
x0 x tou epipdou ( tou qrou), pnw
sthn opoa qoume orsei na tuqao shmeo wc arq O . O probolikc qroc
orzetai wc to snolo twn eujein pou dirqontai ap thn arq O all pou
lgou qrin ton xona twn tetmhmnwn

enai tautqrona kai upqwroi tou en lgw dianusmatiko qrou, dhlad thc
diac thc eujeac. Profanc mno mia eujea uprqei me autc tic idithtec, o
xonac

x0 x o dioc, sunepc o probolikc qroc apoteletai ap na kai mno

shmeo.

2.

dimR V = 2

Kje pragmatikc dianusmatikc qroc distashc do enai ismorfoc me to


dianusmatik qro

1.

R2 , dhlad se aut thn perptwsh V


= R2 en dimP (R2 ) =

Ac prospajsoume na perigryoume autn to qro. Kat' arqn efodizou-

21

me to eppedo me na Kartesian Ssthma Suntetagmnwn me arq to shmeo

P (R2 ) apoteletai ap to snolo twn monodistatwn


2
dianusmatikn upqwrwn tou dianusmatiko qrou R . Gewmetrik, o pro2
bolikc qroc P (R ) tautzetai tso me to qro twn eujein tou epipdou
pou dirqontai ap thn arq twn axnwn O , so kai me to qro twn dieujnO.

O probolikc qroc

sewn sto eppedo.


to shmeo

Wc gnwstn, kje eujea tou epipdou pou dirqetai ap

prosdiorzetai monosmanta ap mia parmetro, th

aut sqhmatzei, gia pardeigma, me ton xona twn tetmhmnwn

gwna

x x.

pou

An me-

trme tic gwnec se aktnia, h gwna ja parnei tic timc sto kleist disthma

[0, ].

'Omwc h eujea pou sqhmatzei me ton xona

gwna

0,

pou enai o

x0 x
gwna , pou enai kai pli o xonac x x. An sto kleist disthma [0, ],
pou topologik enai na eujgrammo tmma, tautsoume ta kra tou, 0 ,
dioc o xonac

x0 x

x x,

tautzetai

me thn eujea pou sqhmatzei me ton xona

tte to eujgrammo aut tmma ja klesei kai ja sqhmatisje nac kkloc.

P (R2 ) enai
P (R2 ) ' S 1 .

Sunepc topologik o probolikc qroc


kklo, gegonc pou to sumbolzoume

omoiomorfikc me ton

Enallaktik, mpore kanec na dei to parapnw qrhsimopointac suntetagmnec: stw

(x, y)

oi Kartesianc Suntetagmnec tou epipdou pou taut-

R2 kai pazoun to rlo twn omogenn sunte2


2
tagmnwn tou proboliko qrou P (R ). Upenjumzoume ti dimP (R ) = 1.
Epilgoume x 6= 0 kai jewrome tic anomogenec suntetagmnec (1, ) ston
P (R2 ), pou jsame := y/x. Ta shmea me (anomogenec) kartesianc suntetagmnec (1, ) anapariston msa sto eppedo thn eujea x = 1, mia eujea
0
0
parllhlh me ton xona y y pou tmnei ton xona x x sto shmeo me suntetagmnec (1, 0). H eujea x = 1 topologik enai omoiomorfik me to R,
2
sunepc o probolikc qroc P (R ) ja periqei na antgrafo tou R, dhla2
d R P (R ). Den teleisame mwc, diti ja prpei msa ston probolik
qro na sumperilboume kai ta shmea me omogenec suntetagmnec (0, y). Ta
0
shmea aut anapariston ton xona y y tou epipdou pou topologik enai
0
epshc omoiomorfikc me to R. 'Omwc olklhroc o xonac y y ston probolik
qro ja dsei na kai mno shmeo, aut me omogenec suntetagmnec (0, y),
2
diti pwc edame P (R) ' . Sunepc o probolikc qroc P (R ) ja enai:
a
a
P (R2 ) ' R
P (R) ' R {} ' S 1 .

zetai me to dianusmatik qro

H teleutaa sqsh prokptei diti ap thn topologa gnwrzoume pwc o


kkloc apotele th

sumpagopohsh

enc

shmeou

thc eujeac.

O aploste-

roc trpoc gia na to dei aut kpoioc pou den enai exoikeiwmnoc me thn
topologa enai na skefje wc exc: Jewrome mia eujea kai pnw se autn
epilgoume aujareta na shmeo

O.

Jewrome nan kklo

22

S 1 tuqaac aktnac

kai kntrou stw

pou na efptetai sthn eujea sto shmeo

to antidiametrik shmeo tou

O.

'Estw

O0

ston kklo. Mporome na orsoume mia apei-

S 1 {O0 } R wc exc: stw tuqao


0
0
shmeo S tou kklou (diaforetik ap to O ). Froume th qord O S tou
0
kklou kai thn proektenoume spou na tmsei thn eujea. H O S ja tmsei
thn eujea se na kai mno shmeo, stw E . Antstrofa, an E na tuqao sh0
meo thc eujeac, tte to eujgrammo tmma O E ja tmsei ton kklo se na
kai mno shmeo, stw S . Katalabanei kanec pwc to mno shmeo tou kklou

knish 1-1 kai ep metax twn sunlwn

pou den qei eikna sthn eujea kat thn parapnw apeiknish enai to dio
to

O0

diti h eujea pou efptetai ston kklo sto shmeo

me thn eujea pou efptetai ston kklo sto shmeo

O0

enai antidiametrik shmea. (H eikna tou shmeou

apeiknish enai to dio to shmeo


sthn eujea).

miac kai to

O0

enai parllhlh

afo ta shmea

kai

kat thn parapnw

ankei kai ston kklo kai

Sunepc lme pwc o kkloc prokptei ap thn eujea me thn

prosjkh enc ep' peiron shmeou, pou enai to shmeo

O0 ,

isodnama sthn

topologa lme ti o kkloc enai h sumpagopohsh enc shmeou thc eujeac.


To parapnw enai kat' analoga me th gnwst stereografik probol metax
tou epipdou kai thc 2-distathc sfarac, mno pou ed qoume mia distash
ligterh.

Paratrhsh 1:

O upoyiasmnoc anagnsthc katanoe ap to parapnw

pardeigma to baj topologik nhma thc algebrikc prtashc 3.4.2 per thc
mh parxhc parallhlac ston probolik qro.

3.

dimR V = 3

Kje pragmatikc dianusmatikc qroc distashc tra enai ismorfoc me to


dianusmatik qro

2.

R3 , dhlad se aut thn perptwsh V


= R3 en dimP (R3 ) =

Ac prospajsoume na perigryoume autn to qro:

Efodizoume to fusik 3-distato qro me na Kartesian Ssthma Suntetagmnwn me arq to shmeo

O.

Me bsh th shmewsh 3.2.1 ta shmea tou

fusiko 3-distatou qrou mporon na tautiston me to dianusmatik qro

R3

twn elejerwn dianusmtwn tou qrou.

O probolikc qroc

P (R3 )

apoteletai ap to snolo twn monodistatwn dianusmatikn upqwrwn tou


dianusmatiko qrou

R3 .

Gewmetrik o probolikc qroc

P (R3 )

tautzetai

me to qro twn eujein tou fusiko 3-distatou qrou pou dirqontai ap


thn arq twn axnwn
sewn sto qro.
shmeo
tic

gwnec

O,

o opooc epshc tautzetai me to qro twn dieujn-

Wc gnwstn, kje eujea tou qrou pou dirqetai ap to

prosdiorzetai monosmanta ap do paramtrouc, gia pardeigma


pou aut sqhmatzei me opoiousdpote do ap touc treic xonec

tou Kartesiano Sustmatoc Suntetagmnwn. An metrme tic gwnec se aktnia, h kje gwna ja parnei tic timc sto kleist disthma

23

[0, ],

sunepc

o qroc twn dieujnsewn ja proljei ap to qro twn paramtrwn pou ddetai ap to kartesian ginmeno

[0, ] [0, ]

[0, ] [0, ].

O qroc twn paramtrwn

topologik anaparist na tetrgwno.

'Omwc oi dieujnseic tou qrou pou antistoiqon sto

snoro

(permetro)

tou tetragnou tautzontai (kat' analoga me aut pou sunbh sthn perptwsh thc distashc 2 tou amswc prohgomenou paradegmatoc sta sunoriak
shmea

0 kai

tou kleisto diastmatoc

[0, ]).

Ed mwc ta prgmata me tic

tautseic twn dieujnsewn ston 3-distato fusik qro enai pio polploka:
Kat' arqn efodizoume to tetrgwno (qroc twn paramtrwn) me na no
Kartesian Ssthma Suntetagmnwn

(x, y) me arq mia koruf tou tetrag-

nou. Wc proc aut to no Kartesian Ssthma Suntetagmnwn loipn, stw


ti oi korufc tou tetragnou qoun suntetagmnec

(0, ).

(0, 0), (, 0), (, )

kai

Katpin ja prpei na tautiston ta shmea twn do orizntiwn pleu-

rn tou tetragnou metax touc wc exc:

(x, 0) ( x, ),

me

x [0, ].

Tautqrona mwc ja prpei na tautiston kai ta shmea twn kjetwn pleurn tou tetragnou metax touc wc exc:

(0, y) (, y),

me

y [0, ].

Dhlad tautzoume tic apnanti pleurc tou tetragnou an do knontac

topological

tautqrona kje for gia kje zeugri kai mia topologik strof (

twist).
Boy.

Aut h epifneia pou prokptei onomzetai epifneia

Enai mia

lea pollaplthta me distash 2, sumpagc, pollapl sunektik kai mhprosanatolsimh. H epifneia aut den mpore na
3-distato qro
qro

, mpore mno na

embaptisje

emfuteuje

immersed)

embedded) ston

ston 3-distato

(oi orismo twn ennoin autn thc topologac/gewmetrac uprqoun

sto Parrthma, sthn pargrafo 17 sto tloc). 'Opwc ja dome sto mjhma
thc Diaforikc Gewmetrac sto sqetik keflaio pou ja meletsoume thn
topologa twn epifanein, h parapnw perigraf msw tou qrou twn paramtrwn mac ddei na eppedo montlo gia thn perigraf thc epifneiac
pou apotele mh-prosanatolsimh epifneia me
fneia me na

cross cap,

Boy

k = 1 (mh-prosanatolsimh epi-

staurwt skofo).

Ja exhgsoume sth sunqeia giat qreizetai h topologik strof. Gia na


fane aut kajar akoloujome diaforetik trpo skyhc: qrhsimopoiome
sfairikc suntetagmnec kai qwrc blbh thc genikthtac, afo aut den ephrezei thn topologa, gia na brome to qro twn dieujnsewn tou 3-distatou
fusiko qrou, ant na jewrsoume to qro twn eujein tou 3-distatou
qrou pou dirqontai ap thn arq twn axnwn

O,

jewrome to qro twn

eujgrammwn tmhmtwn mkouc 2 (wc proc kpoia monda mtrhshc) pou dir-

24

qontai ap thn arq twn axnwn

O,

autn twn eujgrammwn tmhmtwn.

pou to shmeo

enai sto mson lwn

Faner, ta kra lwn autn twn eu-

jgrammwn tmhmtwn sqhmatzoun mia monadiaa sfara

O.

kntro to

S2

distashc 2 me

O qroc twn dieujnsewn den enai aut h monadiaa sfara

diti kje diejunsh (dhlad kje eujgrammo tmma) suneisfrei do shmea


(ta do kra tou) sto sqhmatism autc thc sfarac en emec jloume na
shmeo ap kje diejunsh. 'Ara ja prpei na diairsoume aut thn 2-distath
sfara dia do, dhlad prpei na proume mno to na hmisfario maz me ton
ishmerin kklo pou ja enai to snor thc.

Kai pli mwc den teleisa-

me diti ta shmea tou ishmerino kklou (pou antistoiqon sta eujgramma


tmmata pou pernon ap to kntro

kai brskontai pnw sto eppedo tou

ishmerino) ja prpei ek nou na diairejon dia do diti kje eujgrammo


tmma tou ishmerino dskou suneisfrei do shmea (pou enai ta kra tou)
ston ishmerin kklo.

Aut h diaresh mwc tra prpei na gnei tautzon-

tac ta antidiametrik shmea tou ishmerino kklou. Ap autn akribc thn


tatish prokptei h topologik strof.
epifneia

To apotlesma enai kai pli mia

Boy.

Gia lgouc plhrthtac ja anafroume kai mia parametrik parstash thc


epifneiac

Boy

enc migadiko arijmo


arijmo

z,

R3 , th legmenh paramtrhsh Bryant. Dojntoc


z C, me |z| 1, (pou |z| to mtro tou migadiko

sto qro

blpe kai thn epmenh pargrafo me thn stereografik probol),

jtoume:

z(1 z 4 )
3

],
g1 = Im[
2
z 6 + 5z 3 1
3
z(1 + z 4 )

g2 = Re[
],
2
z 6 + 5z 3 1
g3 = Im(

1 + z6
1

) ,
6
3
2
z + 5z 1

g = g12 + g22 + g32 ,


(pou

Im

kai

Re

sumbolzoun to fantastik kai to pragmatik mroc ant-

stoiqa twn migadikn arijmn), tsi ste

g1
,
g
g2
y= ,
g
g3
z= ,
g

x=

25

na enai oi Kartesianc Suntetagmnec enc tuqaou shmeou thc epifneiac

Boy

sto qro

frasmnh

R3 .

embptish

H sugkekrimnh parametrik parstash ddei mia ekpethc epifneiac

Boy

ston qro

R3 ,

msw thc apeikni-

~r : D R , pou orsame parapnw, pou D enai o monadiaoc dskoc


D := {z C : |z| 1} tou epipdou Argand. Shmeinoume pwc se sumfwna
shc

me sa epame pio pnw, aut h apeiknish

den

apotele emfteush diti apo-

tele mno topik omoiomorfism epeid h apeiknish den enai 1-1.

4.

dimC V = 1

Sthn perptwsh enc migadiko dianusmatiko qrou distashc 1, prokptei


mesa ti

5.

P (C) ' .

dimC V = 2

Sthn perptwsh enc migadiko dianusmatiko qrou distashc 2, (migadik


eppedo), qrhsimopointac th stereografik probol, prokptei ti

P (C2 ) '

{} ' S 2 . (Shmeinoume pwc to migadik eppedo C2 qei pragmatik


2
distash 4 en h sfara S me pragmatik distash 2 wc migadik pollaplthta qei distash 1).
C

Sqlio 1: Mia genkeush twn probolikn qrwn enai h exc: Dojntoc


enc dianusmatiko qrou

me kpoio tuqao sma

dimV = n,
Grn,k (V ), pou

kai me

mporome geniktera na orsoume to qro pou sumbolzetai

n, k N, me 1 k n, wc to snolo twn
dianusmatikn upoqrwn distashc k tou V . Oi qroi auto lgontai qroi
Grassmann kai apotelon kai pli pollaplthtec distashc k(n k). Profanc an k = 1 parnoume ton probolik qro.

oi

n, k

enai fusiko arijmo

Sqlio 2:

Genik gia ton upologism pragmatikn probolikn qrwn

(peperasmnhc distashc) isqei o paraktw anadromikc tpoc (

nN

pe-

perasmnoc fusikc arijmc):

P (Rn+1 ) ' Rn
Sqlio 3:

P (Rn )

Mia ap tic shmantikterec anakalyeic thc (diagnwstikc)

Iatrikc enai anamfbola autc tou axoniko kai tou magnhtiko tomogrfou.

Oi efeurtec touc timjhkan me to brabeo Nompl Iatrikc to 1979

G.N. Hounsfield-UK, A.M. Cormack-USA) kai to 2003 (P. Mansfield-UK,


P.C. Lauterbur-USA) antstoiqa. 'Opwc anafrei o A.M. Cormack, to sh-

mantiktero prblhma pou eqan na antimetwpsoun tan majhmatikc fshc,


h exeresh tou antstrofou metasqhmatismo

Radon.

Qwrc na anafroume

leptomreiec, o metasqhmatismc autc stic 2 diastseic enai o oloklhrwti-

26

kc metasqhmatismc enc (oloklhrwtiko) purna sto qro twn eujein tou

x cos +y sin = s,
axnwn kai h gwna pou

epipdou. Gia pardeigma, en mia eujea anaparstatai wc


pou

h apstash thc eujeac ap thn arq twn

sqhmatzei h eujea me ton xona

y0y,

tte

f (x, y)(x cos + y sin s)dxdy.

R[f ](, s) =

Stic 3 diastseic enai nac oloklhrwtikc metasqhmatismc miac sugkekrimnhc sunrthshc (oloklhrwtikc purnac) sto qro twn eujein tou qrou,
dhlad to pedo orismo tou oloklhrwtiko metasqhmatismo enai mia epifneia

Boy.

Radon

phgzei akribc ap to gegonc ti h epifneia

To prblhma sthn exeresh tou antstrofou metasqhmatismo

logac thc, den mpore na emfuteuje ston

R3

Boy,

lgw thc topo-

all mno na embaptisje.

eplush autc thc duskolac ousiastik fere to brabeo Nompl Iatrikc


stouc

3.7

A.M. Cormack, G.N. Hounsfield.

Parrthma:

Stereografik Probol

Gia eukola ston anagnsth, parajtoume ta basik stoiqea thc stereografikc probolc tou
epipedou

Riemann

metax thc 2-distathc sfarac kai tou

Argand.
(x, y) sto eppedo (2 diastseic)
x0 x, xona tetagmnwn ton y 0 y kai arq to shmeo O.

Jewrome Kartesianc Suntetagmnec


me xona tetmhmnwn ton

An tautsoume ton xona twn tetmhmnwn me touc pragmatikoc arijmoc kai


ton xona twn tetagmnwn me touc fantastikoc arijmoc, tte kje shmeo

A tou epipdou me suntetagmnec A(x, y) mpore na tautiste me to miga2


dik arijm = x + iy , pou i h fantastik monda, me i = 1. Antstrofa,
se kje migadik arijm C mporome na apeikonsoume na shmeo tou
epipdou A me tetmhmnh to pragmatik mroc <() tou kai tetagmnh to
fantastik mroc =() tou , dhlad A(<(), =()). H parapnw apeiknish

stw

enai 1-1, ep kai suneqc, sunepc to snolo twn migadikn arijmn enai
omoiomorfik me to eppedo (wc topologiko qroi) isodnama to snolo
twn migadikn arijmn enai ismorfo me to
sma to
dikn

R).

To

arijmn

gewmetrik

edame pio prin),

pwc

lgetai

eppedo

parapnw

eppedo

tan

R2

(wc dianusmatiko qroi me

tautzetai

me

B kai N

snolo

twn

(kai qi me to dianusmatik qro

miga-

pou

Argand.

Jewrome tra mia monadiaa sfara do diastsewn


jewrome ta shmea

to

S2

kai pnw se aut

pou antistoiqon sto 'Breio' kai sto 'Ntio' P-

27

lo thc sfarac antstoiqa. Mporome na orsoume nan omoiomorfism metax

S 2 {B} kai tou epipdou Argand, pou lgetai stereografik


probol tou Riemann wc exc: jewrome ti h sfara efptetai sto eppedo
sto shmeo N , opte apeikonzoume to shmeo N thc sfarac sto shmeo tou
epipdou pou aut efptetai. Katpin, stw A tuqao shmeo thc sfarac
(diaforetik ap to B pou qei exaireje kai diaforetik kai ap to N gia
to opoo milsame dh). Antistoiqome to shmeo A thc sfarac se ekeno
to monadik shmeo tou epipdou pou h proktash thc eujeac BA tmnei to
eppedo. Antstrofa, kje shmeo P tou epipdou antistoiqe sto monadik
shmeo thc sfarac pou h eujea P B tmnei th sfara.
tou sunlou

Ac dome tic analutikc ekfrseic twn parapnw apeikonsewn: stw ti

(x, y, z) ston 3-distato


3
qro (pou ton tautzoume me to dianusmatik qro R ), me arq to shmeo O .
2
3 2
2
2
'Estw S = {(x, y, z) R |x + y + z = 1} h monadiaa sfara 2-diastsewn
emfuteumnh ston 3-distato qro (pou lgetai sfara Riemann ). Jewrome
ti h arq twn axnwn O tautzetai me to kntro thc monadiaac sfarac opte
o breioc ploc ja qei suntetagmnec B(0, 0, 1). Orzoume thn apeiknish
p : S 2 {B} C me tpo:
qoume na Kartesian Ssthma Suntatagmnwn

p(x, y, z) :=
Apodeiknetai ti h

x + iy
1z

apotele nan omoiomorfism (dhlad enai 1-1, ep,

suneqc kai h antstrof thc enai epshc suneqc). H antstrofh apeiknish

p1 : C S 2 {B}( R3 )

qei analutik tpo:

+ i

||2 1
,
,
)
p () := (
1 + ||2 i(1 + ||2 ) 1 + ||2
1

pou

kai || to mtro tou migadiko


= x iy kai ||2 = = x2 + y 2 .

o suzugc migadikc tou

dhlad an

= x + iy ,

tte

arijmo

Shmeinoume tloc pwc an qrhsimopoisoume sfairikc suntetagmnec

(, ) gia na perigryoume th monadiaa sfara, me , R pou [0, ]


kai [0, 2], tte h analutik kfrash thc stereografikc probolc qei
th morf

pou wc gnwstn

= ei cot( )
2
i
e = cos + isin.

28

Proboliko

4.1

Basiko

Metasqhmatismo

Orismo

Xekinme me kpoia stoiqea ap th grammik lgebra:

Orismc

'Estw

1.

distashc) me to dio sma


grammik apeiknish (

kai

F.

do dianusmatiko qroi (peperasmnhc

T : V W

Mia apeiknish

ja lgetai

) an isqei to exc:

grammikc metasqhmatismc

T (v1 + v2 ) = T (v1 ) + T (v2 )


v1 , v2 V

kai

, F.

O purnac thc
h eikna thc

Ker(T ) := {v V |T v = 0}
Im(T ) := {w W |w = T v}.

orzetai wc to snolo

orzetai wc to snolo

en

Isqei h exc basik prtash ap th jewra twn dianusmatikn qrwn


peperasmnhc distashc:

T : V W mia grammik apeiknish pwc parapnw.


Ker(T ) V apotele dianusmatik upqwro tou V , to
snolo Im(T ) W apotele dianusmatik upqwro tou W en oi diastseic
Prtash 1.

'Estw

Tte to snolo

touc ikanopoion th sqsh

dim[Ker(T )] + dim[Im(T )] = dimV.


En

Ker(T ) = 0,

dhlad an o dianusmatikc upqwroc

Ker(T ) V

pe-

dimV = dimW , tte h grammik


T enai 1-1 kai ep, opte uprqei
1
T : W V pou enai epshc 1-1 kai

riqei mno to mhdenik dinusma, kai an


apeiknish

enai antistryimh, dhlad h

kai h antstrofh grammik apeiknish


ep.

'Estw
dinusma.

V
tou Vv

tou

T :V W

mia grammik apeiknish kai stw

Vv V

Sumbolzoume me

msw thc

tikoc

Tv W.

upqwrouc

ankoun

ston

Sunepc
tou

purna

koc upqwrouc tou

pou

thc

W,

v.

Jewrome thn eikna

T (Vv ) W

T v 6= 0, tte to T (Vv ) apotele to


WT v W tou W pou pargetai ap to

. Tte an

monodistato dianusmatik upqwro


dinusma

kpoio tuqao

to monodistato dianusmatik upqwro

pou pargetai ap to dinusma


msa ston

vV

apeikonzei

pargontai

stouc

touc

ap

ta

antstoiqouc

monodistatouc

diansmata

sunepc orzei mia na apeiknish:

: P (V ) P (KerT ) P (W )
29

tou

monodistatouc

dianusma-

pou

den

dianusmati-

An h

enai

, tte

antistryimh

P (V )

ton probolik qro

KerT = 0

opte h

orzetai se olklhro

kai ddei mia amfeiknish (dhlad mia apeiknish

pou enai 1-1 kai ep):

: P (V ) P (W )
Smfwna me ta parapnw loipn qoume ton akloujo orism:

Orismc 2.

P (V )

'Enac probolikc metasqhmatismc ap ton probolik qro

P (W )

ston probolik qro

enai h apeiknish

: P (V ) P (W )

pou

orzetai pwc perigryame pio pnw msw enc antistryimou grammiko metasqhmatismo

T : V W.

Shmewsh 1:

Faner, kje mh-mhdenik pollaplsio

enc antistryimou grammiko metasqhmatismo


metasqhmatism

T ,

pou

F,

orzei ton dio probolik

Ekola apodeiknetai kai to antstrofo.

Paradegmata:
1.

R2

Metasqhmatismo

Mobius

thc probolikc eujeac

P (R2 ).

'Estw

T : R2

o antistryimoc grammikc metasqhmatismc o opooc wc proc th sunjh

bsh tou

R2

T (0 , 1 ) = (a0 + b1 , c0 + d1 ),

qei tpo:

anaparstash wc proc th sunjh bsh enc tuqaou

(0 , 1 ) h
2
diansmatoc tou R ,
pou

a, b, c, d R me ad bc 6= 0. Qrhsimopointac thn anomogen


x := 01 parnoume ton antstoiqo probolik metasqhmatism
: P (R2 ) P (R2 ) me tpo:
kai pou

suntetagmnh

(x) =

a + bx
c + dx

pou onomzetai grammikc klasmatikc metasqhmatismc metasqhmatismc

M
obius.

O parapnw metasqhmatismc emfanzetai suqn sta majhmatik

(gia pardeigma sth migadik anlush).

Proboliko Metasqhmatismo tou proboliko epipdou

2.

T :R R

P (R3 ).

'Estw

o antistryimoc grammikc metasqhmatismc o opooc wc proc

th sunjh bsh tou

R3

anaparstatai me th morf tou paraktw

33

anti-

stryimou pnaka:

a0 a1 a2
T = b0 b1 b2
c0 c1 c2
me mh-mhdenik orzousa

detT 6= 0.

(0 , 1 , 2 ) kpoio ssthma omo3


epipdou P (R ). Qrhsimopointac tic

'Estw

genn suntetagmnwn tou proboliko

30

anomogenec suntetagmnec
probolik metasqhmatism

(x1 , x2 ) = (
4.2

Shmea

x1 := 10 kai x2 := 20 parnoume
: P (R3 ) P (R3 ) me tpo:

ton antstoiqo

b0 + b1 x 1 + b2 x 2 c 0 + c1 x 1 + c 2 x 2
,
).
a0 + a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 a0 + a1 x 1 + a2 x 2

se Genik Jsh

O paraktw orismc enai qrsimoc sth melth twn probolikn metasqhmatismn:

'Estw P (V ) pragmatikc probolikc qroc me dimP (V ) = n


dimV = n + 1). 'Ena snolo ap kpoia (n + 2)-wc proc to pljoc
shmea tou P (V ) ja lme ti brskontai se genik jsh an kje uposnolo
apotelomeno ap (n + 1)-wc proc to pljoc shmea ex autn qoun antiproOrismc 1.

(ra

swpeutik diansmata pou enai grammik anexrthta.

Paradegmata:
1.

Kje trida diaforetikn metax touc shmewn thc probolikc eujeac

P (R2 )

brskontai se genik jsh. H apdeixh tou isqurismo enai h exc:

'Estw ti isqei to antjeto, dhlad stw

(x1 , x2 , x3 )

mia trida diaforeti-

kn metax touc shmewn thc probolikc eujeac pou de brskontai se genik


jsh (pou kje shmeo anaparstatai msw thc antstoiqhc anomogenoc
suntetagmnhc tou).
nec suntetagmnec

v2

Tte do ex autn, gia pardeigma aut me anomoge-

x1

kai

x2 ,

pollaplsio tou llou, stw

v2

ja qoun antiproswpeutik diansmata

v1

kai

antstoiqa pou enai grammik exarthmna, dhlad to na ja enai bajmwt

v1 = v2 gia kpoio R.

Tte mwc ta

v1 kai

R2

opte

ja brskontai ston dio monodistato dianusmatik upqwro tou

ston probolik qro

P (R ) ja prpei na anapariston to dio shmeo, topo,

diti ex arqc upojsame ti ta tra shmea enai metax touc la diaforetik.

2.

pdou

Kje tetrda diaforetikn metax touc shmewn tou proboliko epi-

P (R3 )

brskontai se genik jsh an kami trida ex autn den enai

suneujeiak shmea, dhlad ta shmea den brskontai sthn dia probolik


eujea tou proboliko epipdou.

(Apdeixh anlogh me to parapnw par-

deigma).

H qrhsimthta tou parapnw orismo sunstatai sto paraktw jerhma:

Jerhma 1.

'Estw

x0 , x1 , ..., xn+1

na snolo ap

joc shmea enc pragmatiko proboliko qrou

31

P (V )

(n+2)-wc proc to plme dimP (V ) = n (kai

dimV = n+1) pou brskontai se genik jsh. 'Estw epshc y0 , y1 , ..., yn+1
(n + 2)-wc proc to pljoc shmea enc llou pragmatiko
proboliko qrou P (W ) me dimP (W ) = n (kai ra dimW = n + 1) pou

ra

na snolo ap

brskontai epshc se genik jsh. Tte uprqei monadikc probolikc metasqhmatismc

: P (V ) P (W )

me

(xi ) = yi
i = 0, 1, ..., n + 1.

gia la ta

vi V , ta antstoiqa antiproswpeutik diansmata


twn shmewn xi P (V ), pou o dekthc i parnei tic timc i = 0, 1, ..., n + 1.
Epeid ta (n + 2)-wc proc to pljoc shmea aut brskontai se genik jsh,
ap ton orism petai ti opoiadpote (n + 1)-wc proc to pljoc shmea ex
Apdeixh:

'Estw

autn ja qoun antstoiqa antiproswpeutik diansmata pou enai grammik


anexrthta.

Gia pardeigma epilgoume ta grammik anexrthta antiprosw-

peutik diansmata

v0 ,v1 ,...,vn .

Aut ta

(n + 1)-wc

proc to pljoc grammik

anexrthta diansmata mwc apotelon mia bsh gia to dianusmatik qro

diti af' enc enai grammik anexrthta, af' etrou enai se pljoc t-

sa sa kai h distash tou


antiproswpeutik dinusma

V . 'Ara kje dinusma tou V , sunepc kai to


vn+1 , ja grfetai wc grammikc sunduasmc twn

dianusmtwn thc bshc, dhlad ja qoume

vn+1 =

n
X

i v i

i=0

i 6= 0 gia la ta i =
0, 1, ..., n diti sthn antjeth perptwsh pou ja eqame i = 0 gia kpoio i = k ,
tte ja eqame to en lgw antiproswpeutik dinusma vk wc grammik sunduasm twn upolopwn antiproswpeutikn dianusmtwn v0 , v1 , ..., vk1 , vk+1 , ..., vn
gia kpoia

i R .

Sthn parapnw sqsh ja prpei

pou enai topo lgw thc genikc jshc twn arqikn shmewn. Sunepc kje
bajmwt pollaplsio

i v i

apotele epshc antiproswpeutik dinusma (afo

enai la mh-mhdenik).

Mporome sunepc na epilxoume antiproswpeutik diansmata ttoia


ste

vn+1 =

n
X

vi

i=0
dhlad me

i = 1, i = 0, 1, ..., n.

Aut h antiprospeush enai monadik diti

an sque

vn+1 =

n
X
i=0

32

i v i

gia kpoia

i R

me

i = 0, 1, ..., n,

tte afairntac tic do autc parapnw

sqseic kat mlh parnoume

0=

n
X

(i 1)vi

i=0
Ap th genik jsh twn arqikn shmewn mwc, ta antiproswpeutik dia-

v0 ,v1 ,...,vn enai grammik anexrthta,


0, 1, ..., n, opte i = 1, i = 0, 1, ..., n.

nsmata

sunepc

i 1 = 0, i =

Anlogoi isqurismo isqoun gia to dianusmatik qro

'Ara epilgoume antiproswpeutik diansmata


gia ta shmea

xi P (V )

vi V

me

W.
i = 0, 1, ..., n + 1

pou ikanopoion thn

vn+1 =

n
X

vi

i=0
kai epilgoume epshc antiproswpeutik diansmata

gia ta shmea

yi P (W )

wi W

me

i = 0, 1, ..., n+

ta opoa epshc ikanopoion thn

wn+1 =

n
X

wi .

i=0
Orzoume katpin th grammik apeiknish

T :V W

wc exc:

n
n
X
X
T(
i vi ) :=
i wi
i=0
Ap th grammikthta thc

i = 0, 1, ..., n

i=0

o parapnw orismc shmanei ti

T vi = wi

gia

en

T vn+1

n
n
X
X
= T(
vi ) =
wi = wn+1
i=0

i=0

To gegonc ti h grammik apeiknish

apeikonzei ta diansmata thc bshc

v0 ,v1 ,...,vn tou dianusmatiko qrou V sta diansmata thc bshc w0 ,w1 ,...,wn
tou dianusmatiko qrou W shmanei pwc h T enai nac isomorfismc metax twn dianusmatikn qrwn V kai W (apeiknish 1-1 kai ep), opte enai kai antistryimh.

Sunepc o antstoiqoc probolikc metasqhmatismc

: P (V ) P (W ) pou prokptei ap ton parapnw grammik metasqhmatiT : V W apeikonzei ta shmea xi P (V ), i = 0, 1, ..., n+1, sta shmea

sm

33

yi P (W ), i = 0, 1, ..., n + 1,

dhlad isqei

(xi ) = yi

gia

i = 0, 1, ..., n + 1

ikanopointac tic sunjkec tou jewrmatoc.

ergazmaste wc exc: stw


T 0 : V W pou orzei ton probolik
0
0
metasqhmatism : P (V ) P (W ) me (xi ) = yi , pou i = 0, 1, ..., n + 1.
0
Tte mwc gia na qoume kai pli (xi ) = yi , gia i = 0, 1, ..., n + 1, ja
0
prpei T (vi ) = i vi gia i = 0, 1, ..., n + 1 gia kpoia mh-mhdenik i , gia
i = 0, 1, ..., n + 1. 'Omwc tte
Gia na apodexoume th monadikthta tou

h antistryimh grammik apeiknish

wn+1

n
X
i
wi
=
n+1
i=0

w0 , w1 , ..., wn+1 enai grammik exarthmna.

diti ta

'Omwc ap th monadikthta

thc kfrashc

n
X

wn+1 =

wi

i=0

n+1 = i = R.

'Ara

dio probolik metasqhmatism

. 

petai ti

4.3

T = T

opte oi

Proboliko Metasqhmatismo

kai

kai

T0

orzoun ton

Sqdio

Epanerqmaste se aut thn pargrafo sto praktik prblhma pou antimetpize o floc mac o zwgrfoc (kallitqnhc) thc Anagnnhshc gia na
dexoume ti tan zwgrafzoume mia diaforetik ktoyh enc antikeimnou,
ousiastik aut pou epiteletai enai nac probolikc metasqhmatismc.

Arqik tautzoume to fusik 3-distato qro me to dianusmatik qro

R3 .

'Estw ti o zwgrfoc (akribstera to mti tou zwgrfou) brsketai

se kpoio shmeo

x R3

tou qrou kai jlei na zwgrafsei mia ktoyh

enc antikeimnou se na kamb pou anaparstatai majhmatik me na eppedo

R3

me

x
/

(profanc to mti tou zwgrfou de brsketai pnw ston

kamb). Gia eukola jewrome ti la ta parapnw (kallitqnhc, antikemeno


pou jlei na zwgrafsei all kai o kambc) brskontai msa ston probolik

P (R4 ).`Aut enai efikt giat ap to


P (R4 ) = R3 P (R3 ), sunepc R3 P (R4 ).
qro

Afo loipn
pc to shmeo

dimVx = 1,

x R3

kai

R3 P (R4 ),

Sqlio 3.6.2 gnwrzoume pwc

orzei na monodistato dianusmatik

en to eppedo

x P (R4 ), sune4
upqwro Vx R me

petai ti kai

orzei nan 3-distato dianusmatik upqwro

34

V R4 me dimV = 3 (tsi ste o probolikc qroc P (R4 ) P (V ) =


kai dimP (V ) = 2). Afo x
/ , tte Vx V = {0}, opte dim(Vx V ) = 0.
Jewrome sth sunqeia to euj jroisma

Vx + V

to opoo, efarmzontac

ton tpo thc Prtashc 3.1.1, qei distash

dim(Vx + V ) = [dim(Vx )] + [dim(V )] [dim(Vx V )] = 1 + 3 0 = 4


opte ap to Jerhma 3.1.1 parnoume ti

R4
= Vx + V
(ant gia to smbolo tou isomorfismo suqn qrhsimopoiome apl to smbolo thc isthtac).

v R4 grfetai me
v V antstoiqa.

Sunepc, kje dinusma

v = vx + v

me

vx Vx

kai

monadik trpo sth morf

p : R4 V me tpo p (v) = v (probol sthn v sunistsa). Kajar Ker(p ) = Vx diti ta stoiqea tou Vx
qontac ex orismo v sunistsa 0 apeikonzontai msw thc p sto 0. Kat
sunpeia h p orzei nan probolik metasqhmatism
Orzoume th grammik apeiknish

$ : P (R4 ) P (Vx ) P (V ).
P (Vx ) = x, pou antistoiqe sto shmeo pou brsketai to
mti tou zwgrfou en P (V ) = , pou antistoiqe ston kamb tou zwgrfou.
Upenjumzoume ti

y 6= x, tte to y qei na
antiproswpeutik dinusma R 3 v(y) = v(y)x + v(y) me v(y) 6= 0 (diti
an v(y) = 0, tte v(y) = v(y)x , dhlad v Ker(p ), topo). Sunepc
to dinusma v(y) = v(y) v(y)x ja brsketai ston 2-distato dianusmatik
4
upqwro tou R pou pargetai ap ta diansmata v(y) kai v(y)x (afo pwc
H apeiknish

enai ekolo na perigrafe: an

mlic edame grfetai wc grammikc sunduasmc autn). 'Omwc tte to shmeo

$ (y),

tou opoou to

v(y)

apotele antiproswpeutik dinusma (stoiqeo

pou petai ap ton orism thc grammikc apeiknishc


bolik metasqhmatism
ta shmea

kai

y.

$ ),

pou pargei ton pro-

ja brsketai sthn probolik eujea pou ennei

'Omwc to shmeo

$ (y) P (V ),

sunepc aut enai to

shmeo pou zwgrafzei o zwgrfoc ston kamb tou, pou apeikonzei to shmeo

tou qrou.

35

Sth sunqeia kratme stajer th jsh


to eppedo probolc ap to

tou zwgrfou kai allzoume

se kpoio diaforetik

(enrgeia pou isodu-

name se allag ktoyhc pou jloume na zwgrafsoume to dio antikemeno).


Anloga ja qoume

R4
= Vx + V
= Vx + V0

p0 : R4 V0 me tpo p0 (v) =
v0 . Profanc tra kai pli Ker(p0 ) = Vx . Jewrome sth sunqeia ton
4
periorism p 0 |V thc p me pedo orismo qi olklhro to R all mno to V ,
dhlad jewrome th grammik apeiknish p 0 |V : V V 0 . Profanc tra
afo Vx V = {0}, h grammik apeiknish p 0 |V (dhlad o periorismc thc
p sto V ) ja enai antistryimh opte orzei ton probolik metasqhmatism
Jewrome tra th grammik apeiknish

$ : P (V ) P (V0 )
Sunepc edame pwc

anaparstash

tikeimnou antistoiqe se nan

miac

diaforetikc

ktoyhc

enc

an-

probolik metasqhmatism

Paratrhsh 1: To Jerhma 4.2.1 gia thn eidik perptwsh tou proboliko epipdou, mac lei pwc mia tetrda shmewn se genik jsh antistoiqe
msw enc proboliko metasqhmatismo se opoiadpote llh tetrda shmewn se genik jsh. An aut sunduaste me to Pardeigma 4.2.2 pou lei ti
kje tetrda shmewn sto probolik eppedo sthn opoa den uprqei kama
suneujeiak trida brskontai se genik jsh, lambnoume wc apotlesma ti
sto probolik eppedo, nac probolikc metasqhmatismc apeikonzei opoiadpote tetrda shmewn pou den qei suneujeiak trida se mia opoiadpote
llh tetrda shmewn pou den periqei suneujeiak trida.

Me apl lgia

aut shmanei pwc la ta tetrpleura sqmata sto probolik eppedo enai


isodnama msw kpoiou proboliko metasqhmatismo.

Gia pardeigma na

tetrgwno msw enc proboliko metasqhmatismo metatrpetai se tuqao


tetrpleuro, dhlad oi probolikoi metasqhmatismo den diathron anallowta ote ta mkh ote tic gwnec.

Gia pardeigma, wc gnwstn o kboc qei 6 drec pou enai tetrgwna.


'Otan mwc anaparistme nan kbo sto eppedo, dhlad tan sqedizoume
mia ktoyh auto sto eppedo, kpoiec drec anaparstantai wc plgia parallhlgramma, dhlad blpoume sthn prxh nan probolik metasqhmatism
pou den diathre ta mkh kai tic gwnec.

Paratrhsh 2: En efodisoume nan pragmatik dianusmatik qro me


to gnwst Eukledeio eswterik ginmeno, tte gnwrzoume pwc oi
metasqhmatismo

orjognioi

diathron anallowto to eswterik ginmeno, ra ta mkh,

36

(gi' aut lgontai kai isometrec). Kat' epktash diathron anallowtec kai
tic gwnec (jumhjete ton orism tou sunhmitnou thc gwnac do dianusmtwn
wc to phlko tou eswteriko ginomnou autn dia tou ginomnou twn mtrwn
touc). To snolo twn orjogniwn metasqhmatismn apotele omda.

Uprqei mia llh kathgora grammikn metasqhmatismn oi opooi enai


eurteroi ap touc orjogniouc metasqhmatismoc kai lgontai
.

metasqhmatismo

mkh.

smmorfoi

Auto diathron anallowtec mno tic gwnec all qi ta

Gia pardeigma jumhjete thn omoithta twn sqhmtwn, lgou qrin

thn omoithta trignwn sto eppedo se antidiastol me thn isthta trignwn


pou gnwrzoume ap thn Eukledeia gewmetra, h omoithta apotele smmorfo metasqhmatism en h isthta apotele orjognio metasqhmatism. Do
sa trgwna enai kai moia all to antstrofo den isqei.

Oi proboliko metasqhmatismo pwc edame, enai akmh eurteroi epeid


de diathron anallowta ote ta mkh ote tic gwnec. Ja dome sth sunqeia
poiec posthtec diathrontai anallowtec ktw ap probolikoc metasqhmatismoc en epshc ja dome ti kai oi proboliko metasqhmatismo epshc
apotelon omda. Mia isometra tou epipdou gia pardeigma apeikonzei na
trgwno se na llo trgwno so me to arqik. 'Enac smmorfoc metasqhmatismc tou epipdou apeikonzei na trgwno se na llo trgwno moio me to
arqik. 'Enac probolikc metasqhmatismc sto probolik eppedo apeikonzei
na trgwno se na opoiodpote llo trgwno tou proboliko epipdou.

37

Dusmc

5.1

Dukc

Probolikc

Qroc

kai Arq

Dusmo

Xekinme me anaskphsh orismnwn stoiqewn ap th grammik lgebra.

V pragmatikc dianusmatikc qroc me dimV = n+1.


O dukc qroc V
tou V orzetai wc to snolo twn grammikn apeikonsewn
f : V R. Gnwrzoume ap th grammik lgebra ti o V apotele pragmati
k dianusmatik qro me thn dia distash pwc o V , dhlad dimV = dimV

(sunepc dianusmatiko qroi V kai V


enai ismorfoi V = V ).
Orismc 1.

'Estw

'Estw {v0 , v1 , ..., vn } mia bsh tou V . Tte orzetai h duk


{f0 , f1 , ..., fn } thc {v0 , v1 , ..., vn } tou V ap th sqsh fi (vj ) = ij , pou
ij to gnwst dlta
 tou Kronecker, dhlad
1, gia i = j,
fi (vj ) = ij =
pou i, j = 0, 1, ..., n.
0, gia i 6= j,
Orismc

2.

bsh

Orismc 3.

kai stw

P (V )

'Estw

dimV = n + 1

probolikc qroc P (V )

pragmatikc dianusmatikc qroc me

o antstoiqoc probolikc qroc. O

pou apoteletai ap touc monodistatouc dianusmatikoc upoqrouc tou duko dianusmatiko qrou

tou

onomzetai dukc probolikc qroc.

V apoteletai ap la

ta bajmwt pollaplsia f , pou R kai f V , miac mh-mhdenikc


grammikc apeiknishc f : V R. Ap th grammikthta thc f petai ti
afo enai mh-mhdenik, h eikna thc Im(f ) ja enai olklhro to R, sunepc
dim[Ker(f )] = dimV dim[Im(f )] = dimV 1 (diti dimR R = 1).
'Enac monodistatoc dianusmatikc upqwroc tou

Ker(f ) apotele dianusmatik upqwro tou V , dhlad qoume ti Ker(f ) V me dim[Ker(f )] = dimV 1. Faner o dianusmatikc
upqwroc Ker(f ) tou V enai anexrthtoc ap thn epilog tou antiproswpeutiko diansmatoc f diti Ker(f ) = Ker(f ) an 6= 0. 'Ara loipn
P (V ) (me antiproswpeutik dinusma thc morfc f me

R kai f V ),
V
dimV 1
Ker(f ) , isodnama
P (V )

f
R
f V
P (V )
dimP (V ) 1 (pou enai o
P (Ker(f ))).
Sunepc to

na

tuqao

shmeo

tou

anaparist

(pou

enai

na

dianusmatik

na

(me antiproswpeutik dinusma thc morfc


rist

na

grammik

Antstrofa, an

upqwro

tou

W V

me

upqwro
tuqao

me

tou

shmeo

kai

distashc

tou

), anapa-

distashc

dimW = dimV 1,

38

epilgoume mia bsh

{w0 , w1 , ..., wn1 } tou W kai thn epektenoume sthn {w0 , w1 , ..., wn1 , wn } pou

apotele mia bsh tou V . An {f0 , f1 , ..., fn } enai h duk thc bsh tou V ,
tte ap ton orism thc dukc bshc petai ti W = Ker(fn ).
Kje dianusmatikc upqwroc
me ton parapnw trpo, sunepc

uprqei

me

dimW = (dimV ) 1 prokptei

mia

apeiknish

1-1

kai

ep

P (V )
dimP (V ) 1.

twn shmewn tou


me distash

W V

metax

kai tou sunlou twn grammikn upoqrwn tou

P (V )

Shmewsh 1: Genik gia kje qro, oi upqwroi auto me distash kat


na mikrterh ap th distash tou arqiko qrou onomzontai uperepifneiec
upereppeda.

Dhlad h arq tou dusmo mac lei pwc uprqei antistoiqa 1-1 kai ep
metax twn shmewn tou

P (V )

kai twn uperepipdwn tou

P (V ).

Paradegmata.

dimV = 2, tte epshc ja qoume dimV = 2, en dimP (V ) =


dimP (V ) = 1, probolik eujea. Ta shmea thc dukc probolikc eujeac
P (V ) antistoiqon se upqwrouc thc probolikc eujeac P (V ) distashc
dimP (V ) 1 = 0, dhlad ta shmea thc dukc probolikc eujeac P (V )
antistoiqon se shmea thc probolikc eujeac P (V ).
1.

En

Uprqei sunepc mia apeiknish 1-1 kai ep

: P (V ) P (V )
h opoa ousiastik apotele nan probolik metasqhmatism. An epilxoume

{v0 , v1 } tou V kai th duk thc bsh {f0 , f1 } tou V , tte an V 3


f = a0 f0 + a1 f1 kai V 3 v = 0 v0 + 1 v1 tuqaa diansmata, ja qoume
ap th grammikthta thc f kai ton orism thc dukc bshc fi (vj ) = ij ti
f (v) = 0 0 a0 + 1 a1 = 0 diti:
mia bsh

f (v) = 0 (a0 f0 + a1 f1 )(v) = 0 a0 f0 (v) + a1 f1 (v) = 0


a0 f0 (0 v0 + 1 v1 ) + a1 f1 (0 v0 + 1 v1 ) = 0
a0 0 f0 (v0 ) + a0 1 f0 (v1 ) + a1 0 f1 (v0 ) + a1 1 f1 (v1 ) = 0
a0 0 1 + a0 1 0 + a1 0 0 + a1 1 1 = 0 0 a0 + 1 a1 = 0.
Sunepc to dinusma
tou

Ker(f )

v = a1 v0 a0 v1

enai na antiproswpeutik dinusma

diti ap grammikthta qoume:

f (v) = f (a1 v0 a0 v1 ) = a1 f (v0 ) a0 f (v1 )


39

= a1 (a0 f0 + a1 f1 )(v0 ) a0 (a0 f0 + a1 f1 )(v1 )


= a1 a0 f0 (v0 ) + a1 a1 f1 (v0 ) a0 a0 f0 (v1 ) a0 a1 f1 (v1 )
= a1 a0 1 + a1 a1 0 a0 a0 0 a0 a1 1 = a1 a0 a0 a1 = 0
Sunepc se omogenec suntetagmnec

(a0 , a1 ) = (a1 , a0 )
pou apotele antistryimo grammik metasqhmatism, ra orzetai o antstoiqoc probolikc metasqhmatismc.

dimV = 3, tte epshc ja qoume dimV = 3, en dimP (V ) =


dimP (V ) = 2, probolik eppedo. Ta shmea tou duko proboliko epipdou
P (V ) antistoiqon se upqwrouc tou proboliko epipdou P (V ) distashc
dimP (V ) 1 = 1, dhlad ta shmea tou duko proboliko epipdou P (V )
antistoiqon se eujeec tou proboliko epipdou P (V ).
En

2.

dimV = 4, tte epshc ja qoume dimV = 4, en dimP (V ) =


dimP (V ) = 3. Ta shmea tou duko proboliko qrou P (V ) antistoiqon
se upqwrouc tou proboliko qrou P (V ) distashc dimP (V ) 1 = 2, dh
lad ta shmea tou duko proboliko qrou P (V ) antistoiqon se eppeda
tou proboliko qrou P (V ).
En

3.

(V ) ja sumbolzetai aplostera V kai tau ,


tzetai me to dianusmatik qro V msw enc fusiko isomorfismo, V = V
O dukc tou duko qrou

pou orzetai qrhsimopointac ton antistryimo grammik metasqhmatism

T : V V

me

V 3 v 7 T v V

pou orzetai wc exc:

T v(f ) = f (v)
pou

v V , T v V

kai

V
= V , tte
P (V ) ' P (V ).

Afo
qrwn

f V ,

dhlad

f :V R

grammik apeiknish.

ja qoume tatish kai twn antstoiqwn probolikn

P (V ) mac lei
pwc ta shmea tou P (V ) antistoiqon sta upereppeda tou P (V ). An efar
msoume kai pli thn arq dusmo, aut th for metax twn qrwn P (V )

kai P (V
) ja proume ti ta shmea tou P (V ) antistoiqon sta uperep

peda tou P (V ). 'Omwc o P (V


) tautzetai me ton P (V ), sunepc ta shmea

tou P (V ) antistoiqon sta upereppeda tou P (V ). An sundusoume tic do


H arq dusmo metax twn probolikn qrwn

40

P (V )

kai

parapnw protseic parathrome pwc h arq dusmo sumplhrnetai kai mac


lei to exc:

P (V )

Ta shmea tou

P (V )

tou

antistoiqon me trpo 1-1 kai ep me ta upereppeda

kai antstrofa ta shmea tou

ep me ta upereppeda tou

5.2

P (V )

P (V ).

Mhdenistc Dianusmatiko

Orismc

n + 1.

1.

'Estw

antistoiqon me trpo 1-1 kai

Qrou

kai Dusmc

(pragmatikc) dianusmatikc qroc me

Se kje dianusmatik upqwro

U V

dimV =

mporome na antistoiqsoume

U V pou lgetai mhdenistc tou U o opooc


U 0 := {f V |f (u) = 0, u U }. Dhlad o mhdenistc
U 0 tou U V apoteletai ap ekenec tic grammikc apeikonseic f : V R
pou apeikonzoun kje dinusma u U sto 0.

nan dianusmatik upqwro


orzetai wc exc:

{u0 , u1 , ..., ur } tou U V , (stw dimU = r +


{u0 , u1 , ..., ur , ur+1 , ..., un } tou V kai

0
jewrome th duk thc bsh {f0 , f1 , ..., fn } tou V . O mhdenistc U pargetai
ap ta grammik anexrthta diansmata {fr , fr+1 , ..., fn }, opte
An epilxoume mia bsh

1),

thn epektenoume se mia plrh bsh

dimU + dimU 0 = dimV


Oi basikc idithtec tou mhdenist fanontai sthn paraktw Prtash (gia
thn apdeixh blpe kpoio biblo Grammikc 'Algebrac):

Prtash

U V

1.

kai stw

'Estw

U0

dianusmatikc qroc peperasmnhc distashc,

o mhdenistc tou dianusmatiko upoqrou

U.

Tte

isqoun ta exc:

i Msw tou fusiko isomorfismo V = V , qoume


ii An U1 , U2 V me U1 U2 , tte U20 U10 .
iii (U1 + U2 )0 = U10 U20 .
iv (U1 U2 )0 = U10 + U20 .

( )
(

ti

(U 0 )0 = U .

Upenjumzoume ti h arq dusmo pou edame sthn prohgomenh pargrafo aforose thn antistoiqa metax shmewn (upqwroi distashc

0)

kai

uperepipdwn (upqwroi me distash kat na mikrterh ap th distash tou


arqiko qrou).

Oi mhdenistc qi mno mporon na dsoun mia enallaktik perigraf thc


arqc tou dusmo, all to pio shmantik enai ti mporon na genikesoun

41

thn arq dusmo metax upqwrwn opoiasdpote distashc. Aut epitugqnetai wc exc:

Edame pwc h nnoia tou mhdenist antistoiqe se kje dianusmatik upqwro

U V

na dianusmatik upqwro

kje grammik upqwro

P (U 0 ) P (V ).

P (U ) P (V )

U0 V

kai kat' epktash se

antistoiqe na grammik upqwro

Afo

dimU 0 = dimV dimU,


petai ti

dimP (U 0 ) = dimP (V ) dimP (U ) 1.


dimP (U ) = dimP (V ) 1, tte dimP (U 0 ) = 0 opte to P (U 0 ) enai

shmeo tou P (V ). Aut enai h antistoiqa pou edame sthn prohgomenh

pargrafo metax shmewn tou P (V ) kai uperepifanein tou P (V ) ekpefraAn

smnh me qrsh mhdenistn.

Ac dome na geniktero pardeigma pou afor dusm metax upoq-

dimP (V ) = 3. Tte an dimP (U ) = 1, tte


dimP (U ) = 1, sunepc oi eujeec tou P (V ) antistoiqon me trpo 1-1 kai

ep me tic eujeec tou duko proboliko qrou P (V ).

rwn distashc na:

stw

Sqhmatik h arq dusmo perigrfetai me tic paraktw antistoiqec:

V V
dimV = dimV = n + 1
P (V ) P (V )
dimP (V ) = dimP (V ) = n
U V, dimU = k, (0 < k < n + 1) U 0 V , dimU 0 = n + 1 k
Arq

Dusmo:

antistoiqa 1-1 kai ep metax

P (U ) P (U 0 )

dimP (U ) = k 1 dimP (U 0 ) = n k
Ap ton parapnw genik pnaka dusmo, blpoume gia pardeigma pwc

P (U 0 ) P (V )
0
tou duko proboliko qrou distashc mhdn, dhlad dimP (U ) = 0
n k = 0 n = k ), antistoiqon se upoqrouc P (U ) P (V ) me distash

ta shmea tou

P (V )

(ta opoa antistoiqon se upoqrouc

42

dimP (U ) = k 1 = n 1,

dhlad se upereppeda tou

P (V ),

kti pou sum-

fwne me ta parapnw.

P (V ) (ta opoa antistoiqon se upoqrouc P (U 0 )


P (V ) tou duko proboliko qrou distashc n 1, dhlad dimP (U 0 ) =
n 1 n k = n 1 k = 1), antistoiqon se upoqrouc P (U ) P (V )
me distash dimP (U ) = k 1 = 1 1 = 0, dhlad se shmea tou P (V ),
Ta upereppeda tou

prgma pou sumfwne me sa qoume dh pe.

dimP (V ) = n = 3, tte oi eujeec tou proboliko qrou P (V ) pou antistoiqon se upoqrouc P (U ) P (V ) me distash
dimP (U ) = k 1 = 1 k = 2, antistoiqon se upoqrouc P (U 0 ) P (V )
tou duko proboliko qrou distashc n k = 1, dhlad se eujeec tou
Tloc parathrome ti an

duko proboliko qrou.

5.3

Efarmogc Dusmo:
ma

Jerhma

Desargues

, Jerh-

Pppou

H qrhsimthta thc (genikeumnhc) arqc dusmo enai meglh diti ja


dome pwc gia kje jerhma apoktme automtwc kai th duk morf tou.

'Estw probolikc qroc

P (V ),

me

dimP (V ) = 2,

sunepc milme gia to

probolik eppedo. Oi mnoi grammiko upqwroi auto enai ta shmea kai oi

(P (U ) =)x P (V )
kpoio shmeo, tte (P (U ) =)x P (V ) ja qei distash 1 opte ja apo0

tele eujea en an a P (V ) eujea, tte to a P (V ) ja qei distash


mhdn opte ja apotele shmeo. Ap thn Prtash 5.2.1. ii
petai ti an
x a, tte a0 x0 . Omowc, an x, y a do shmea thc eujeac a, tte
0
petai ti a
x0 all kai a0 y 0 , pou shmanei ti h duk eikna miac
0
0
eujeac a pou periqei ta shmea x, y enai ti oi eujeec x kai y tmnontai
0
sto shmeo a . Me bsh ta parapnw ja apodexoume to Jerhma Desargues :
eujeec. Ap ton pnaka dusmo prokptei mesa ti an

Jerhma 1.

probolik qro

'Estw

P (V )

P, A, A0 , B, B 0 , C, C 0

ttoia ste oi eujeec

foretikc kai sundierqmenec ap to shmeo


twn zeugn twn eujein

AB

kai

A0 B 0 , BC

ept diaforetik shmea se nan

AA0 , BB 0

P.

kai

kai

CC 0

na enai dia-

Tte ta shmea tomc

B 0 C 0 , CA kai C 0 A0

R, S, T

antstoiqa,

enai suneujeiak.

Apdeixh:

Epilgoume antiproswpeutik diansmata

43

p, a, a0 , b, b0 , c, c0

gia ta shmea

P, A, A0 , B, B 0 , C, C 0 P (V ) antstoiqa.

Ap to Pardeigma

4.2.1 gnwrzoume pwc mia trida diaforetikn shmewn se mia eujea brskontai pnta se genik jsh, sunepc mporome na epilxoume antiproswpeutik
diansmata pwc sthn apdeixh tou Jewrmatoc 4.2.1 entc twn trin disdistatwn dianusmatikn upoqrwn tou
qroi enai oi eujeec

P AA , P BB

mporome na epilxoume diansmata

twn opown oi antstoiqoi proboliko

P CC 0 ston P (V ). Me
a, a , b, b0 , c, c0 V tsi ste
kai

lla lgia

p = a + a0
p = b + b0
p = c + c0
0 = a+a0 bb0
dinusma r brsketai

Afairntac tic do prtec exisseic kat mlh parnoume

b 0 a0 = a b = r ,

pou

kpoio dinusma. Afo to

sto eppedo pou pargoun ta

a, b

(afo grfetai wc grammikc sunduasmc

r anaparist na shmeo R P (V ) pou brsketai sthn eujea


AB , dhlad R AB . 'Omwc to r epshc ankei kai sto eppedo pou pargoun
0 0
0 0
ta diansmata a , b , sunepc ja enai epshc kai shmeo thc eujeac A B , dh0 0
lad R A B . 'Ara to R enai to monadik shmeo tomc twn eujein AB
0 0
kai A B .

autn), tte to

Entelc anloga afairntac tic do teleutaec exisseic kat mlh pro-

0 = b + b0 c c0 c0 b0 = b c = s, pou s kpoio dinusma pou


0
anaparist thn tom twn eujein BC kai BC en afairntac thn prth ap
0
0
0
0
thn teleutaa exswsh parnoume 0 = c + c a a a c = c a = t, pou
t kpoio dinusma pou anaparist thn tom twn eujein CA kai C 0 A0 . 'Omwc
r +s+t = ab+bc+ca = 0 opte to r brsketai sto dianusmatik qro
pou pargoun ta diansmata s, t (diti ta r, s, t enai grammik exarthmna),
sunepc to R brsketai pnw sthn eujea ST , opte ta shmea R, S, T enai
suneujeiak. 
kptei ti

Gia na proume th duk kdosh tou parapnw jewrmatoc, arke na parathrsoume pwc an
qro

P (V )

dimP (V ) = 2, tte ja asqolhjome me to duk probolik

parathrntac pwc tra ta ept shmea ja gnoun ept eujeec,

opte ja qoume to Duk Jerhma

Desargues :

, , 0 , , 0 , , 0 ept diaforetikc eujeec se na


probolik eppedo P (V ) (dhlad dimP (V ) = 2) ttoiec ste ta shmea tomc
0
0
0
touc an zegh , kai na enai diaforetik kai na brskontai
0
0
sthn eujea . Tte oi eujeec pou ennoun ta shmea tomc kai ,
Jerhma

1'.

'Estw

44

kai 0 0 , kai 0 0 enai sundierqmenec (tmnontai se na shmeo).


Gia to parapnw Jerhma 1' den apaitetai apdeixh kajc prokptei ap
to Jerhma 1 me efarmog thc arqc tou dusmo. Shmeinoume epshc pwc
sthn perptwsh aut to duk jerhma apotele sthn ousa to antstrofo
jerhma (arqzoume ap thn eujea

RST

Eidik perptwsh tou Jewrmatoc

kai prosdiorzoume to shmeo

Desargues

P ).

apotele to Jerhma Pp-

pou:
Jerhma

2.

'Estw

A, B, C

kai

A0 , B 0 , C 0 0

do tuqaec diatetag-

mnec tridec suggrammikn shmewn pou brskontai se diaforetikc eujeec

kai

antstoiqa. Tte ta shmea tomc twn diastaurwmnwn ensewn (dh-

lad ta tra shmea

Shmewsh 1:

AB 0 A0 B , AC 0 A0 C

kai

BC 0 B 0 C ), enai suneujeiak.

Ap thn arq dusmo prokptei mesa ti isqei kai to

duk Jerhma tou Pppou.

45

Kamplec b'

6.1

bajmo

Quadrics

Digrammikc Morfc

V dianusmatikc qroc me sma F peperasmnhc distashc dimF V = n + 1. Mia summetrik digrammik morf B ston V enai
mia apeiknish B : V V F ttoia ste:
i B(v, w) = B(w, v) (h idithta aut anafretai sto qarakthrism summeOrismc 1.

'Estw

( )

trik)

ii B(1 v1 + 2 v2 , w) = 1 B(v1 , w) + 2 B(v2 , w), v, w V kai 1 , 2 F.


Apaitome h B na enai grammik mno sthn arister metablht opte lgw
thc i ja enai grammik kai sth dexi metablht.

( )

H summetrik digrammik morf

ja lgetai mh-ekfulismnh an isqei

B(v, w) = 0 w V v = 0.
To klasik pardeigma miac summetrikc digrammikc morfc enai to gnwst eswterik ginmeno twn dianusmtwn tou qrou

B(
x ,
y)=
x
y.

B : R3 R3 R

me

An epilxoume na Kartesian Ssthma Suntetagmnwn

kai an wc proc aut to ssthma suntetagmnwn ta diansmata qoun suntetagmnec

x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) kai
y = (y1 , y2 , y3 ), tte
x
y = x1 y1 +x2 y2 +x3 y3 .

Msw tou eswteriko ginomnou orzontai sth sunqeia ta mkh

|
x | :=

x
x

kai oi gwnec metax twn dianusmtwn

x
y

cos(
x ,
y ) :=

| x || y |
'Estw

T : V V

antistryimoc grammikc metasqhmatismc.

sqhmatzei mia summetrik digrammik morf


summetrik digrammik morf

BT

meta-

pwc h parapnw se mia llh

pou orzetai wc exc:

B T (v, w) = B(T v, T w).


An epilxoume mia bsh
pnaka

Bij = B(vi , vj ).

{v0 , v1 , ..., vn } tou V ,

en kai mno en h summetrik digrammik

En to dinusma

(0 , 1 , ..., n ),

B orzei na summetrik
Bij qei mh-mhdenik orzousa
morf B enai mh-ekfulismnh.
tte h

O summetrikc pnakac

vV

wc proc th bsh

tte h digrammik morf

46

{v0 , v1 , ..., vn } qei suntetagmnec


kajorzetai ap thn tetragwnik

morf

B(v, v) =

n
X

Bij i j

i,j=0
O kajorismc thc digrammikc morfc msw thc tetragwnikc morfc isqei
mno an to sma

kai

den qei qarakthristik

2,

dhlad an

1 + 1 6= 0,

pou

ta oudtera stoiqea thc prsjeshc kai tou pollaplasiamo sto sma

antstoiqa. Shmeinoume pwc tso to sma


kai to sma

R twn pragmatikn arijmn so


2.

twn migadikn arijmn den qoun qarakthristik

To paraktw Jerhma jewretai gnwst ap th Grammik 'Algebra kai


ja mac enai qrsimo se sa ja akoloujsoun:

Jerhma

qro

1.

'Estw

B(v, v)

mia tetragwnik morf se na dianusmatik

peperasmnhc distashc me sma

touc pragmatikoc touc miga-

dikoc arijmoc. Tte:

( )

An

F = C,

tte uprqei mia bsh tou

wc proc thn opoa h tetragwnik

morf mpore na grafe wc

B(v, v) = 20 + 21 + ... + 2r
r = rank(Bij ) h txh tou summetriko pnaka Bij kai profanc r
dimC V .
ii An F = R, tte uprqei mia bsh tou V wc proc thn opoa h tetragwnik

pou

morf mpore na grafe wc

B(v, v) = 20 + 21 + ... + 2r 2r+1 ... 2s


pou

s dimR V

h txh kai

r (s r)

h upograf thc digrammikc morfc.

Shmewsh 1. H tetragwnik morf ( isodnama h summetrik digrammik


morf) enai mh-ekfulismnh en kai mno en
sh)

s = dimR V

r = dimC V

(migadik perptw-

(pragmatik perptwsh).

'Estw V dianusmatikc qroc peperasmnhc distashc kai


P (V ) o antstoiqoc probolikc qroc. Mia tetragwnik kamplh ( kamplh
b' bajmo, quadric), ston P (V ) enai to snolo twn shmewn tou proboliko
Orismc

2.

qrou twn opown ta antiproswpeutik diansmata ikanopoion th sqsh

B(v, v) = 0,

pou

mia summetrik digrammik morf tou

V.

Shmewsh 2.
Epeid gia tic tetragwnikc morfc isqei B(v, v) =
2 B(v, v), petai ti to snolo twn shmewn thc tetragwnikc kamplhc enai

47

anexrthto ap thn epilog antiproswpeutikn dianusmtwn.

T : V V antistryimoc grammikc metasqhmatismc kai :


P (V ) P (V ) o antstoiqoc probolikc metasqhmatismc. O probolikc
metasqhmatismc apeikonzei mia tetragwnik kamplh se mia llh tetra'Estw

gwnik kamplh diti


1

B(v, v) = B(T 1 T v, T 1 T v) = B T (T v, T v)
miac kai

B T (T v, T v) = 0

en

B(v, v) = 0.
i

Shmewsh 3.

Ap to Jerhma 6.1.1.( ) prokptei ti kje migadik te-

tragwnik kamplh msw enc proboliko metasqhmatismo enai isodnamh


me mia tetragwnik kamplh thc morfc

B(v, v) = 20 + 21 + ... + 2r .
H paraktw prtash ousiastik apotele to antstrofo thc Shmewshc
2 parapnw:

B kai B 0 se na migadik dianusmatik qro V peperasmnhc distashc dimC V = n+1 orzoun


0
thn dia tetragwnik kamplh ston probolik qro P (V ), tte B = B , gia
kpoio C.
Prtash 1.

Apdeixh:

An do summetrikc digrammikc morfc

An

F = C,

tte ap to Jerhma 6.1.1.( ) mporome na upoj-

soume ti gia kpoia bsh stw

{v0 , v1 , ..., vn }

tou

isqei

0 = B 0 (v, v) = 20 + 21 + ... + 2r

(4)

v V wc proc th bsh {v0 , v1 , ..., vn } qei suntetagmnec


i C gia i = 0, 1, ..., n, en

pou to dinusma

(0 , 1 , ..., n ),

me

0 = B(v, v) =

n
X

Bij i j

(5)

i,j=0

diti en gnei den mporome na upojsoume ti to Jerhma 6.1.1.( ) ikanopoietai tautqrona gia th

kai th

B0

wc proc thn dia bsh.

[Parapomp: upenjumzoume to exc sqetik ap th jewra pinkwn: do


tetragwniko

nn

pnakec

A, B

diagwniopoiontai tautqrona en kai mno

48

en

metatjentai

, dhlad en

AB = BA.

En oi pnakec diagwniopoiontai

tautqrona aut shmanei pwc ja qoun ta dia idiodiansmata, sunepc oi


pnakec apokton diagnia morf wc proc thn dia bsh pou apoteletai ap
ta koin idiodiansmata].

Epilgoume ta antiproswpeutik diansmata

vi V

twn shmewn thc

B 0 (v, v) = 0
{v0 , v1 , ..., vn } tou

tetragwnikc kamplhc pou orzetai ap thn tetragwnik morf


ta opoa (antiproswpeutik diansmata) wc proc th bsh

qoun suntetagmnec

(0 , 1 , ..., n ) = (1, i, 0, ..., 0)

oi opoec profanc

ikanopoion th sqsh 4. An antikatastsoume tic suntetagmnec autc sth


sqsh 5 ja proume:

(+i) : B11 B22 + 2iB12 = 0


(i) : B11 B22 2iB12 = 0
ap tic opoec prokptei ti

B11 = B22

kai

B12 = 0.

Epanalambnoume thn

i
Bij = 0 gia i < j r. An r < n
parnoume diansmata me suntetagmnec (0, 0, ..., r+1 , r+2 , ..., n ) opte apoktme Bij = 0 an i j r (profanc i, j, r n + 1). 

parapnw diadikasa metatopzontac diadoqik th jsh thc suntetagmnhc


kai parnoume

6.2

B11 = B22 = ... = Brr

Paradegmata

kai

Kampuln

b' bajmo

Prin anaferjome sta Paradegmata, enai skpimo na upenjumsoume ap


th Grammik 'Algebra ti oi summetrikc digrammikc morfc lgontai kai metrikc (sth gewmetrik orologa, sunjwc sth gewmetra oi metrikc apaitome na enai kai jetik (hmi-)orismnec gia na enai ta mkh pou metrme jetiko
arijmo, allic lgontai yeudometrikc). 'Enac isomorfismc pou epiprsjeta diathre mia summetrik digrammik morf ( metrik) anallowth lgetai
isotima sthn orologa twn pinkwn ( isometra sth gewmetrik orologa-gia
pardeigma oi strofc sto eppedo kai sto qro apotelon klasik paradegmata isometrin diti den metablloun ta mkh twn dianusmtwn).

Stouc pragmatikoc dianusmatikoc qrouc (peperasmnhc distashc),


ap to

Jerhma

Adrneiac

tou

Sylvester,

pou ousiastik enai Prisma tou

ii

Jewrmatoc 6.1.1.( ), gnwrzoume pwc h kathgoriopohsh twn mh-ekfulismnwn


summetrikn digrammikn morfn wc proc th sqsh isodunamac thc isotimac
gnetai msw thc anallowthc posthtac thc upografc (sth genik perptwsh pou h summetrik digrammik morf den enai aparathta mh-ekfulismnh,

49

apaitetai tso h txh so kai h upograf).

Ac dome sth sunqeia orismna paradegmata.

dimC V = 2 opte
Jerhma 6.1.1. i
kai

Jewrome wc sma touc migadikoc arijmoc. 'Estw

1.

dimC P (V ) = 1

(migadik probolik eujea).

Ap to

( )

th Shmewsh 6.1.3 prokptei pwc kje mh-ekfulismnh tetragwnik kamplh


thc migadikc probolikc eujeac enai isodnamh msw enc proboliko metasqhmatismo me to snolo twn shmewn me omogenec suntetagmnec
pou

0 , 1 C,

(0 , 1 ),

pou ikanopoion th sqsh

20 + 21 = 0
dhlad

0 = i1
Apoteletai sunepc ap 2 mlic shmea, aut me anomogenec suntetagmnec

i.

Sunepc, uprqei ma kai monadik probolik klsh mh-ekfulismnwn

tetragwnikn kampuln sth migadik probolik eujea apotelomenh ap 2


mno shmea (kje llh mh-ekfulismnh tetragwnik kamplh sundetai msw
kpoiou proboliko metasqhmatismo me autn).

1'.

Ac dome ti sumbanei sthn pragmatik probolik eujea

1, sunepc dimR V = 2.

Uprqoun mno

do

dimR P (V ) =

istimec klseic mh-ekfulismnwn

summetrikn digrammikn morfn, ma me upograf

2 kai ma me upograf 0.

Faner, ap thn pragmatik summetrik digrammik morf me upograf


stw

+2,

prokptei h tetragwnik kamplh me exswsh stw

20 + 21 = 0
pou

0 , 1 , 2 R

omogenec suntetagmnec sthn pragmatik probolik eu-

jea. H parapnw algebrik exswsh den epidqetai mh-mhdenikc pragmatikc


rzec, sunepc h en lgw pragmatik mh-ekfulismnh summetrik digrammik
morf den ddei tetragwnik kamplh sthn pragmatik probolik eujea.

Ac dome th deterh perptwsh, thn kamplh pou prokptei ap thn pragmatik summetrik digrammik morf me upograf

0,

h opoa qei exswsh

20 21 = 0
pou

0 , 1 R

omogenec suntetagmnec. An epilxoume

anomogenec suntetagmnec

x1 :=

1
, tte h exswsh
0

20 21 = 0
50

0 6= 0

kai pme se

gnetai

x21 = 1
pou qei lsh do shmea me anomogenec suntetagmnec

1.

Genik, kje mh-ekfulismnh tetragwnik kamplh tou proboliko epipdou onomzetai kwnik kamplh (

conic).

Jewrome wc sma touc migadikoc arijmoc.

2.

dimC P (V ) = 2

opte

'Estw

dimC V = 3

(migadik probolik eppedo). Kje kwnik tou migadi-

ko proboliko epipdou enai isodnamh (msw enc proboliko metasqhmatismo), me anlogo skeptik pwc sto prohgomeno antstoiqo pardeigma,
me to snolo twn shmewn pou ikanopoion thn algebrik exswsh

20 + 21 + 22 = 0
pou

0 , 1 , 2 C omogenec suntetagmnec tou migadiko proboliko epip-

dou.

2'.

Ac meletsoume tra tic kwnikc sto pragmatik probolik eppedo.

Sthn perptwsh sunepc pou

dimR V = 3,

uprqoun mno

do

istimec

klseic mh-ekfulismnwn summetrikn digrammikn morfn, ma me upograf

kai ma me upograf

1.

Faner, ap thn pragmatik summetrik digrammik morf me upograf


stw

+3,

prokptei h kwnik tou proboliko epipdou me exswsh

20 + 21 + 22 = 0
pou

0 , 1 , 2 R omogenec suntetagmnec sto pragmatik probolik eppe-

do. H parapnw algebrik exswsh den epidqetai mh-mhdenikc pragmatikc


rzec, sunepc h en lgw kwnik den uprqei sto pragmatik probolik eppedo.

Ac dome th deterh perptwsh, thn kwnik pou prokptei ap thn pragmatik summetrik digrammik morf me upograf stw

1, h opoa qei exswsh

20 21 22 = 0
pou

0 , 1 , 2 R

omogenec suntetagmnec tou pragmatiko proboliko

epipdou. An epilxoume

0 6= 0

kai pme se anomogenec suntetagmnec

x1 :=
51

1
0

kai

x2 :=

2
,
0

tte h exswsh

20 21 22 = 0
gnetai

x21 + x22 = 1
pou wc gnwstn apotele thn exswsh (monadiaou) kklou sto pragmatik
probolik eppedo.

6.3

Genikeumnec

Kwnikc

Edame sto Pardeigma 3.6.2 ti

P (R2 ) ' S 1 ,

pou shmanei pwc uprqei

mia apeiknish pou enai 1-1 kai ep (toulqiston) metax twn shmewn thc
probolikc eujeac kai tou kklou. To parapnw genikeetai: pwc mac lei
to Jerhma 6.3.1, ja dome pwc kje mh-ekfulismnh kwnik (kai qi mno o
kkloc), enai se antistoiqa 1-1 kai ep me thn probolik eujea gia opoiodpote sma

F:

F tuqao sma kai C mia mh-ekfulismnh kwnik


P (V ), pou V dianusmatikc qroc me sma to F me
distash dimF V = 3 (opte dimF P (V ) = 2). 'Estw x C tuqao shmeo
thc kwnikc kai stw P (U ) P (V ) me dimF P (U ) = 1 mia probolik eujea
pou den periqei to shmeo x, dhlad x
/ P (U ). Tte uprqei apeiknish
: P (U ) C pou enai 1-1 kai ep, ttoia ste ta shmea x, y kai (y) na
enai suneujeiak, pou y P (U ) na tuqao shmeo thc probolikc eujeac
P (U ).
Jerhma

1.

'Estw

sto probolik eppedo

Shmewsh 1: To Jerhma aut apotele thn probolik kdosh kai genkeush thc stereografikc probolc (sthn distash 1) gia opoiodpote sma.

Apdeixh:

'Estw ti h

ddetai ap mia mh-ekfulismnh summetrik di-

B tou V kai stw v0 V na antiproswpeutik


P (V ) 3 x C , pou shmanei ti B(v0 , v0 ) = 0.

grammik morf
tou shmeou

dinusma

'Estw u V na antiproswpeutik dinusma gia to shmeo P (V ) 3 y


P (U ) thc (probolikc) eujeac P (U ) tou proboliko epipdou P (V ). Afo
x
/ P (U ), ta diansmata v0 kai u tou V enai grammik anexrthta, sunepc
pargoun na dianusmatik upqwro Vu V me dimF Vu = 2. Profanc ta

52

{v0 , u} apotelon kai mia bsh tou dianusmatiko upqwrou Vu


V . Sumbolzoume me B|Vu ton periorism thc B sto dianusmatik upqwro
Vu V kai epektenoume th bsh {v0 , u} tou Vu se mia bsh {v0 , u, u0 } tou
V (pou u0 kpoio dinusma tou V pou na enai grammik anexrthto me ta
antiproswpeutik diansmata v0 kai u). En h B|Vu tan tautotik mhdn,
0
tte wc proc th bsh {v0 , u, u } tou V , ekola diapistnei kpoioc ektelntac
diansmata

merikc aplc prxeic [qrhsimopointac ton orism thc kwnikc kai th sqsh
anaparstashc miac summetrikc digrammikc morfc se morf summetriko
pnaka me thn epilog miac bshc
ap na

summetrik

33

Bij = B(vi , vj )], ti h B|Vu

ja anaparstato

pnaka thc morfc

0 0
0 0

(pou me ` ` sumbolzoume tuqaa stoiqea tou smatoc

F),

o opooc pnakac

ja eqe mhdenik orzousa, kti pou enai topo, diti upojsame ti h


mh-ekfulismnh. 'Ara h

B|Vu

enai

den enai tautotik mhdn.

Sunepc wc proc th bsh

{v0 , u}

tou

Vu ,

B|Vu

ja enai thc morfc

B(0 v0 + 1 u, 0 v0 + 1 u) =
0 0 B(v0 , v0 ) + 0 1 B(v0 , u) + 1 0 B(u, v0 ) + 1 1 B(u, u) =
20 1 B(v0 , u) + 21 B(u, u) = 0 1 + 21

(6)
(7)
(8)

= 2B(v0 , u) kai = B(u, u). Faner, afo dimF Vu = 2,


dimF P (Vu ) = 1, opte P (Vu ) = xy enai h eujea tou proboliko
pou ennei ta shmea x, y .

pou jsame
petai pwc
epipdou

H kwnik

tmnei thn eujea

P (Vu )

sta shmea

kai

(y).

{v0 , u} tou Vu ), twn shme(y) = (, ). Oi omogenec

Oi omogenec suntetagmnec (wc proc th bsh

(y) enai x = (1, 0), y = (0, 1) kai


(1, 0) tou shmeou x prokptoun ap to gegonc ti to antiproswpeutik dinusma v0 tou shmeou x qei suntetagmnec (1, 0) wc proc th
bsh {v0 , u} tou Vu . Oi omogenec suntetagmnec (0, 1) tou shmeou y prokptoun ap to gegonc ti to antiproswpeutik dinusma u tou shmeou y qei
suntetagmnec (0, 1) wc proc th bsh {v0 , u} tou Vu . Oi omogenec suntetagmnec tou shmeou (y) prokptoun ap thn amswc prohgomenh pargrafo.

wn

x, y

kai

suntetagmnec

53

Ta shmea aut enai kal orismna diti qoun mh-mhdenikc suntetagmnec.

Gia ta shmea

kai

aut enai profanc.

Gia to shmeo

(y)

qoume

, 6= 0. Aut prokptei diti to shmeo me antiproswpeutik dinusma


v0 u ikanopoie th sqsh B(v0 u, v0 u) = 0, lambnontac up'
yin th sqsh 8.
Parathrome ti an

(, 0)

= 0, (y) = (, 0) = x

diti to shmeo

(1, 0)

kai

diafroun kat bajmwt pollaplsio, ra ston probolik qro ana-

: P (U ) C fanetai
z C me z 6= x diti h
eujea pou ennei to shmeo x kai to shmeo z sunant thn eujea P (U ) se
na shmeo y . Afo aut to shmeo enai monadik, h apeiknish enai 1-1
sto snolo C {x}.
pariston to dio shmeo. O orismc thc apeiknishc

parapnw.

Enai apeiknish 1-1 kai ep sta shmea

8 qoume ti (y) = x = 0 B(v0 , u) = 0. Afo h B


enai mh-ekfulismnh sto Vu (sthn pragmatikthta aut isqei kai se lo to
V ), to snolo twn u Vu pou ikanopoion thn parapnw grammik exswsh
(y) = x = 0 B(v0 , u) = 0 apotelon monodistato dianusmatik
upqwro tou Vu kai sunepc uprqei monadik shmeo y pou phganei sto x.
Sunepc h apeiknish enai amfeiknish. 
Ap th sqsh

6.4

Mia

Efarmog

ap

thn Algebrik

Gewmetra

Wc mia efarmog tou Jewrmatoc 6.3.1 ja prosdiorsoume touc Pujagreiouc Arijmoc.

'Estw

F = Q,

tikn) arijmn.

dhlad wc sma jewrome to sma twn rhtn (klasma-

Jewrome ton probolik qro

dhlad to rht probolik eppedo.

P (Q3 )

me

dimQ P (Q3 ) = 2,

Gia thn kathgoriopohsh twn summetri-

kn digrammikn morfn ep dianusmatikn qrwn me sma to snolo twn


rhtn arijmn, isqei ,ti kai gia touc pragmatikoc arijmoc (bl Pardeigma 6.2.2').

Sunepc h mnh kwnik pou uprqei sto rht probolik eppedo

prosdiorzetai ap tic rhtc lseic thc summetrikc digrammikc morfc

20 21 22 = 0
pou

0 , 1 , 2 Q

kpoiec omogenec suntetagmnec tou rhto proboliko

x = (1, 1, 0) me antiproswpeutik dinusma


v0 = (1, 1, 0) kai stw P (U ) h eujea 0 = 0. Tte an to shmeo y P (U )
qei antiproswpeutik dinusma u = (0, 1 , 2 ), (prth suntetagmnh 0 diti

epipdou.

Epilgoume to shmeo

54

0 = 0), tte ap thn exswsh thc kwnikc prokptei ti B(u, u) = 21 22


kai B(u, v0 ) = 1 . To shmeo (y) ja orzetai ap th sqsh 8:
v0 u = B(u, u)v0 2B(u, v0 )u = (21 +22 )(1, 1, 0)+21 (0, 1 , 2 ) = (0 , 1 , 2 )
dhlad ja qoume ti

0 = (21 + 22 )
1 = 21 22
kai

2 = 21 2
se anomogenec suntetagmnec, an jsoume

t :=

1
,
2

ja proume

x1 =

1 t2
1
=
0
1 + t2

x2 =

2
2t
.
=
0
1 + t2

kai

Brskoume loipn pwc kje rht lsh thc exswshc


parnontac na rht arijm

t=
me

p, q Z

x21 + x22 = 1

p
q

kai antikajistntac thn tim

t = pq

stic parapnw anomogenec

suntetagmnec parnoume

x1 =
kai

x2 =

q 2 p2
q 2 + p2
2qp
+ p2

q2

opte h sqsh

(q 2 p2 )2 + (2qp)2 = (q 2 + p2 )2
ddei th genik lsh stouc akraiouc thc exswshc

55

apokttai

x2 + y 2 = z 2 .

Grafdec

drics
7.1

qro

B0

Diagwniopohsh

'Estw

Pencils of Qua-

Tetragwnikn

kai

B1

Zegouc

Pinkwn

do tetragwnikc morfc se na migadik dianusmatik

peperasmnhc distashc. Ap to Jerhma 6.1.1 petai pwc uprqei

mia bsh (ja th lme bsh

(0))

wc proc thn opoa h

B0

grfetai wc

B0 (v, v) = 20 + 21 + ... + 2n
v = (0 , 1 , ..., n ) oi suntetagmnec enc tuqaou diansmatoc v V
(0). En h B0 enai mh-ekfulismnh, tte dimV = n + 1
kai o pnakac thc B0 wc proc aut th bsh (0) enai B0 = I o monadiaoc
(n + 1) (n + 1) pnakac. 'Estw ti wc proc th bsh (0) h tetragwnik morf
B1 anaparstatai ap to summetrik pnaka B . Upenjumzoume ti kje migapou

wc proc th bsh

dikc tetragwnikc pnakac enai trigwnsimoc.

'Estw
shc
kai

vl

kai

vm

Upojtoume ti o migadikc

v0 , v1 , ..., vn kai 0 , 1 , ..., n


ta idiodiansmata kai oi idiotimc antstoiqa tou B . To snolo {v0 , v1 , ..., vn }
twn idiodianusmtwn tou B apotelon mia bsh tou V pou ja th lme bsh (1).

summetrikc pnakac

enai diagwnsimoc. 'Estw

do idiodiansmata tou

(dhlad do diansmata thc b-

(1)), ta opoa wc proc th bsh (0) qoun suntetagmnec vl = (x0 , x1 , ..., xn )


vm = (y0 , y1 , ..., yn ). Tte ja qoume:
l

n
X

xk yk =

k=0

n
X

Bkj xj yk =

xj Bjk yk = l

m , l 6= 0,

afo

n
X

xj yj

j=0

j,k=0
Sunepc an

Bjk xj yk =

j,k=0

j,k=0
n
X

n
X

m 6= l

gia

l 6= m

(pou

l, m {0, 1, ..., n}),

gia na isqei h parapnw sqsh ja prpei

n
X

xj yj = 0.

j=0
Me lla lgia ja prpei na isqei

B0 (vl , vm ) = 0 an l 6= m.

mh-ekfulismnh epshc isqei ti

B0 (vl , vl ) 6= 0.
56

Epeid h

B0

enai

'Ara an jsoume

vl

vl0 := p

B0 (vl , vl )

(1 ) (kanonikopoihmnwn) idiodianusmtwn tou B pou


0 0
epshc ikanopoion th B0 (vl , vm ) = lm pou lm to dlta tou Kronecker. O
(kanonikopoihmnoc) diagwniopoin pnakac P tou B pou prokptei ap ta
0
(kanonikopoihmna) idiodiansmata (dhlad ap th bsh (1 )), enai nac orT
T
jognioc pnakac, dhlad ikanopoie th sqsh P P = I P
= P 1 . Afo
1
ta vm , me m = 0, 1, ..., n enai idiodiansmata tou B , tte o pnakac P
BP
enai diagnioc pnakac pou sth diagnio ja emfanzontai oi idiotimc tou B ,
T
T
dhlad ja qoume P IP = I kai P BP = diag(0 , 1 , ..., n ).
ja proume mia bsh

'Eqoume sunepc brei mia bsh, thn (kanonikopoihmnh) bsh

(10 ), wc proc

thn opoa isqoun

B0 (v, v) = 20 + 21 + ... + 2n
kai

B1 (v, v) = 0 20 + 1 21 + ... + n 2n
h opoa bsh diagwniopoie tautqrona kai tic do tetragwnikc morfc

B0

kai

B1 .
H gewmetra pou sqetzetai me zegh tetragwnikn morfn afor tic legmenec grafdec tetragwnikn kampuln:

B0 kai B1 do tetragwnikc morfc pwc oi parapnw,


se na migadik dianusmatik qro V peperasmnhc distashc dimC V = n+1.
Mia
pencil of quadrics apoteletai ap to snolo twn
tetragwnikn kampuln pou orzetai ap tic tetragwnikc morfc B0 +B1 ,
pou to zegoc (, ), me , C, anaparist na shmeo (omogenec sunte2
tagmnec) thc migadikc probolikc eujeac P (C ).
Orismc 1.

'Estw

grafda tetragwnikn (

V dianusmaF peperasmnhc distashc dimF (V ) = n+1. To snolo


twn summetrikn digrammikn morfn tou V apotele na no dianusmatik
1
(n + 1)(n + 2). O
qro W me to dio sma pwc o V me distash dimF W =
2
dianusmatikc qroc W enai ismorfoc me to dianusmatik qro twn summetrikn (n + 1) (n + 1) tetragwnikn pinkwn me stoiqea ap to F.
Upenjumzoume ap th grammik lgebra ta aklouja: stw

tikc qroc me sma

Mia diaforetik perigraf thc grafdac tetragwnikn enai h exc: ap


thn Prtash 6.1.1 gnwrzoume ti mia tetragwnik kamplh kajorzetai ap
th summetrik digrammik morf (mqric enc bajmwto pollaplasou). Ap

57

ton orism thc grafdac prokptei mesa pwc mia grafda tetragwnikn enai
mia (probolik) eujea ston probolik qro

P (W ),

pou

o dianusmatikc

qroc twn summetrikn digrammikn morfn tou dianusmatiko qrou

V.

Den enai fusik lec oi tetragwnikc kamplec miac grafdac mh-ekfulismnec.


Oi ekfulismnec emfanzontai sta shmea

(, )

gia ta opoa isqei

det(B0 + B1 ) = 0
pou parnoume thn orzousa enc antiproswpeutiko pnaka (me thn epilog
miac bshc).

Sthn perptwsh pou perigryame sthn arq, pou h

B0

enai

mh-ekfulismnh, aut mpore na perigrafe ap to monadiao pnaka en h

B1

mpore na perigrafe ap to diagnio pnaka

diag(0 , 1 , ..., n ).

Sthn

perptwsh aut ta anmala shmea ddontai ap tic sqseic

= i

pou

i = 0, 1, ..., n.

Oi idiotimc

kajorzontai plrwc ap th grafda twn

tetragwnikn kai den apaitetai epilog bsewn gia ton orism touc.

7.2

Grafdec

sto

Migadik Probolik

Eppedo

Ja meletsoume grafdec kwnikn sto migadik probolik eppedo, dhlad jewrome ti

B0

kai

B1

dimC V = 3,

dimC P (V ) = 2. Upojtoume ti oi
ti oi idiotimc i , i = 0, 1, 2 enai lec

opte

enai mh-ekfulismnec kai

diaforetikc metax touc. Ap thn prohgomenh pargrafo petai pwc uprqei mia bsh

{v0 , v1 , v2 }

wc proc thn opoa oi

B0

kai

B1

diagwniopoiontai

tautqrona. Ja perigryoume aut thn katstash gewmetrik. 'Ena zegoc


kwnikn kajorzei tra shmea sto probolik eppedo me antiproswpeutik
diansmata ta

Jerhma

{v0 , v1 , v2 }.
1.

'Estw

'Eqoume to paraktw Jerhma:

C0

kai

C1

do mh-ekfulismnec kwnikc kamplec

sto migadik probolik eppedo pou orzontai ap tic summetrikc digrammikc morfc

C1
i

B0

kai

B1

antstoiqa kai stw ti h grafda diamsou twn

C0

kai

qei treic diaforetikc ekfulismnec kwnikc. Tte:


H grafda apoteletai ap lec tic kwnikc pou dirqontai ap tssera

( )

shmea se genik jsh.

ii

Oi ekfulismnec kwnikc thc grafdac apotelontai ap tra zegh eu-

jein pou prokptoun ennontac xna zegh autn twn tessrwn shmewn.

iii

Kje zegoc eujein tmnetai se shmeo me antiproswpeutik dinusma

58

vi , opte apoktme mia bsh wc proc thn opoa oi B0 kai B1 diagwniopoiontai


tautqrona.

Apdeixh:

( )

Qrhsimopoiome ta sa anafrjhkan sthn pargrafo 7.1 gia na bloume

tic kwnikc sth morf

C0 : 20 + 21 + 22 = 0
kai

C1 : 0 20 + 1 21 + 2 22 = 0
0

Pollaplasizoume thn prth ep

kai afairome th deterh opte ja p-

roume

(0 1)21 + (0 2 )22 = 0
C1 qoun antiproswpeutik

u = ( 1 2 , 2 0 , 0 1 )

Ta tssera shmea tomc twn

Epeid lec oi idiotimc

C0

me

kai

i = 0, 1, 2

diansmata

enai diaforetikc, ta shmea tomc

enai se genik jsh.

Afo

C,

B0 (u, u) = 0 = B1 (u, u),

petai pwc

(B0 + B1 )(u, u) = 0 ,

opte kje kwnik thc grafdac pern ap aut ta tssera shmea.

Antstrofa, ap to Jerhma 4.2.1, kje tetrda shmewn tou migadiko proboliko epipdou mpore na metasqhmatiste msw kpoiou proboliko metasqhmatismo se mia llh tetrda shmewn twn opown oi omogenec
suntetagmnec enai

(1, 0, 0),(0, 1, 0),(0, 0, 1)

kai

(1, 1, 1).

O pnakac thc te-

tragwnikc morfc gia thn opoa aut ta diansmata ikanopoion th sqsh

B(u, u) = 0 ja prpei na qei B00 = B11 = B22 = 0 kai B12 = B23 = B32 = 0.
Oi parapnw enai tssereic grammik anexrthtec exisseic sto dianusmatik qro (migadikc) distashc

6 twn (migadikn) summetrikn 3 3 pinkwn,

opte orzoun (oi tssereic grammik anexrthtec exisseic) na dianusmatik upqwro distashc
kwnikn.

2.

Aut enai mia eujea ston probolik qro twn

Sunepc kje kwnik pou dirqetai ap ta tssera aut shmea

ankei sthn eujea metax twn

ii

C0

kai

C1 .

Oi ekfulismnec kwnikc thc grafdac ddontai ap tic sqseic

(B1 i B0 )(v, v) = 0

59

pou apotelon zegoc eujein

1 0 1 + 2 2 0 = 0
kai

1 0 1 2 2 0 = 0

H prth dirqetai ap ta shmea

( 1 2 , 2 0 , 0 1 )
kai

( 1 2 , 2 0 , 0 1 )

en h deterh dirqetai ap ta uploipa do shmea.

iii

H tom twn do eujein sto

(1, 0, 0),
bshc v0 . 

enai to shmeo
dinusma

Aut
rzei

gewmetrik

kanec

pte

do

ii

parapnw enai

1 = 2 = 0

pou

dhlad to shmeo me antiproswpeutik dinusma to

anaparstash

tetragwnikc

miac

morfc

grafdac
den

bohj

mporon

na

sto

na

anagnw-

diagwniopoihjon

tautqrona

'Estw ti qoume

C0 : 20 + 21 + 22 = 0
kai

C1 : 0 20 + 1 21 + 2 22 = 0
En oi

C0

kai

C1

enai diaforetikc kwnikc, tte oi idiotimc

den mpore

na enai sec. H perptwsh pou enai lec diaforetikc diereunjhke parapnw.

H perpwsh pou paramnei enai h

0 = 1 6= 2 .

tomc prokptoun ap thn afaresh (sqhmatik):


ep thn prth exswsh. Ja proume
shmea

(1, i, 0)

kai

2 = 0

2
kai 0

'Omwc tte ta shmea

deterh exswsh plhn

21

= 0,

dhlad ta do

(1, i, 0).

Sunepc oi tetragwnikc morfc pou anapariston do kwnikc pou tmnontai se tra shmea den mporon na diagwniopoihjon tautqrona.

Sqlio 1: H tautqronh diagwniopohsh pinkwn kai geniktera telestn


se perptwsh qrwn

Hilbert

(pou ousiastik apotelon dianusmatikoc q-

rouc me eswterik ginmeno peirhc distashc), enai kefalaidouc shmasac


sthn Kbantik Mhqanik.

H pio gnwst morf thc perfhmhc arqc thc

60

aprosdioristac tou

Heisenberg

( arq thc abebaithtac), ousiastik lei

pwc den enai dunatn na metrhjon me apluth akrbeia h orm kai h jsh
enc swmatidou. Sto bjoc, aut ofeletai sto gegonc ti h orm kai h jsh apotelon asumbbasta fusik megjh, dhlad oi telestc thc ormc kai
thc jshc den metatjentai, sunepc den diagwniopoiontai tautqrona (bl
Parapomp sthn Apdeixh thc Prtashc 6.1.1). Aut h majhmatik idithta
ekfrzei to

dusm

thc stajerc tou

kmatoc

Planck

kai

aktinobolac

sth fsh.

To fusik nhma

enai pwc ekfrzei posotik thn asumbatthta au-

t. Shmeinoume de pwc h arq thc abebaithtac isqei geniktera gia kje


zegoc fusikn megejn pou anaparstantai msw telestn pou den metatjentai, dhlad pou den diagwniopoiontai tautqrona.

Gia pardeigma, na

llo zegoc asumbbastwn fusikn megejn (ektc thc jshc kai thc ormc)
enai h enrgeia kai o qrnoc.

61

Grammiko Qroi

8.1

To

'Estw

Orjognio

Tetragwnikn

Sumplrwma

dianusmatikc qroc (peperasmnhc distashc me sma touc

pragmatikoc arijmoc an kai to detero den enai kajoristik) efodiasmnoc me mia mh-ekfulismnh summetrik digrammik morf

V,

dianusmatikc upqwroc tou

U V

B.

En

U V

nac

mporome na orsoume ton kjeto upqwro

wc to snolo

U := {v V |B(u, v) = 0, u U }
An h

enai to gnwst Eukledeio eswterik ginmeno

tik qro

x
y

R , tte o parapnw orismc ddei to


U mpore na mhn enai sumplhrwmatikc tou U

Gia pardeigma an B(u, u) = 0 tte u U .

orjognio sumplrwma

genik o
qroc.

sto dianusma-

Oi idithtec tou kjetou upqwrou

U tou U

all

wc dianusmatikc

fanontai kaltera an qrhsi-

V
= V .
= V

V , den uprqei

mopoisoume dukoc qrouc. Edame sthn pargrafo 5.1 ti


'Omwc en uprqei fusikc isomorfismc metax twn

kai

genik fusikc isomorfismc metax enc dianusmatiko qrou kai tou du-

V enai efodiasmnoc
B , mporome na th qrhsimopoisoume kai
: V V wc exc:

ko auto. Sth sugkekrimnh perptwsh mwc, epeid o


me mia summetrik digrammik morf
na orsoume nan isomorfism

v (w) := B(v, w)
V 3 v 7 v V . Dhlad to v wc stoiqeo tou V enai
apeiknish v : V R. Me ton parapnw orism ja qoume
pou

mia grammik

B(v, u) = 0, u U v (u) = 0, u U
dhlad an

v U 0 .

Sunepc

(U ) = U 0 .
Ap thn Prtash 5.2.1 qoume thn paraktw:

'Estw U , U1 kai U2
V . Tte:
i U = (U ) .
ii An U1 U2 , tte U2 U1 .
iii (U1 + U2 ) = U1 U2 .
Prtash

1.

dianusmatiko upqwroi enc dianusma-

tiko qrou
( )
(
(

62

iv (U1 U2 ) = U1 + U2 .
v dimU + dimU = dimV .

(
(

B orzei mia mh-ekfulismnh


P (V ). O qroc U enai o dioc ete autc

orisje msw thc B ete msw thc B , me R . Sunepc gia kje grammik
upqwro P (U ) distashc k tou P (V ), h tetragwnik orzei llon na qro
P (U ) distashc
Me gewmetrikoc rouc h digrammik morf

tetragwnik ston probolik qro

dimP (U ) = dimP (V ) dimP (U ) 1


dimC P (V ) = 2), mia mh-ekfulismnh kweujea l . H eujea l lgetai polik tou

Sto migadik probolik eppedo (


nik sqetzei se na shmeo
shmeou

Prtash 2.

kc

mia

en to shmeo lgetai ploc thc eujeac.

H polik enc shmeou

eujea pou ennei ta do shmea thc


sto

ektc miac mh-ekfulismnhc kwni-

(pou orzetai msw miac summetrikc digrammikc morfc

B ),

enai h

twn opown oi efaptomnec tmnontai

(efaptomnh miac kwnikc kaletai mia eujea pou tmnei thn kwnik se

na mno shmeo).

Apdeixh:

Tte to

v0

tou shmeou

'Estw

v0

na antiproswpeutik dinusma gia to shmeo

pargei to monodistato dianusmatik upqwro

x)

enai h eujea

P (U ).

Upojtoume ti h

mno shmeo me antiproswpeutk dinusma


na proume mia bsh

{v1 , v2 }

tou

U .

v1

tmnei

x.

l (polik
thn C se na

kai

to opoo to qrhsimopoiome gia

Tte ja qoume

B(v1 + v2 , v1 + v2 ) = 0 = 0
B(v1 , v1 ) = 0 (diti x C )
'Omwc B(v1 , v0 ) = 0 ex orismo

B(v1 , v2 ) = 0 (ap grammikthta

thc B ).
tou U , prgma pou enai topo diti
h C upojsame pwc enai mh-ekfulismnh. Sunepc (me sma to C), uprqoun
do shmea, ta x1 , kai x2 sthn tom C l me antiproswpeutik diansmata v1
kai v2 . Tra
B(v0 + v1 , v0 + v1 ) = 2 B(v0 , v0 )
'Omwc tte

kai

B(v0 , v0 ) 6= 0,
thc C en kai mno en = 0.
Me lla lgia h eujea pou ennei ta shmea x kai x1 tmnei thn C mno sto
shmeo x1 , ra enai efaptomnh. Parmoia gia to shmeo x2 . 
B(v0 , v1 ) = 0 kai epshc B(v1 , v1 ) = 0.
opte to v0 + v1 anaparist na shmeo

diti

63

Afo

x
/ C,

tte

8.2

Paradegmata

Tetragwnikn

Kampuln

kai

Epi-

fanein

An o monodistatoc dianusmatikc upqwroc

U U ,

U V

ikanopoie th sqsh

tte anaparist na shmeo thc tetragwnikc diti

B(u, u) = 0

gia

kpoio antiproswpeutik dinusma.

U U ,
tte B(u, u) = 0, u U , opte olklhroc o grammikc upqwroc P (U ) ankei sthn tetragwnik kamplh. Antstrofa, an o P (U ) ankei sthn tetragwnik kamplh, tte h tetragwnik morf B mhdenzetai tan perioriste ston
U pwc kai h sqetizmenh digrammik morf. Opte B(u, u0 ) = 0, u, u0 U

kai tte U U , opte dimU dimU . 'Omwc epshc


An o dianusmatikc upqwroc

U V

me

dimU1

ikanopoie thn

dimU + dimU = dimV


opte

1
dimU dimV.
2

Me gewmetrikoc rouc, an o grammikc upqwroc


mh-ekfulismnh tetragwnik kamplh tou

P (V ),

P (U )

brsketai se mia

tte

1
dimP (U ) [dimP (V ) 1].
2
An

dimP (V ) = 2,

tte

dimP (U ) = 0

opte uprqoun mno shmea se mia

mh-ekfulismnh kwnik kamplh.

An

dimP (V ) = 3,

tte

dimP (U ) 1

opte mpore na uprqoun shmea

all kai eujeec se mia tetragwnik epifneia.

Gia na analsoume thn tetragwnik epifneia, jewrome thn apeiknish

: P (C2 ) P (C2 ) P (C4 )


pou me qrsh omogenn suntetagmnwn orzetai wc exc:

((0 , 1 ), (0 , 1 )) = (0 0 , 0 1 , 1 0 , 1 1 )
An

(z0 , z1 , z2 , z3 ) enai omogenec suntetagmnec ston P (C4 ), tte h eikna thc

brsketai sthn tetragwnik

z0 z3 = 0 0 1 1 = z1 z2
64

Aut enai mia mh-ekfulismnh tetragwnik epifneia.

(z0 , z1 , z2 , z3 ) brsketai sthn epifneia.


suntetagmnec, stw z0 6= 0, opte tte
me ti to

Antstrofa, jewro-

De mhdenzontai lec oi

((z0 , z2 ), (z0 , z1 )) = (z0 , z1 , z2 , z3 )


zi =
6 0 opte
periptseic zi 6= 0, me

kai anloga me tic uploipec pijanc periptseic. Jewrome ti


h enai ep.
i = 0, 1, 2, 3.

Enai epshc 1-1, an meletsoume tic 4

z0 6= 0 kai 0 0 = 00 00 , 0 1 = 00 01 , 1 0 = 01 01 ,
0 0 , parnoume

Gia pardeigma, an
tte diairntac dia

1
0
= 10
0
0
kai

1
0
= 10
0
0

opte h

enai amfeiknish.

(0 , 1 ), sthn prth
probolik eujea kai h eikna auto tou uposunlou msw thc enai h eujea
Sthn sunqeia, kajorzoume na tuqao shmeo, stw

1 z0 0 z2 = 0
1 z1 0 z3 = 0.
Anloga, kajorzontac to

(0 , 1 ),

h eikna enai h eujea

1 z0 0 z1 = 0
1 z2 0 z3 = 0.
Sunepc h tetragwnik (epifneia) qei 2 mono-parametrikc oikogneiec eujein pnw thc.

An orsoume thn apeiknish

stouc pragmatikoc, tte ja proume thn

tetragwnik

z0 z3 = z1 z2
ston pragmatik probolik qro

P (R4 )

pou enai isodnamh me thn

z02 z12 = z22 z32


65

ktw ap nan probolik metasqhmatism. Se anomogenec suntetagmnec

xi :=
to tmma thc tetragwnikc gia to opoo

zi
,
z0
z0 6= 0,

enai to

1 = x21 + x22 x23


pou enai mia epifneia ek peristrofc pou pargetai ap thn uperbol

x21 x23 = 1
Aut periqei tic do oikogneiec eujein kai mpore na paraqje ap qordc
idou mkouc se do daktulouc peristrfontac ton na se sqsh me ton llo.

Kje migadik tetragwnik se nan probolik qro perittc distashc

dimC P (V ) = 2n + 1

qei na grammik upqwro distashc

mgisth epitrept distash ap thn isthta

1
dimU dimV.
2
An th jsoume sth morf tou Jewrmatoc 6.1.1, ja qoume

20 + 21 + ... + 22n+1 = 0
h opoa mpore na metasqhmatisje qrhsimopointac thn

z2j = 2j + 2j+1
kai

z2j+1 = 2j 2j+1
sth morf

z0 z1 z2 z3 + ... z2n z2n+1 = 0


kai tte oi sqseic

1 z0 0 z2 = 0
1 z1 0 z3 = 0
1 z4 0 z6 = 0
1 z5 0 z7 = 0
.
.
.
orzoun nan ttoio upqwro.

66

pou enai h

To Exwterik

9.1

Ginmeno

Anaparstash epipdwn tou qrou msw tou exwteriko

ginomnou

Stic prohgomenec paragrfouc arqzame me kpoio kommti gnwstc


grammikc lgebrac sto opoo prosddame gewmetrik upstash.
akoloujsoume antstrofh porea:

Tra ja

ja anafroume kti kainorgio ap th

grammik lgebra to opoo sth sunqeia ja qrhsimopoisoume gia na epilsoume na gewmetrik prblhma, thn perigraf twn probolikn eujein msa
ston probolik qro trin diastsewn.

Geniktera, ta na ergalea thc grammikc lgebrac pou ja anaptxoume


ja mac dsoun th dunatthta na perigryoume louc touc probolikoc upoqrouc distashc

m enc proboliko qrou distashc n (profanc m n).


n = 3 kai m = 1 (probolikc eu-

Kurwc ja perioristome sthn perptwsh

jeec ston trisdistato probolik qro), perptwsh pou perilambnei kai tic
koinc eujeec ston koin trisdistato fusik qro.

H na grammik lgebra pou ja anaptxoume lgetai exwterik lgebra


kai qei pmpollec llec efarmogc sth gewmetra (perigraf qwrc qrsh
susthmtwn suntetagmnwn), th Genik Jewra Sqetikthtac kai th jewra
upersummetrac sth jewrhtik fusik k..

F
qei qarakthristik mhdn, dhlad a 1 =
a F kai 0, 1 to mhdenik kai to monadiao stoiqeo tou
smatoc antstoiqa kai h eswterik prxh tou pollaplasiasmo sto sma).
Upojtoume pwc to sma

0 a = 0

den

(pou

Wc knhtro gia thn eisagwg twn exwterikn dunmewn jewrome to prblhma thc perigrafc twn probolikn eujein sto pragmatik probolik
eppedo. Sthn pargrafo 5 to lsame qrhsimopointac to duk qro enc
dianusmatiko qrou. Mia probolik eujea sto probolik eppedo (jewroopte dimV = 3), perigrfetai ap na 2-distato
U V (dimU = 2 opte dimP (U ) = 1), pou ddetai

ap th sqsh f (v) = 0 pou f V , dhlad h f enai mia grammik apeiknish


f : V R kai profanc v V .

me ti

dimP (V ) = 2,

dianusmatik upqwro

An

enai o 3-distatoc Eukledeioc qroc (dhlad

V = R3 efodiasmnoc

me to gnwst Eukledeio eswterik ginmeno), tte me to gnwst sumbolism thc dianusmatikc lgebrac, o 2-distatoc dianusmatikc upqwroc

67

U,

o opooc gewmetrik antistoiqe se na eppedo, orzetai ap thn exswsh

r
a = 0,
pou

to kjeto dinusma sto eppedo

U.

An epilxoume na ssthma sun-

tetagmnwn, tte stw ti wc proc aut to ssthma suntetagmnwn isqei


ti

r = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) kai
a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), tsi ste f (v) = x1 a1 +x2 a2 +x3 a3 .
To kjeto dinusma

U mpore na orisje jewrntac 2

v tou U kai sqhmatzontac to exw-

tou epipdou

grammik anexrthta diansmata


terik ginmeno

kai

a =
u
v

To exwterik ginmeno qei tic exc idithtec:

grammikthta:

( )

(1
u 1 + 2
u2 )
v = 1 (
u1
v ) + 2 (
u2
v)
ii

antimetajetikthta me allag prosmou:

u
v =
v
u
Prosoq!

Upenjumzoume

ti

den

isqei

prosetairistik

idithta

sto

exw-

terik ginmeno.

Ap tic do parapnw idithtec prokptei ti an


grammik anexrthta metax touc diansmata tou

U,

kai

enai do lla

tte stw ti

u = a
u + b
v
kai

v = c
u + d
v

pou

a, b, c, d R,

opte

u v 0 = (a
u + b
v ) (c
u + d
v ) = (ad bc)
u
v
dhlad to dinusma
diansmatoc

u
v

u v0

enai na mh-mhdenik bajmwt pollaplsio tou

opte orzei to dio shmeo ston probolik qro

P (R3 ).

Gia na perigryoume mia probolik eujea ston pragmatik probolik 3-

U V enc 4-distatou
V = R3 , edame ti to dinusma

distato qro, jewrome na 2-distato upqwro


dianusmatiko qrou

V.

Sthn perptwsh pou

68

a =
u
v pou enai to exwterik ginmeno do grammik anexrthtwn dia

nusmtwn u kai v tou V , perigrfei na 2-distato dianusmatik upqwro


U tou V (pou gewmetrik antistoiqe se na eppedo tou qrou), ntac to

kjeto dinusma tou epipdou pou pargetai ap ta diansmata u kai v .


Sunepc, an dimP (V ) = 2 (opte dimV = 3), mia eujea tou P (V ) perigr

fetai ap to exwterik ginmeno a = u v , pou P (U ) enai h probolik

eujea, dhlad dimP (U ) = 1 kai dimU = 2 kai u kai v enai ta grammik


anexrthta diansmata tou V pou pargoun to dianusmatik upqwro U ap
ton opoo prokptei h probolik eujea.

Stic periptseic pou

dimP (V ) 3,

(dhlad

dimV 4),

apaitetai mia

P (V )
pou ja th dome amswc paraktw kai pou lgetai sfhnoeidc ginmeno (wedge
product). Ja kataskeusoume na dinusma pou ja to sumbolzoume uv W
se na no dianusmatik qro W ton opoo ja orsoume me katllhlo trpo,
me u, v V . To sfhnoeidc ginmeno ja ikanopoie toulqiston tic do basi-

genkeush tou exwteriko ginomnou gia na perigryoume tic eujeec tou

kc idithtec tou exwteriko ginomnou:

( )'

grammikthta:

(1 u1 + 2 u2 ) v = 1 (u1 v) + 2 (u2 v)
ii

)'

antimetajetikthta me allag prosmou:

u v = v u
pou

1 , 2 R kai u1 , u2 , u, v V

en

uv W .

'Opwc kai sthn perptwsh

tou pragmatiko proboliko epipdou, kje 2-distatoc dianusmatikc up-

U V ja orzei na shmeo ston P (W ) me antiproswpeutik dinusma


u v W pou ta u, v enai do tuqaa grammik anexrthta diansmata
tou V . Sunepc
P (V )
P (W ).

qwroc
to

mia eujea

9.2

ja orzei

na shmeo ston

Deterh exwterik dnamh enc dianusmatiko qrou

'Estw

ston

kai to

sfhnoeidc ginmeno

uv
h enai

o dianusmatikc qroc ston opoo brsketai to dinusma

i kai ii . 'Estw W , dhlad


: W F. Orzoume thn apeiknish

pou ikanopoie tic idithtec

mia grammik apeiknish

( )'

)'

B(u, v) := (u v)

69

opte h

enai mia apeiknish

B : V V F

pou ikanopoie tic exc idith-

tec:

grammikthta:

( ')'

B(1 u1 + 2 u2 , v) = 1 B(u1 , v) + 2 B(u2 , v)


ii

antisummetrikthta:

')'

B(u, v) = B(v, u)
Dhlad h

B enai mia antisummetrik digrammik morf tou V .

To snolo twn

antisummetrikn digrammikn morfn enc dianusmatiko qrou


na no dianusmatik qro me dio sma pwc o

B(V ).

apotele

ton opoo ja sumbolzoume

Jtoume ex orismo ti

B(V ) := W
{vi }(i=0,1,...,n) tou V , tte kje
B tou V anaparstatai msw enc antisum(n + 1) (n + 1) pnaka Bij = B(vi , vj ) pou Bij = Bji .

dimV = n + 1.

'Estw

An epilxoume mia bsh

antisummetrik digrammik morf


metriko

Orismc 1.

H deterh exwterik dnamh

V2

enc dianusmatiko qrou

orzetai wc o dukc qroc tou dianusmatiko qrou twn antisummetrikn

digrammikn morfn

B(V )

tou

V,

dhlad

V2

V := [B(V )] .

V2

V.

Dhlad isqoun ta exc:

B(V ) = W [B(V )] = W = W =
Orismc

2.

To exwterik ginmeno

uv

V2

do dianusmtwn

V2

u, v V enai to stoiqeo tou


V pou orzetai ap th grammik apeiknish f (B) = B(u, v) sto qro twn antisummetrikn digrammikn morfn,
V

dhlad B B(V ) kai f [B(V )] = W


= W = 2V.
Oi epijumhtc jemelideic idithtec

( )'

(1 u1 + 2 u2 ) v = 1 (u1 v) + 2 (u2 v)
kai

ii

)'

u v = v u
pontai mesa ap ton orism.

70

{vi }(i=0,1,...,n)

'Estw

mia bsh tou dianusmatiko qrou

smatikc qroc twn antisummetrikn digrammikn morfn


ismorfoc me to dianusmatik qro twn antisummetrikn
pinkwn me stoiqea ap to sma

V . Tte o dianuB(V ) tou V enai


(n + 1) (n + 1)

msw thc apeiknishc (isomorfismc)

Bij B(vi , vj ).
Gnwrzoume ap th grammik lgebra ti o dianusmatikc qroc twn anti-

(n + 1) (n + 1) pinkwn qei distash


V
dimV = n + 1, tte dimW = dim 2 V = n(n+1)
.
2

summetrikn tetragwnikn
Sunepc, an

Mia bsh tou

(kl)

1 = Blk kai enai


0, 1, ..., dimV ).

prokptei ap touc pnakec

mhdn gia tic uploipec timc twn

Jewrome ta diansmata
th duk bsh tou

V2

V2

vi vj

Prtash

1.

Aut sqhmatzoun

V.

kpoio mh-mhdenik dinusma.

Tte

uv =

afo ap thn

)'

uv

v 6= u.

Epektenoume to

Ja prpei na epishmnoume pwc

V2
V2V
V
tou

tiko qrou

{u, v}

se mia bsh tou

ja enai mloc thc antstoiqhc bshc tou

mh-mhdenik (antijetoantistrof).

stoiqea

i < j.

(kl)

Bkl =
i, j, k, l =

pou

(profanc

An

Antstrofa, stw
opte to

gia

i, j

k < l,

v = u, tte u v = u u = (u u) = 0
ii qoume pwc u u = u u.

Apdeixh.

idithta

uV
F.

'Estw

gia kpoio

me

pou ex orismo enai o dukc qroc tou qrou twn

antisummetrikn digrammikn morfn tou

0 v = u

(kl)

Bij

n(n+1)
.
2

sth morf

uv

V2

V,

kai sunepc


de

grfetai kje stoiqeo tou dianusma-

gia kpoia diansmata

u, v V .

Kpoia

ja enai grammiko sunduasmo rwn autc thc morfc.

An kai ja asqolhjome ektenstera me aut se mia epmenh pargrafo, ac

V = R4 kai {v0 , v1 , v2 , v3 } mia bsh tou V kai


0
upojtoume ti v0 v1 + v2 v3 = v v , pou v = a0 v0 + a1 v1 + a2 v2 + a3 v3
0
kai v = b0 v0 + b1 v1 + b2 v2 + b3 v3 do tuqaa diansmata tou V . Ektelome

dome na pardeigma:

stw

epimeristik tic prxeic kai qoume:

v0 v1 +v2 v3 = v v 0 = (a0 v0 +a1 v1 +a2 v2 +a3 v3 )(b0 v0 +b1 v1 +b2 v2 +b3 v3 )


V2
Jewrome touc suntelestc twn dianusmtwn thc bshc vi vj tou
V , me
i < j , kai qoume:
a0 b 1 a1 b 0 = 1
71

(a0 , b0 ) enai mh-mhdenik ston R2 (suntetagmnec wc proc th sunjh bsh). 'Omwc a0 b2 a2 b0 = 0 kai a0 b3 a3 b0 = 0,
opte ta diansmata (a2 , b2 ) kai (a3 , b3 ) enai bajmwt pollaplsia tou (a0 , b0 )

opte sugkekrimna to dinusma

kai ra grammik exarthmna. Aut antibanei thn exswsh

a2 b 3 a3 b 2 = 1
pou prokptei ap touc suntelestc tou diansmatoc

v2 v3 .

Epanerqmaste sto prblhma thc perigrafc twn eujein ston 3-distato

P (V )

dimV = 4. Blpoume ti kje


U V kai parnontac kpoia grammik anexrthta diansmata u1 , u2 V , apoktme, msw thc
V2
Prtashc 9.2.1 parapnw, na mh-mhdenik dinusma u1 u2
V2 V to opoo
me th seir tou orzei na shmeo ston probolik qro P (
V ) pou enai
anexrthto ap thn epilog twn dianusmtwn u1 kai u2 lgw twn idiottwn
i kai ii tou Orismo 9.2.2.
probolik qro

me

dimP (V ) = 3

opte

eujea kajorzei na 2-distato dianusmatik upqwro

Den

afo

enai

mwc

dimV = 4,

V2
P
(
V)
. Prgmati,
V2
V2
dim[ V V
] = 6 kai dim[P ( V )] = 5, opte kje
2
qrou P (
V ) enai na shmeo se na qro 5 dia-

kje

tte

shmeo tou proboliko

shmeo

tou

autc

thc

morfc

stsewn, ra ja qei 5 suntetagmnec. Ap ta paradegmata thc paragrfou


3 gnwrzoume pwc mia eujea se na qro

diastewn kajorzetai ap

n1

paramtrouc, sunepc mia eujea ston probolik qro pou mac endiafrei,
afo autc qei distash 5, ja kajorzetai ap 4 paramtrouc. Prpei loi-

gia na antistoiqon stic eujeec tou proboliko qrou

V2

V
V
P ( 2 V ) (opte h ex-

pn na uprqei mia exswsh pou na ikanopoietai ap ta diansmata tou

swsh aut ja skotsei thn 5h parmetro kai ja paramenoun oi epijumhtc


4).

Gia na prosdioriste aut h exswsh ja prpei na epektenoume thn n-

noia tou exwteriko ginomnou do dianusmtwn tou

V,

dhlad apaitetai na

orisjon kai anterec ap 2 exwterikc dunmeic tou dianusmatiko qrou

Shmewsh 1:
roc

U R

me

'Ena eppedo

dimU = 2,

tou

R3 ,

V.

dhlad nac dianusmatikc upqw-

pwc edame sthn pargrafo 9.1, gia na orisje

apaitontai 3 parmetroi pou enai oi suntetagmnec tou kjetou diansmatoc

a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) R3 (oi suntetagmnec stw ti


3
enai wc proc th sunjh bsh tou R ). Sunepc gia na orisje na eppe4
4
do ston R , dhlad gia na orisje nac dianusmatikc upqwroc U R me
dimU = 2, apaitontai 4 parmetroi pou enai oi suntetagmnec tou kjetou
4
diansmatoc sto eppedo a U pou a = (a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ) R . An prou-

sto eppedo

a U

pou

me touc antstoiqouc probolikoc qrouc twn parapnw, blpoume pwc gia

72

na orsoume mia probolik eujea

P (R4 )

P (U )

ston trisdistato probolik qro

apaitontai 4 parmetroi.

Mia eujea tou

orzei na shmeo ston probolik qro

na orsoume nan katllhlo dianusmatik qro stw


ap ton

V ),

tsi ste na qoume kat' antistoiqa ti

antistoiqon

se

shmea

tou

P (Q).

P (V ).

Jloume

(pou ja prokptei

P (VV)
W = 2V

oi eujeec tou

H deterh exwterik dnamh

ja

pou orsame plhsase to stqo all den ton ptuqe akribc, ja qreiaste
lgh doulei akmh pou ja th dome sthn epmenh pargrafo.

73

10

H Exwterik

10.1

Anterec
ko

'Estw

'Algebra

exwterikc

dunmeic

enc

dianusmati-

qrou

dianusmatikc qroc me sma

F peperasmnhc distashc dimV =

n + 1.
Orismc 1.

Mia antisummetrik polugrammik morf bajmo

multilinear form of degree p),

pou

p N,

p (antisymmetric

enai mia apeiknish

M : |V V {z
V ... V} F
p
ao

(9)

ttoia ste na ikanopoie tic paraktw do idithtec:

( )

antisummetrikthta:

M (v1 , ..., vm , ..., vn , ..., vp ) = M (v1 , ..., vn , ..., vm , ..., vp )


ii

grammikthta:

M (1 u1 + 2 u2 , v2 , ..., vp ) = 1 M (u1 , v2 , ..., vp ) + 2 M (u2 , v2 , ..., vp ).

Dhlad h

enai grammik se lec tic metablhtc kai allzei prshmo

an do opoiesdpote metablhtc allxoun jsh.

Faner, mia antisummetrik polugrammik morf bajmo

enai mia an-

tisummetrik digrammik morf kai o orismc 10.1.1 apotele genkeush tou


orismo pou dsame sthn pargrafo 9.2.

Orismc

2.

p-exwterik

dnamh

Vp

enc dianusmatiko qrou

enai o dukc qroc tou dianusmatiko qrou twn antisummetrikn polugrammikn morfn bajmo

tou

V.

'Eqoume dh dei th deterh exwterik dnamh

enc dianusmatiko q-

V1

V tautzetai me to duk qro tou qrou twn grammikn apeikonsewn f : V F, dhV1


lad me to duk tou duko qrou tou V , dhlad me ton dio ton V :
V = V.

rou

V2

sthn prohgomenh pargrafo. H prth exwterik dnamh

74

H mhdenik exwterik dnamh

V0

enc dianusmatiko qrou

dukc qroc tou qrou twn stajern sunartsewn tou

smatik qro

Dojntwn

V0

V = F (upenjumzoume pwc kje


distashc 1 me sma ton eaut tou).

to sma, dhlad

p-wc

enai o

kai tautzetai me

sma apotele dianu-

u1 , u2 ,..., up VV
, kat' anau1 u2 ... up p V wc th

proc to pljoc dianusmtwn

loga me ton orism 9.2.2, orzoume na stoiqeo

f (M ) = M (u1 , u2 , ..., up ) sto qro twn antisummetrikn


apeikonsewn bajmo p.

grammik apeiknish
polugrammikn

{vi }(i=0,1,...,n)

V , (dimV = n+1), tte mia antisummetrik


M (vi1 , vi2 , ..., vip ), me
i1 < i2 < ... < ip , diti ap th grammikthta h tim thc M se mia tuqaa p-da
An

mia bsh tou

polugrammik apeiknish

kajorzetai ap tic timc

dianusmtwn enai nac grammikc sunduasmc twn timn thc sta diansmata
bshc tou

Vp

en h antisummetrikthta apokleei thn perptwsh

vm = vn

kai msw anadiatxewn me antstoiqec allagc prosmou (kai lgh skyh!)


mporome na katalxoume sthn paradoq

i1 < i2 < ... < ip .

p-da (i1 , i2 , ..., ip ), kajorzetai ap na uposnolo p-wc


(n + 1)-wc proc to pljoc sunolik
VpdianV , sunepc h distash tou dianusmatiko qrou
V ja


(n + 1)!
n+1
=
p
p!(n p + 1)!

H diatetagmnh

proc to pljoc stoiqewn ap ta


smata bshc tou
enai

Apodexame loipn thn paraktw prtash:

Prtash 1.

qrou

Vp

Isqei o paraktw tpoc gia th distash tou dianusmatiko

V:
dim[

Ta diansmata
tou

Vp
An

p
^


V]=

dimV
p

vi1 vi2 ... vip , me i1 < i2 < ... < ip , apotelon mia bsh

V.
p > dimV ,

tte

uprqoun mh-mhdenikc polugrammikc antisummeV


p = dimV tte dim[ p V ] = 1 kai apoteletai ap la
pollaplsia tou v1 v2 ... vn , pou {vi }(i=0,1,...,n) mia bsh
den

trikc morfc en an
ta bajmwt
tou

V.
Isqei to antstoiqo thc prtashc 9.2.1:

75

Prtash

2.

'Estw

u1 ,u2 ,...,up V . Ta diansmata


aut
V
u1 u2 ... up ( V p ) 6= 0.

enai grammik

anexrthta en kai mno en

Apdeixh:

An

p
X

i u i = 0

i=1
kai ta

up V

i F,

me

i = 0, 1, ..., p,

den enai la mhdn (dhlad ta

enai grammik exarthmna), tte gia kpoio

p
X

uj =

u1 , u2 ,...,

ja isqei

i u i

i=1,i6=j
opte

u1 u2 ... uj ... up =

p
X

i (u1 u2 ... ui ... up ) =

i=1,i6=j

= 1 (u1 u2 ... u1 ... up ) + 2 (u1 u2 ... u2 ... up ) + ... = 0


diti enallsontac th jsh do paragntwn allzei to prshmo opte kje
roc thc morfc

u1 u2 ... u1 ... up

mhdenzetai (genik sto sfhnoeidc

ginmeno an uprqei epanlhyh kpoiou pargonta, aut mhdenzetai lgw


antisummetrikthtac).

u1 ,u2 ,...,up V enai grammik anexrthta, epektenonV


kai tte to u1 u2 ...up enai na dinusma bshc tou
Vp
V (diti 1 < 2 < ... < p opte ikanopoietai h sqsh i1 < i2 < ... < ip ),
ra enai na mh-mhdenik dinusma. .
Antstrofa, an ta

tai se mia bsh tou

O sumbolismc pou qrhsimopoiome upodhlnei ti to p-dinusma u1 u2


V
V
... up p V kai to q -dinusma v1 v2 ... vq q V pou ui , vj V me
i = 0, 1, ..., p kai j = 0, 1, ..., q , prpei na pollaplasiaston exwterik (sfhnoeidc ginmeno) gia na proume to (p + q)-dinusma u1 u2 ... up v1
V
v2 ... vq p+q V.

Eisgoume mia prxh pollaplasiasmo, to exwterik ( sfhnoeidc) ginmeno, metax twn stoiqewn
dinusma

ab

Vp+q

Vp

V,

kai

Vq

gia na proume to

V.

'Ena tuqao stoiqeo

Vp

grfetai wc grammikc sunduasmc

a=

X
i
76

i ai

Vp
decomposable
) dianusmtwn ai
V , pou i F kai
V
V
i = 1, 2, ..., dim p V . 'Ena stoiqeo ai p V lgetai aposunjsimo an
p
1
2
1
mpore na grafe sth morf ai = ui ui ... ui , gia kpoia diansmata ui ,
V
q
p
2
ui ,..., ui V . An to b
V antstoiqa grfetai wc grammikc sunduasmc
X
b=
j b j
aposunjsimwn (

j
aposunjsimwn dianusmtwn

bj = vj1 vj2 ... vjq , tte orzoume to exwterik

ginmeno

ab=

i j ai b j

pou

(u1i u2i ... upi ) (vj1 vj2 ... vjq ) =


= u1i u2i ... upi vj1 vj2 ... vjq .
Ja prpei na elgxoume ti to parapnw ginmeno enai kal orismno, dhlad
ti exarttai mno ap ta diansmata
antstoiqa kai

qi

kai

wc stoiqea twn

Vp+q

ab

kai

Vq

ankei sto duk qro tou

qrou twn antisummetrikn polugrammikn morfn bajmo


upologsoume se mia ttoia morf

ap ton trpo pou gryame to kajna apotelomeno ap

aposunjsima stoiqea. 'Omwc to

a b(M ) =

Vp

i j (ai bj )(M ) =

(p + q)

kai an to

ja proume

i j M (u1i , u2i , ..., upi , vj1 , vj2 , ..., vjq ).

M (u1i , ..., upi , v1 , v2 , ..., vq ) enai mia antisummetrik polugrammik morf bajmo q opte h parapnw kfrash exarttai mno
Vq
ap to b
V . Anloga, an kajorsoume ta vji , h M exarttai mno ap
Vp
to a
V , sunepc to a b enai kal orismno.
An kajorsoume ta

uji ,

To sfhnoeidc ginmeno

den

enai antimetajetik (pwc kai to gnwst

exwterik ginmeno twn dianusmtwn den enai antimetajetik).


zoume pwc mia enallag do rwn sto ginmeno

v1 v2 ... vq

Upenjumallzei to

prshmo, sunepc

u1 u2 ... up v1 v2 ... vq = u1 u2 ... v1 up v2 ... vq =


= (1)p v1 u1 u2 ...up v2 ...vq = (1)2p v1 v2 u1 u2 ...up v3 ...vq =
= (1)qp v1 v2 ... vq u1 u2 ... up .
Apodexame loipn thn paraktw prtash:

Prtash

3.

'An

Vp

kai

Vq

V,

tte

a b = (1)qp b a
77

10.2

Paradegmata

V
a = u v 2 V , pou u, v V , tte a a = u v u v = 0
diti h enallag twn u, v sto dex mloc allzei prshmo en sto arister
mloc to a a den allzei.
1.

An

2.

An

a = v0 v1 + v2 v3 ,

me

v0 , v1 , v2 , v3 V

grammik anexrthta

diansmata, tte

a a = (v0 v1 + v2 v3 ) (v0 v1 + v2 v3 ).
An ektelsoume epimeristik tic prxeic ja proume:

a a = v0 v1 v0 v1 + v0 v1 v2 v3 + v2 v3 v0 v1 + v2 v3 v2 v3 =
= v0 v1 v2 v3 + v2 v3 v0 v1 = 2v0 v1 v2 v3
v0 v1 v2 v3 enai mh-mhdenik, pou
a = v0 v1 + v2 v3 , den mpore na grafe sthn
kpoia diansmata u, v V (o pargontac 2 mac to

Ap thn Prtash 10.1.2 petai pwc to


apodeiknei ti to dinusma
morf

a = u v,

gia

apagoreei).

'Estw {v0 , v1 , ..., v2n , v2n+1 }, mia bsh enc dianusmatiko qrou V me
dimV = 2n + 2 kai stw a = v0 v1 + v2 v3 + ... + v2n v2n+1 . Tte orzoume
3.

an+1 := a
a ... a}
| a {z
(n + 1)
ao

(10)

Apodeiknetai ekola ti

an+1 = n!(v0 v1 v2 ... v2n v2n+1 )


4.

An

Vp

me

peritt, tte isqei ti

aa=0
Sqlia:

1.

An

kpoioc dianusmatikc qroc me peperasmnh distash, tte to

snolo lwn twn exwterikn dunmewn

dimV
[

q
^

q=0
78

apotele mia (grammik) lgebra me sma dio me to sma tou


thn prsjesh kai to bajmwt pollaplasiasm tou
plasiasm to

V,

kai prxeic

kai (eswterik) polla-

. Epeid kje stoiqeo autc thc lgebrac

sfhnoeidc ginmeno

frei kai bajm, onomzetai diabajmismnh (grammik) lgebra (

graded linear

algebra).
2.

To smbolo 

wedge),

lgetai sfna (

exo kai h onomasa sfhnoei-

dc ginmeno.

3.

Oi prxeic metax twn antisummetrikn polugrammikn morfn lgetai

kai logismc

Cartan (Cartan calculus).

79

11

11.1

H Tetragwnik

Klein

sunjkh aposnjeshc

P (V ) orzetai msw enc 2u1 , u2 U enai do grammik


V2
anexrthta diansmata tou U , sqhmatzoume to 2-dinusma a = u1 u2
V
kai me thn abebaithta enc bajmwto pollaplasou, aut (to a), enai anexrthto ap thn epilog bshc.
To 2-dinusma a orzei to dianusmatik
upqwro U pwc fanetai ap thn paraktw prtash:
Mia (probolik) eujea ston probolik qro

distatou dianusmatiko upqwrou

Prtash

1.

U V.

a = u 1 u2 ,

'Estw

An

pou ta

u1 , u2

xrthta diansmata. An gia kpoio tuqao dinusma


tte to

enai grammikc sunduasmc twn

Apdeixh:

enai do grammik ane-

vV

isqei

a v = 0,

u1 , u2 .

H apdeixh prokptei mesa ap thn Prtash 10.2.

H (probolik) eujea ston P (V ) sunepc kajorzetai


V
P ( 2 V ) me antiproswpeutik dinusma a = u1 u2 .

'Opwc edame sthn pargrafo 9, to

ap na shmeo tou

prpei na ikanopoie kpoiec sunj-

decomposable).

kec gia na enai thc morfc autc, dhlad aposunjsimo (

Oi

sunjkec autc perigrfontai sto paraktw jerhma:

Jerhma

1.

'Estw

V2

kpoio mh-mhdenik stoiqeo.

enai aposunjsimo en kai mno en

Apdeixh:

u2 V .

An to

Tte to

a a = 0.

enai aposunjsimo, tte

a = u1 u2

gia kpoia

u1 ,

Tte mwc

a a = u1 u 2 u 1 u2 = 0
smfwna me to pardeigma 10.1

To antstrofo apaite perissterh doulei kai apodukneetai me epagwg


sth distash tou

 dimV = 2.

V.
V2
{v
,
v
}
mia bsh tou V . Tte dim[
V ] = 1 kai o
0
1
V2
V pargetai ap to 2-dinusma v0 v1 to opoo ex

'Estw

dianusmatikc qroc

orismo enai aposunjsimo.

80

V
V2
 dimV V= 3. 'Estw a 2 V (pou dim[ V
V ] = 3), tuqao 2-dinusma.
4
Afo dim[
V ] = 0,Vfaner a a = 0, a 2 V . Jewrome th grammik
3
apeiknish A : V
V , pou orzetai ap th sqsh A(v) = a v . Afo
V3
dim[ V ] = 1, tte dim[Ker(A)] 2 kai stw u1 , u2 do grammik anexrthta diansmata tou Ker(A). Ta epektenoume se mia bsh {u1 , u2 , u3 } tou
V
V kai smfwna me ta parapnw h antstoiqh paragmenh bsh tou 2 V ja
enai h {u1 u2 , u2 u3 , u3 u1 }, opte mporome na gryoume
a = 1 u 2 u3 + 2 u 3 u 1 + 3 u1 u2
0 = a u1 = 1 u2 u3 u1 , opte 1 = 0. Omowc, 0 = a u2 =
2 u3 u1 u2 , opte 2 = 0 kai a = 3 u1 u2 pou enai aposunjsimo.

'Omwc

Tra upojtoume ti h prtash isqei gia thn perptwsh enc dianusma-

n kai stw nac dianusmatikc


{v0 , v1 , ..., vn }. 'Estw V 0 V o
dianusmatikc upqwroc pou pargetai ap ta diansmata {v0 , v1 , ..., vn1 }.
0
0
Profanc dimV = n kai h {v0 , v1 , ..., vn1 } enai mia bsh tou V . Wc proc

tiko qrou distashc mikrterhc shc me


qroc

me distash

dimV = n + 1

me bsh

aut th bsh mporome na gryoume

a=

n1
X
i<j

gia

a0
An

toume

V2

aij vi vj =

V0

aij vi vj +

u V 0.

a0 = 0, tte a = u vn ,
0
ti a 6= 0.

Afo

ain vi vn = a0 + u vn

i=0

i<jn1
kai

n1
X

a a = 0,

opte to

enai aposunjsimo, opte upoj-

qoume

0 = (a0 + u vn ) (a0 + u vn ) = a0 a0 + 2u vn a0
'Omwc afo to

a0 a0

den perilambnei to

vn ,

prpei na isqei

a0 a0 = 0

kai

u vn a = 0.
Ap epagwg

a0 = u01 u02

gia kpoia

u01 , u02 V 0 ,

opte

u vn u01 u02 = 0.
'Etsi, ap thn Prtash 10.1.2 prokptei ti aut ta 4 diansmata enai gram-

vn
/ V 0 all ta uploipa 3 diansmata ankoun ston
0
0
diansmata u, u1 , u2 na enai grammik exarthmna. 'Estw

mik exarthmna. Afo

V 0,

ja prpei ta

81

W o 3-distatoc dianusmatikc upqwroc pou pargetai ap ta diansmata


vn , u01 kai u02 . Tte u W afo enai grammikc sunduasmc twn u01 kai u02 .
V
a = a0 + u vn = u01 u02 + u vn 2 W . 'Omwc afo dimW = 3,
dinusma a enai aposunjsimo pwc dexame parapnw. 
Tra

to

11.2

gewmetrik ermhnea

thc

tetragwnikc

Klein

V4
dimV
=
4
, (opte dimP (V ) = 3), tte dim
V =
V4
1, opte h exswsh ( V 3)a a = 0 enai mia exswsh gia to a. Epilgontac
mia bsh {v0 , v1 , v2 , v3 } tou V , mporome na gryoume
Sthn perptwsh pou

a = x1 v0 v1 + x2 v0 v2 + x3 v0 v3 + y1 v2 v3 + y2 v3 v1 + y3 v1 v2
opte tte

a a = 2x1 y1 v0 v1 v2 v3 + 2x2 y2 v0 v2 v3 v1 + 2x3 y3 v0 v3 v1 v2 =


= 2(x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 )v0 v1 v2 v3
aa=0

opte h exswsh

ddetai ap th sqsh

x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 = 0
'Eqoume sunepc to paraktw jerhma:

Jerhma

1.

Oi probolikc eujeec se nan probolik qro distashc

3 brskontai se antistoiqa 1-1 me th mh-ekfulismnh tetragwnik


pentadistatou proboliko qrou

Apdeixh:

U V

aa

tou

V
P ( 2 V ).

Kje probolik eujea kajorzei na 2-distato upqwro

pou ddei na aposunjsimo dinusma

a = u1 u2

V2

V.

Ap

thn Prtash 11.1.1 aut ddei mia antistoiqa 1-1 metax tou dianusmatiko
upoqrou

kai tou shmeou tou

V
P( 2 V )

pou anaparstatai ap to

a.

Ap

to Jerhma 11.1.1 ta aposunjsima 2-diansmata enai ekena pou ikanopoion


th sqsh

aa = 0

kai uprqei mia bsh wc proc thn opoa aut h exswsh

qei th morf

x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 = 0
isodnama

z02 z12 + z22 z32 + z42 z52 = 0

82

h opoa enai mia mh-ekfulismnh kamplh b' bajmo.

H parapnw onomzetai tetragwnik


sumbolzoume me

dimV = n > 4,

sthn exswsh

Klein (Klein quadric)

kai ja thn

Q(V ).


An

tte uprqoun

a a = 0,

n
4


exisseic pou perilambnontai

all uprqoun pollc ex autn pou enai anexr-

thtec. Par' ti mporome na gryoume me ekpefrasmno trpo tic exisseic


pou orzoun ta aposunjsima diansmata tou

V
P ( 2 V ),

h gewmetrik fsh

tou qrou twn eujein se aut thn perptwsh enai arket pio polplokh.

Shmewsh 1: En

dimV = n,

tte kje

83

Vn1

enai aposunjsimo.

12

Grammiko Upqwroi thc Tetragwnikc

12.1

Klein

Gewmetrik ermhnea twn upoqrwn thc Tetragwnikc

Klein

'Otan meletsame tic tetragwnikc sthn pargrafo 8 edame ti mia tetragwnik se nan probolik qro distashc 5 qei eppeda (ra kai eujeec)
pou brskontai ex oloklrou msa se autn. Edame epshc sthn prohgomenh

Klein Q(V ) antistoiqon me trpo


proboliko qrou P (V ) (ra dimV = 4).

pargrafo ti ta shmea thc tetragwnikc


1-1 stic eujeec tou 3-distatou

Ja dome epshc pwc tso oi eujeec so kai ta eppeda thc tetragwnikc epidqontai gewmetrikc ermhneac ston

P (V ).

Ja xekinsoume me tic idithtec

tomc twn eujein.

Prtash 1.

Do eujeec ston

pou ennei ta antstoiqa shmea


sketai ex oloklrou sthn

Apdeixh:

U2 V

P (V ) tmnontai en kai mno en h eujea


kai q sthn tetragwnik Klein Q(V ) br-

Q(V ).

Upenjumzoume pwc

dimV = 4

kai

dimP (V ) = 3.

'Estw

U1 ,

do 2-distatoi dianusmatiko upqwroi pou antistoiqon stic pro-

P (V ). An oi do eujeec tmnontai, tte uprqei kpoio


mh-mhdenik dinusma u U1 U2 . To epektenoume se mia bsh {u, u1 } tou
U1 kai {u, u2 } tou U2 kai jtoume a1 = u u1 kai a2 = u u2 . Aut (ta
a1 kai a2 ) enai antiproswpeutik diansmata gia ta do shmea p kai q sthn
Q(V ).
bolikc eujeec tou

H eujea tou

V
P( 2 V )

pou ennei aut ta do shmea enai o 2-distatoc

V2

V pou apoteletai ap ta 2-diansmata thc


a = 1 a1 + 2 a2 = u (1 u1 + 2 u2 ). Afo enai aposunjsima, tte
a a = 0, sunepc olklhrh h eujea brsketai entc thc tetragwnikc.
dianusmatikc upqwroc tou
morfc

P (V ) den tmnontai. Tte U1 U2 =


dim(U1 + U2 ) = dimU1 + dimU2 = 4, opte V = U1 + U2 (pou me

Antstrofa, stw ti oi eujeec ston

{0}

kai

to smbolo thc isthtac sthn pragmatikthta ennoome ti oi dianusmatiko


qroi enai ismorfoi) kai mia bsh
mia bsh tou

V.

{u0 , u1 }

tou

U1

kai

Sthn perptwsh aut, an

a = 1 u 0 u 1 + 2 u 2 u 3 ,
tte

a a = 21 2 u0 u1 2 u3
84

{u2 , u3 }

tou

U2

ddei

1 = 0 2 = 0. Sunepc h eujea pou


Q(V ) mno sto shmeo p me
antiproswpeutik dinusma u0 u1 mno sto shmeo q me antiproswpeutik
dinusma u2 u3 kai de brsketai sthn tetragwnik Klein. 
to opoo mhdenzetai en kai mno en

p kai q

ennei ta shmea

sunant thn tetragwnik

An jewrsoume na shmeo
to

x P (V ),

tte oi eujeec pou dirqontai ap

orzoun na uposnolo thc tetragwnikc

Prtash

To snolo lwn twn eujein pou dirqontai ap to shmeo

2.

x P (V ) sunist
gwnik Q(V ).

na eppedo to opoo brsketai ex oloklrou sthn tetra-

'Estw

Apdeixh:

Q(V ):

v0

antiproswpeutik dinusma tou shmeou

x P (V ).

x antiproswpeetai ap na 2-distato dianuv0 . Autc enai o qroc pou pargetai


ap to v0 kai kpoio llo grammik anexrthto dinusma, stw v . O upqwV2
roc autc antistoiqe sto shmeo tou P (
V ) pou qei wc antiproswpeutik
dinusma to 2-dinusma a = v0 v .
Mia eujea pou dirqetai ap to

smatik upqwro tou

Epektenoume to
shmea thc

Q(V )

v0

pou periqei to

se mia bsh

{v0 , v1 , v2 , v3 }

tou

kai jewrome ta

thc morfc

v0 (0 v0 + 1 v1 + 2 v2 + 3 v3 ) = 1 v0 v1 + 2 v0 v2 + 3 v0 v3
Aut apotelon nan 3-distato dianusmatik upqwro tou
na eppedo sthn

opte orzoun

Q(V ). 

Den enai mwc la ta eppeda thc tetragwnikc thc parapnw morfc.

apoteletai ete
ap tic eujeec pou dirqontai ap na stajer shmeo tou P (V ) ete ap tic
eujeec pou periqontai se na stajer eppedo tou P (V ).
Prtash

3.

'Estw

Apdeixh:

kai stw

'Estw

p, q , r

na eppedo thc

Q(V ).

Tte to

to eppedo pou periqetai ex oloklrou sthn

tra diaforetik mh-suneujeiak shmea tou

kai to

P (V )

pou antistoiqon sta shmea

kai

kai

Q(V )

Afo h euje-

ap thn Prtash 12.1.1, oi eujeec tou

a pou ennei ta

brsketai sto

brsketai sthn

prpei na tmnontai se kpoio shmeo, stw

(h eujea pou antistoiqe sto shmeo

r),

x.

H eujea

tmnei tic eujeec

kai

prpei na tmnei tic eujeec

85

sto dio shmeo

tte

Anloga, h eujea

Diakrnoume sth sunqeia do periptseic:


( )

Q(V ),

x.

kai

r
q.

ii

H eujea

Estw

ti

tmnei tic eujeec

isqei

sma tou shmeou

perptwsh

kai

( ).

se diaforetik shmea.

'Estw

v0

na antiproswpeutik dinu-

kai stw ti o 2-distatoc dianusmatikc upqwroc pou

pargetai ap ta diansmata

v0

kai

v1

orzei thn eujea

p.

'Estw akmh ti o

2-distatoc dianusmatikc upqwroc pou pargetai ap ta diansmata

v2

orzei thn eujea

q.

An h eujea

dirqetai ap to shmeo

x,

v0

kai

tte orzetai

V2v0 kai kpoio


Isqei fusik ti to eppedo P (
V ), opte to

ap to 2-distato dianusmatik upqwro pou pargetai ap to

v3 .
orzetai ap ton 3-distato dianusmatik upqwro pou pargetai
v0 v1 , v0 v2 , kai v0 v3 , dhlad ap na dinusma thc morfc

llo dinusma, stw

ap ta

v0 (1 v1 + 2 v2 + 3 v3 )
Autc mwc enai oi eujeec pou dirqontai ap to shmeo

Estw ti isqei h perptwsh (

ii

).

An h eujea

x.

tmnei tic eujeec

se diaforetik shmea, tte mporome na epilxoume ta diansmata

v1

q
v2

kai

kai

wc antiproswpeutik diansmata twn do autn shmewn tsi ste h eujea

na qei antiproswpeutik 2-dinusma to

v1 v2

V2

V.

To eppedo

orzetai sunepc ap ton 3-distato dianusmatik upqwro twn dianusmtwn


thc morfc

1 v 0 v 1 + 2 v 0 v 2 + 3 v 1 v 2
VV pou paV
{v0 , v1 , v2 }, tte ja isqei ti 2 W 2 V , opte anaparist lec tic eujeec tou P (V ) pou brskontai sto eppedo P (W ). 

En sumbolsoume me

ton 3-distato dianusmatik upqwro tou

rgetai ap ta diansmata

Uprqei mia kal exghsh giat uprqoun do oikogneiec epipdwn sthn

P (V ) orzetai ap na 2-distato dianuU V , o mhdenistc U 0 V enai epshc distashc 2 kai

orzei mia eujea ston P (V ) . Sunepc oi eujeec tou P (V ) brskontai se

antistoiqa 1-1 me tic eujeec tou duko proboliko qrou P (V ) opte an


ta shmea tou P (V ) antiproswpeontai ap eppeda thc tetragwnikc Q(V ),

tte to dio ja prpei na isqei kai gia ta shmea tou P (V ) (dhlad gia ta
eppeda tou P (V )).

tetragwnik.

Afo mia eujea tou

smatik upqwro

Autc oi do oikogneiec epipdwn enai antstoiqec me tic do oikogneiec


twn eujein miac tetragwnikc se nan 3-distato probolik qro (bl. thn
pargrafo 8).
tou

Onomzontai

-eppeda

(aut pou antistoiqon sta shmea

P (V )) kai -eppeda (aut pou antistoiqon sta eppeda tou P (V )). H


-epipdwn enai to snolo twn eujein tou P (V ) pou dirqontai

tom do

86

ap do shmea

kai

y.

An ta

mia ttoia eujea, opte ta do

-eppeda

do

x kai y enai diaforetik, tte uprqei mno


-eppeda tmnontai se na shmeo. Anloga,

tmnontai se na shmeo.

-eppedo apoteletai ap to snolo twn


eujein pou dirqontai ap na shmeo x P (V ) kai brskontai se na eppedo P (W ) P (V ). An to shmeo x den periqetai sto eppedo, tte h tom
enai to ken snolo. An to shmeo x periqetai sto eppedo, tte an upojsoume ti to x qei antiproswpeutik dinusma to v0 kai ti o trisdistatoc
dianusmatikc upqwroc W qei bsh thn {v0 , v1 , v2 }, tte oi apaitomenec
V2
eujeec qoun antiproswpeutik diansmata ston
V thc morfc
H tom enc

-epipdou

me na

v0 (0 v0 + 1 v1 + 2 v2 ) = 1 v0 v1 + 2 v0 v2
opte suniston mia (probolik) eujea.

12.2

Sqlia

Egkuklopaidik anafroume ti ta

-eppeda

kai ta

-eppeda

parousi-

twistor

zoun shmantik endiafron sta plasia thc sustrofikc gewmetrac (

geometry)

tou

Roger Penrose.

Aut me th seir tou qei san apotlesma ta

eppeda aut na pazoun ousiastik rlo stic paraktw do periptseic sth

state of the art

sgqronh (

1.

pwc lgetai) reuna:

Sthn kosmologa, kai pio sugkekrimna sthn pio proqwrhmnh diatpw-

sh twn exissewn

Einstein gia to barutik pedo me th qrsh thc sustrofikc

gewmetrac.

2.

Sthn perfhmh, pwc anafretai sth sgqronh bibliografa, kata-

ADHM, ap ta arqik twn onomtwn Atiyah-Drienfeld-Hitchin-Manin


instantons, topologik swmtia yeudo-swmtia) se Rhmneiec pollaplthtec. H kataskeu ADHM
me th seir thc apotlese th bsh thc ekplhktikc douleic tou Simon K.
Donaldson pou apnthse jetik sthn eikasa Poincare gia thn perptwsh twn

skeu

pou ddei tic lseic twn legmenwn nstantonc (

pollaplottwn distashc 4 kai kathgoriopohse plrwc tic apl sunektikc


(leec) pollaplthtec sthn dia distash. H doulei tou

son,

Simon K. Donald-

ektc ap thn profan shmasa thc gia th sgqronh gewmetra, qei

epshc bajei sqsh kai me thn jewrhtik fusik (idiatera de me thn kosmologa), lgw tou ti pwc mac eddaxe o

A. Einstein, o qwrqronoc pou zome

kai brsketai to smpan, apotele pollaplthta akribc distashc 4. Epshc

87

ap th doulei tou

Simon K. Donaldson, proljan oi legmenec topologikc


S.K. Donaldson, A. Floer, M. Gromov, M. Kontsevich

kbantikc jewrec twn

E. Witten, pou apotelon mqri smera, (maz me thn kbantomhqanik twn


melann opn tou S. Hawking merik qrnia nwrtera), to shmantiktero bkai

ma proc thn katejunsh thc enopohshc lwn twn fusikn allhlepidrsewn.

To krio prblhma sthn enopohsh twn fusikn allhlepidrsewn ofeletai sthn asumbatthta thc Genikc Jewrac thc Sqetikthtac tou

A. Einstein

pou perigrfei th barutik allhlepdrash, me tic kbantikc jewrec twn hlektrasjenn kai twn isqurn purhnikn allhlepidrsewn. Aplousteontac,
ja lgame ti oi topologikc kbantikc jewrec epiloun aut thn asumbatthta perpou kat to misi diti enai ta monadik mqri stigmc gnwst
paradegmata kbantikn jewrin stic opoec isqei h arq tou geniko su-

principle of general covariance)

nalloitou (

thc Genikc Jewrac thc Sqeti-

kthtac. H deterh jemelidhc arq thc Genikc Jewrac Sqetikthtac enai

(strong) equivalence principle).

h (isqur) arq thc isodunamac (

H arq au-

t sqetzei thn adraneiak me th barutik mza twn swmtwn kai enai h arq
aut pou den qei enswmatwje akmh stic kbantikc jewrec kai dhmiourge
megla problmata sthn katanhsh thc mzac kai kat' epktash sthn kosmo-

dark energy) kai

loga (jmata pou aforon thn legmenh skotein enrgeia (


thn tim thc kosmologikc stajerc).

88

13

Prosggish

Klein

thc Gewmetrac kai Omo-

parallhlik Gewmetra

13.1

rloc

twn omdwn

H suneisfor tou

Felix Klein

metasqhmatismn

sth Gewmetra den periorzetai mno sthn

tetragwnik pou edame se prohgomenh pargrafo kai pou frei timhtik to


nom tou, ote mno sth mh-prosanatolsimh epifneia pou epshc frei to
onom tou, th gnwst filh

Klein (Klein bottle).

Eisgage na no tr-

po prosggishc thc gewmetrac qrhsimopointac jewra omdwn, (to gnwst


Prgramma

Erlangen,

1872).

Katalabanei ekola kpoioc akmh kai ap thn etumologa thc lxhc,


pwc o kldoc thc gewmetrac qei na knei me thn mtrhsh apostsewn. To
prwtarqik prblhma pou antimetpise loipn o

F. Klein

entopsthke sthn

perigraf tou ti enai h gewmetra, eidik h probolik gewmetra, epeid akribc, pwc edame sthn pargrafo 4, oi nnoiec thc apstashc kai thc gwnac
den qoun nhma sthn probolik gewmetra!

Antanakl h apnthsh th fsh thc diac thc probolikc gewmetrac.

floc mac o kallitqnhc thc Anagnnhshc gia pardeigma pou endiafertan


gia tic diaforetikc katyeic enc antikeimnou, dhmiourge gia prth for
to erthma sqetik me to
tblhtec se

poiec

allagc katyewn

idithtec

enc

antikeimnou

paramnoun

ame-

Edame kat th dirkeia tou majmatoc ti do diaforetikc katyeic enc


antikeimnou tan anaparstantai sto eppedo sundontai msw enc proboliko metasqhmatismo. H austhr majhmatik diatpwsh sunepc tou parapnw erwtmatoc afor to pljoc twn idiottwn pou paramnoun ametblhtc
ktw ap probolikoc metasqhmatismoc.

H prosggish

Klein

thc gewmetrac tan h melth anallowtwn posot-

twn ktw ap sugkekrimnec omdec metasqhmatismn.

An uiojetsei kanec aut thn prosggish thc gewmetrac, to prto zhtomeno enai o kajorismc thc omdac metasqhmatismn.

89

13.2

GLn

Omda

twn

Genikn

Grammikn

Metasqh-

matismn

Sthn perptwsh thc probolikc gewmetrac, en

enai nac pragmatikc

(qwrc blbh thc genikthtac) dianusmatikc qroc peperasmnhc dista-

dimV = n, kai en me P (V ) sumbolsoume ton antstoiqo probolik


qro auto (dimP (V ) = n 1), tte nac probolikc metasqhmatismc
: P (V ) P (V ) orzetai msw enc antistryimou grammiko metasqhmatismo T : V V (bl. Orism 4.1.2).
shc

Gnwrzoume ap th grammik lgebra pwc dojntoc enc pragmatiko dia-

dimV = n, to snolo lwn


L(V ) := {f : V V |f grammik apeiknish }
dianusmatik qro me sma dio me to sma tou V (en pro-

nusmatiko qrou

peperasmnhc distashc

twn grammikn apeikonsewn


apotele epshc

keimnw wc sma jewrome to sma twn pragmatikn arijmn).


ston

L(V )

orzontai me ton profan trpo:

Oi prxeic

o bajmwtc pollaplasiasmc

orzetai wc

(f )(v) := [f (v)],
pou

f L(V ), v V

kai

R,

kai to jroisma orzetai wc

(f + g)(v) := f (v) + g(v),


pou

f, g L(V )

kai

v V.

An

dimV = n,

tte

dimL(V ) = n2 .

Epshc ap th grammik lgebra gnwrzoume kai ta exc: an


tikc dianusmatikc qroc distashc

n,

tte isqei o isomorfismc

pragma-

V
= Rn

V , kje grammik apeiknish


f : V V mpore na anaparastaje me nan nn pragmatik tetragwnik pnaka. Sumbolzoume me Mn (R) to snolo twn n n tetragwnikn pinkwn me
pragmatik stoiqea. To snolo Mn (R) apotele epshc dianusmatik qro
(jerhma 3.1.1). Me thn epilog bsewn ston

me sma to sma twn pragmatikn arijmn kai prxeic ton pollaplasiasm


pragmatiko arijmo

pnaka (wc bajmwt pollaplasiasm) kai th gnwst

prsjesh pinkwn.

Apodeiknetai ekola pwc (

dianusmatiko qroi

L(V )

kai

Mn (R)

dimV = n)

oi pragmatiko

enai ismorfoi:

L(V )
= L(Rn )
= Mn (R).
'Enac antistryimoc grammikc metasqhmatismc
prgma me nan isomorfism. En
shc

T :V V

enai to dio

pragmatikc dianusmatikc qroc dista-

n pwc parapnw, sumbolzoume me LI (V ) to snolo lwn twn antistryiLI (V ) := {T : V V |T

mwn grammikn apeikonsewn (dhlad isomorfismn)

90

isomorfismc

}.

Apodeiknetai ekola pwc to snolo

LI (V )

apotele (mh-

Abelian) omda me prxh th snjesh twn antistryimwn grammikn apeikonsewn (isomorfismn).

En epilxoume bseic ston

V,

tte oi antistryimoi grammiko metasqh-

matismo anaparstantai me antistryimouc tetragwnikoc


pnakec.
mno

nn pragmatikoc

'Enac tetragwnikc pragmatikc pnakac enai antistryimoc en kai

en qei mh-mhdenik

. Sumbolzoume me

orzousa

GLn (R) := {A Mn (R)|det(A) 6= 0}


to snolo twn antistryimwn (dhlad me mh-mhdenik orzousa)
matikn tetragwnikn pinkwn.

Profanc

GLn (R) Mn (R).

nn

prag-

Me bsh tic

idithtec twn orizousn, ekola diapistnei kpoioc pwc to snolo

GLn (R)

apotele (mh-Abelian) omda me prxh ton pollaplasiam twn pinkwn.

Apodeiknetai epshc pwc oi omdec

LI (V ) ' GLn (R) (dimV = n).

LI (V )

kai

GLn (R)

enai ismorfec

H nnoia tou isomorfismo metax twn om-

dwn enai kpwc diaforetik ap thn nnoia tou isomorfismo metax dianu-

(G, ) kai (H, ) enai do omdec me


apeiknish f : G H lgetai omomorfismc

smatikn qrwn. Upenjumzoume pwc an


eswterikc prxeic
en h

kai

mia

diathre tic prxeic twn omdwn, dhlad en isqei to exc:

f (g1 g2 ) = f (g1 ) f (g2 )


pou

g1 , g2 G

kai

f (g1 ), f (g2 ) H .

'Enac omomorfismc pou enai epiplon

1-1 kai ep onomzetai isomorfismc.

Shmewsh 1:

O dianusmatikc qroc

Mn (R)

efodiasmnoc epiplon me

thn eswterik prxh tou pollaplasiasmo twn pinkwn apotele (grammik)


lgebra.

Orismc

1.

'Estw

tuqao sma.

To snolo lwn twn antistryimwn

T : Fn Fn apotele
thn omda GLn (F) twn genikn grammikn metasqhmatismn (General Linear
group). H eswterik prxh thc omdac enai h snjesh apeikonsewn. Me
bsh ta sa ekjsame parapnw gia thn perptwsh F = R, h omda GLn (F)
grammikn metasqhmatismn (dhlad isomorfismn)

mpore na tautiste me thn omda twn antistryimwn (dhlad me mh-mhdenik


orzousa)

nn

tetragwnikn pinkwn me stoiqea ap to sma

terik prxh to gnwst pollaplasiasm twn pinkwn.

91

kai esw-

Ac epanalboume ton skop mac:

jloume na orsoume to snolo twn

probolikn metasqhmatismn, oi opooi pwc edame prokptoun ap touc antistryimouc grammikoc metasqhmatismoc, dhlad ap thn omda

GLn (R).

Ja dome pwc to snolo twn probolikn metasqhmatismn apotele epshc


omda h opoa prokptei ap thn omda

GLn (R).

Prin mwc ap aut, qreia-

zmaste orismna stoiqea ap th jewra omdwn.

13.3

Stoiqea

'Estw

(G, )

Jewrac

Omdwn

pollaplasiastik omda, dhlad thn prxh

thc

ja th

lme pollaplasiasm (qwrc kat' angkh na tautzetai me to gnwst pollaplasiasm, en to oudtero stoiqeo thc prxhc ja to lme sumbolik monda
kai ta summetrik stoiqea ja ta sumbolzoume me to smbolo tou antstro-

N G lgetai upoomda en apotele to dio mia omda


me thn dia prxh pwc aut thc G. Ousiastik aut shmanei pwc to N
enai kleist wc proc thn prxh aut, dhlad n1 n2 N gia kje n1 , n2 N .
Apodeiknetai ti to uposnolo N G apotele upoomda thc omdac G en
kai mno en to N periqei to oudtero stoiqeo e = 1 thc prxhc kajc
kai ta summetrik lwn twn stoiqewn tou, dhlad en e = 1 N kai en
n N , to sumetrik n1 N .
fou). 'Ena uposnolo

Sthn omda

(G, ) orzoume mia sqsh isodunamac pou lgetai suzuga,

wc exc:

g1 g2 x G|g1 = xg2 x1 .
N thc omdac G ja lgetai kanonik upoomda kai ja
sumbolzetai N C G, en isqei to exc: n N kai g G isqei ti
g n g 1 N , dhlad me lla lgia mia upoomda enai kanonik en kai
Mia upoomda

mno en perilambnei la ta suzug stoiqea twn stoiqewn thc.

Shmewsh 1: Stic Abelianc omdec, kje upoomda enai kanonik diti

g n g 1 = g g 1 n = 1 n = n N .
'Estw

upoomda (qi kat' angkh kanonik) thc omdac

G.

Orzoume

thn exc apeiknish

N G G, (n, g) 7 n g
pou lgetai pollaplasiasmc ap arister me thn

N.

(Epeid genik oi omdec

den enai Abelianc, qei shmasa ap poi meri, dexi arister, pollaplasizoume).

92

Gia kje stoiqeo g G, orzoume to uposnolo Gg := {x G|x =


g y, y G} pou lgetai (dexi) troqi tou g . Dhlad h dexi troqi enc
stoiqeou g G enai to uposnolo Gg G pou prokptei an pollaplasisoume to g ap dexi me la ta stoiqea tou G.

G, tte oi troqic twn stoiqewn thc N lcosets) thc N sthn G. Sunepc do stoiqea
g1 , g2 G ja ankoun sto dio (arister) sunsnolo thc N sthn G en kai
mno en g2 = n g1 gia kpoio stoiqeo n N , dhlad isodnama en to
g2 g11 N . H nnoia tou sunsunlou apodeiknetai pwc orzei mia deterh sqsh isodunamac sthn omda G (diaforetik thc suzugac pou edame
pio pnw) pou lgetai
G
N : do
En

mia upoomda thc

gontai (arister) sunsnola (

arister

sunsnolo

thc

ap

thn

upoomda

stoiqea ja enai isodnama en ankoun sto dio (arister) sunsnolo.

Oi

klseic isodunamac enai ta arister sunsnola en to snolo phlko autc


thc sqshc isodunamac ja to sumbolzoume me

G/N .

Isqei to paraktw basik jerhma sth jewra omdwn (to ddoume qwrc apdeixh, o anagnsthc mpore na koitxei gia thn apdeixh se na kal
biblo lgebrac, lgou qrin ston prto tmo thc 'Algebrac twn
sto biblo 'Algebrac twn

Jerhma 1.

to

Bourbaki

MacLane-Birkhoff ):

To snolo phlko

G/N

apotele na omda en kai mno en

enai kanonik upoomda thc omdac

G.

) sthn omda G/N


orzetai wc exc: en A, B G/N , dhlad A = N a, kai B = N b oi
troqic kpoiwn stoiqewn a, b N , tte A B := N (a b), dhlad to A B
enai to stoiqeo pou antistoiqe sthn troqi tou a b, dhlad h apeiknish
p : G G/N me g 7 N g qei purna to N kai enai ep.
H epagmenh prxh (pou ja th sumbolzoume epshc

13.4

H Omda twn Probolikn Metasqhmatismn

GLn (R) jewrome to uposnolo I ,


monadiaoc n n pnakac (dhlad Iij = ij , pou ij
Kronecker, me i, j = 1, 2, ..., n). Dhlad I enai to
Sthn omda

pou

P GLn

kai

nn

Ekola diapistnei kpoioc pwc to snolo

snolo lwn twn mh-

mhdenikn bajmwtn pollaplaswn tou monadiaou pnaka, isodnama to


enai to snolo twn mh-mhdenikn diagniwn

to gnwst dlta tou

pragmatikn pinkwn.

apotele upoomda thc

GLn (R), (diti to ginmeno diagniwn pinkwn enai epshc diagnioc pnakac,
93

dhlad to snolo

enai kleist wc proc thn prxh tou gnwsto pollapla-

siasmo twn pinkwn), kai mlista kanonik upoomda, dhlad

I C GLn (R).

Tra ap ton orism twn probolikn metasqhmatismn msw antistreptn grammikn metasqhmatismn (bl.

Orism 4.1.1), prokptei mesa h

Shmewsh 4.1.1 pou lei ti do antistryimoi grammiko metasqhmatismo pou


o nac enai to bajmwt pollaplsio tou llou orzoun ton dio probolik
metasqhmatism.
phlko

Sunepc oi proboliko metasqhmatismo prokptoun wc to

GLn (R)/I ,

to opoo phlko, me bsh to jerhma 13.3.1 parapnw

apotele na omda diti

Orismc

1.

I C GLn (R).

'Eqoume loipn ton exc orism:

H probolik genik grammik omda

General Linear group),

P GLn (R) (Projective

enai h omda phlko thc omdac twn genikn grammi-

kn metasqhmatismn dia thn kanonik upoomda twn mh-mhdenikn bajmwtn


pollaplaswn tou monadiaou pnaka, dhlad

P GLn (R) =
Orismc

2.

'Estw

GLn (R)
.
I

kpoio mh-ken snolo. Sumbolzoume me

to snolo lwn twn apeikonsewn 1-1 kai ep ap to

Sym() := { : |
To snolo

Sym()

apeiknish 1-1 kai ep

Sym()

ston eaut tou, dhlad

}.

apotele omda me prxh th snjesh twn apeikon-

sewn, oudtero stoiqeo enai h tautotik apeiknish (kje stoiqeo antistoiqe ston eaut tou) en to summetrik kje stoiqeou enai h antstrofh
apeiknish (h opoa uprqei diti oi apeikonseic enai 1-1 kai ep).

Orismc

3.

Mia drsh miac omdac

morfismc omdwn

H probolik grammik omda

P (R )

se na snolo

enai nac omo-

f : G Sym().
P GLn (R)

dra tso ston probolik qro

so kai sto qro twn (probolikn) eujein tou

na me thn prosggish

Klein

P (Rn )

klp. Smfw-

thc gewmetrac loipn,

h (pragmatik) probolik gewmetra sunstatai sth melth twn posottwn pou paramnoun anallowtec ktw ap th drsh thc omdac

Shmewsh 1: Ta parapnw isqoun kai gia tuqao sma

94

F.

P GLn (R).

13.5

omda

eujeac

twn

probolikn

metasqhmatismn

kai Omoparallhliko

thc

Metasqhmatismo

Ja meletsoume thn aplosterh perptwsh thc pragmatikc probolikc

P (R2 ) kai th drsh


sqhmatismn P GL2 (R).
eujeac

pnw se autn thc omdac twn probolikn meta-

Se omogenec suntetagmnec h drsh perigrfetai wc exc:

(a0 + b1 , c0 + d1 )

En jewrsoume ta diansmata tou

grammc (dhlad pnakec

1 2),

(0 , 1 ) 7

wc diansmata

tte h parapnw drsh grfetai me morf

pinkwn wc exc (h omda dra ap dexi sta diansmata grammc):


(0 , 1 ) 7 (0 , 1 )

a c
b d

= (a0 + b1 , c0 + d1 ).

Ap to jerhma 4.2.1 gnwrzoume pwc kje trida diaforetikn shmewn


thc probolikc eujeac mpore msw katllhlou proboliko metasqhmatismo
na apeikonisje se opoiadpote llh trida shmewn.
trpoc na diakrnoume zegh tridec shmewn.

Sunepc den uprqei

Mporome mwc na diakr-

noume tetrdec diaforetikn shmewn msw miac anallowthc posthtac pou

cross-ratio):

lgetai staurwt phlko (

Orismc 1.

bolikc eujeac

r0 , r1 , r2 , r3 mia tetrda diaforetikn shmewn thc proP (R ) me omogenec suntetagmnec ri = (xi , yi ), i = 0, 1, 2, 3.


'Estw

To staurwt phlko orzetai wc exc:

(r0 r1 ; r2 r3 ) :=

(x0 y2 x2 y0 )(x1 y3 x3 y1 )
.
(x0 y3 x3 y0 )(x1 y2 x2 y1 )

Shmewsh 1: Allag tou antiproswpeutiko diansmatoc afnei thn parapnw kfrash ametblhth, ra enai kal orismnh.

Prtash 1.

To staurwt phlko enai anallowto ktw ap probolikoc

metasqhmatismoc.

Apdeixh:

Sta shmea

ri = (xi , yi ), i = 0, 1, 2, 3,

efarmzoume nan

probolik metasqhmatism

(xi , y1 ) 7

(x0i , yi0 )


= (xi , yi )

a c
b d


= (axi + byi , cxi + dyi ).

Ap kje parnjesh tou orismo tou staurwto phlkou prokptei nac


pargontac

(ad bc) (pou enai h orzousa tou pnaka metasqhmatismo),


95

gia

pardeigma upologzoume ton pargonta

x00 y20 x02 y00 = (ax0 +by0 )(cx2 +dy2 )(ax2 +by2 )(cx0 +dy0 ) = (adbc)(x0 y2 x2 y0 )
'Oloi auto oi pargontec thc orzousac aplopoiontai opte h arqik kfrash tou staurwto phlkou paramnei anallowth.

Gia mia bajterh katanhsh tou staurwto phlkou mporome na qrhsi-

Klein gia na aplopoisoume th gewmetra. Jewrome thn upoomda thc P GL2 (R) pou afnei na shmeo, stw r0 = (x0 , y0 ),
ametblhto, dhlad sqhmatik jloume na isqei r0 A = r0 . Parathrome
pwc an to shmeo aut qei omogenec suntetagmnec r0 = (0, 1), h parapnw
apathsh ikanopoietai gia kje pnaka A GL2 (R) thc morfc



A=
0
mopoisoume thn prosggish

dhlad gia pnakec me

b = 0 kai adbc 6= 0, pou a, b, c, d R.

Pio analutik

ja qoume


(0, 1)

a c
0 d


= (0, d)

pou sthn probolik eujea antistoiqe sto dio shmeo diti oi omogenec suntetagmnec diafroun kat na bajmwt pollaplsio

(0, 1) (0, d) = d(0, 1).

'Estw tra kpoio tuqao shmeo thc (pragmatikc) probolikc eujeac


me omogenec suntetagmnec

r = (x, y).

Efarmzoume sto shmeo aut na

metasqhmatism thc parapnw morfc

(x, y) 7 (x , y ) = (x, y)

a c
0 d

dhlad analutik

x 7 x0 = ax
kai

y 7 y 0 = cx + dy
r0 = (0, 1),
q := x/y , opte

An exairsoume to shmeo
suntetagmnec, stw

q 0 = x0 /y 0 =

mporome na metabome se anomogenec

c d
cx + dy
= + q = C + Dq
ax
a a

96

pou jsame

C := c/a

kai

D := d/a.

Me th qrsh loipn anomogenn sun-

tetagmnwn, katalxame sunepc sth drsh thc legmenhc omoparallhlikc


omdac metasqhmatismn

q 7 q 0 = Dq + C
To staurwt phlko enai sunepc mia anallowth posthta twn trin
shmewn

r1 , r2 , r 3

ktw ap th drsh autc thc omdac.

An loipn ston

orism tou staurwto phlkou parapnw antikatastsoume tic timc

(x0 , y0 ) = (0, 1)

ja proume ti

q3 q1
q2 q1

(r0 r1 ; r2 r3 ) :=
pou jsame

r0 =

qi := xi /yi ,

me

i = 1, 2, 3,

oi antstoiqec anomogenec suntetag-

mnec. An gia aplopohsh tou sumbolismo xeqsoume pwc h parapnw eujea


enai probolik eujea kai dome ta shmea

ri := xi R, tte ja proume pwc

(x0 x1 ; x2 x3 ) :=

x3 x1
x2 x1

pou enai h arnhtik tim tou lgou ston opoo diaire to shmeo
grammo tmma

x1

to euj-

x2 x3 .

H omoparallhlik gewmetra thc eujeac enai h melth twn posottwn


pou paramnoun anallowtec ktw ap th drsh thc omoparallhlikc omdac
metasqhmatismn thc morfc

x 7 x0 = ax + b.

Den uprqei h nnoia thc

apstashc metax do shmewn all mporome na pome gia pardeigma poio


enai to mso tou eujgrammou tmmatoc
gia to opoo isqei ti

x2 x3

parapnw: enai to shmeo

x1

x3 x1 = x1 x2 , dhlad to shmeo gia to opoo isqei


(x0 x1 ; x2 x3 ) = 1

Sthn probolik eujea, h parapnw enai mia idiaterh ditaxh shmewn pou
lgontai shmea armonik qwrismna:

Orismc

2.

'Ena snolo tessrwn shmewn thc pragmatikc probolikc

eujeac lgetai armonik snolo en to staurwt touc phlko enai so me

1.

H nnoia tou armoniko sunlou qarakthrzei thn pragmatik probolik


eujea pwc deqnei to paraktw jerhma:

Jerhma 1.

'Estw

: P (R2 ) P (R2 ) mia apeiknish 1-1 kai ep (amfei-

knish) pou apeikonzei ta armonik snola se epshc armonik snola. Tte

97

enai probolikc metasqhmatismc.

Jewrome ta shmea

Apdeixh:

nsmata

(0, 1), (1, 0)

kai

(1, 1)

x0 , x1

kai

x2

me antiproswpeutik dia-

antstoiqa. Ap to jerhma 4.2.1 gnwrzou-

me ti uprqei monadikc probolikc metasqhmatismc

xi 7 (xi ),
soume ti o
ti

=1

me

i = 0, 1, 2.

pou antistoiqe ta

Qwrc blbh thc genikthtac mporome na upoj-

afnei aut ta shmea ametblhta opte tte arke na dexoume

(h tautotik apeiknish).

(0, 1) = (0, 1), o


(0) = 0 kai (1) = 1.

Qrhsimopoiome anomogenec suntetagmnec, afo


orzei mia amfeiknish ap to

ston eaut tou me

Ap ton orism 13.5.2 tou armoniko sunlou parnoume

1
(x0 x1 ; x2 x3 ) = 1 x1 = (x2 + x3 )
2
Sunepc

(x0
opte afo o

1
x; x 0) = 1
2

apeikonzei armonik snola se epshc armonik snola ja

qoume

1
(x ( x); (x) 0) = 1
2
kai sunepc

1
1
( x) = (x)
2
2
Anloga ja qoume

(x0
opte

Sunepc

1
(x + y); x y) = 1
2

1
(x0 ( (x + y)); (x) (y)) = 1.
2
1
1
( 2 (x + y)) = 2 ( (x) + (y)) opte ap thn

parapnw sqsh ja

proume

(x + y) = (x) + (y).
'Epetai ekola ti

(x) = x (1) = x1 = x

gia kje rht arijm

Jewrome tra thn posthta

(x x; 1 x2 ) =

(1 x)(x2 + x)
= 1
(x2 x)(1 + x)
98

x.

Afo ap thn parapnw sqsh prokptei ti

(x) = (x) kai o

diathre

ta armonik snola, tte

( (x) (x); 1 (x2 )) = 1


opte

(x2 ) = (x)2 .

Dhlad o

apeikonzei jetikoc pragmatikoc arij-

moc se jetikoc kai afo epshc isqei ti

(x y) = (x) (y),

tte o

diathre kai th ditaxh twn pragmatikn arijmn.

x kpoioc rrhtoc arijmc kai (x) > x. Upr'Omwc tte q > x opte q = (q) > (x) pou enai

Tte mwc upojtoume ti


qei rhtc

metax touc.

topo, sunepc h
arijmoc.

enai h tautotik apeiknish gia louc touc pragmatikoc

Ap ta parapnw katalabanei kanec pwc stouc pragmatikoc arijmoc,


h nnoia tou armoniko sunlou enai to mno pou apaitetai gia na orisje h
omda twn probolikn metasqhmatismn kai kat' epktash, uiojetntac thn
prosggish

Klein,

thn probolik gewmetra thc pragmatikc probolikc eu-

jeac.

Shmewsh 1: Edame pwc oi proboliko metasqhmatismo thc eujeac ousia-

x 7 x0 = ax + b.
GL1 (R) = R, se megal-

stik enai oi omoparallhliko metasqhmatismo thc morfc


Ekola katalabanei kanec pwc epeid profanc

stw V pragmatikc dianusmatikc qroc


V
= Rn . Tte dimP (V ) = n 1. H omda twn pron
bolikn metasqhmatismn P GLn (R) tou proboliko qrou P (V ) = P (R )
distashc (n 1) prokptei pwc edame sthn arq ap to snolo (omda)
phlko GLn (R)/I . Mia deterh perigraf loipn thc omdac twn probolikn metasqhmatismn P GLn (R) tou proboliko qrou distashc (n 1)

terec diastseic isqei to exc:


me

dimV = n,

opte

enai pwc aut apoteletai ap thn omda twn omoparallhlikn metasqhmatismn h opoa, genikeontac aut pou edame sthn perptwsh thc probolikc
eujeac, apoteletai ap thn omda twn genikn grammikn metasqhmatismn

GLn1 (R) maz me tic metatopseic pou enai na epiplon antgrafo tou Rn1 .

99

14

Optik kai

Eidik

Jewra Sqetikthtac

Ja meletsoume wc efarmogc do gewmetrec pou orzontai ap do sugkekrimnec omdec metasqhmatismn pou qoun meglh praktik shmasa.

14.1

Optik

Gauss

H prth enai h grammik anlush optikn susthmtwn me nan xona


summetrac pou lgetai optik

Gauss.

Oi pio gnwstc diatxeic pwc ta

thleskpia, ta mikroskpia, prgmati qoun nan xona summetrac. An jewrsoume pwc o xonac summetrac enai o xonac

x0 x

sto fusik qro

R3

(efodiasmnoc me na Kartesian Ssthma Suntetagmnwn), tte to optik


ssthma apeikonzei aktnec fwtc tou epipdou

xy

se aktnec fwtc sto dio

eppedo.

Jewrome to eppedo

xy

me omogenec suntetagmnec

P (R3 )
y = x2 /x0

emfuteumno msa sto probolik eppedo

(x0 , x1 , x2 )

tsi ste

x = x1 /x0

kai

na enai oi anomogenec suntetagmnec.

Orismc 1.

smn

To snolo lwn twn antistryimwn grammikn metasqhmati-

T : F Fn

me

det(T ) = +1

apotele omda pou sumbolzetai

kai lgetai eidik grammik omda (

H optik tou
th

drsh

thc

ddetai ap th

Gauss
SL2 (R)

SLn (F)

special linear group).

enai h melth twn anallowtwn posottwn ktw ap

omdac

sto

pragmatik

probolik

eppedo

P (R3 )

pou

sqsh

(x0 , x1 , x2 ) 7 (ax0 + bx1 , cx0 + dx1 , x2 )


To stoiqeo thc omdac

SL2 (R)

enai o pnakac


T =

a b
c d

det(T ) = ad bc = 1. H omda SL2 (R) enai upoomda thc omdac


P GL3 (R) (omda twn probolikn metasqhmatismn tou proboliko epipdou
P (R3 )). Ta stoiqea (pnakec) thc omdac SL2 (R) metatjentai me tic anakl0
seic ston x x xona, kti pou enai aparathto gia na anapariston sustmata
0
(optikc diatxeic) gia ta opoa o xonac x x enai xonac summetrac miac kai
peristrof kat gwna (se aktnia) grw ap autn ton xona ddei thn
anklash sto eppedo xy . H fusik emperiqetai sthn apathsh h orzousa
twn pinkwn na enai sh me +1.

pou

100

H omda

SL2 (R)

dra sta shmea tou proboliko epipdou

kai sto duk eppedo twn eujein.


antistoiqe se nan pnaka

P (R3 )

kajc

'Ena optik ssthma (optik ditaxh)

T SL2 (R).

H drsh tou stic eujeec antistoiqe

me na metasqhmatism aktnwn fwtc se aktnec fwtc.

H drsh tou sta

shmea tou epipdou enai na pargei to edwlo enc shmeou.

Jewrome thn epdrash thc optikc ditaxhc se aktnec fwtc parllhlec


ston xona

x0 x.

Autc tmnontai sto probolik eppedo sto shmeo

(0, 1, 0).

T sunstatai ap tic aktnec pou dirqonT (0, 1, 0) = (b, d, 0) me qrsh anomogenn suntetagmnwn
x = d/b kai y = 0. H apstash x = d/b enai h estiak apstash thc optikc

eikna touc ktw ap th drsh tou


tai ap to shmeo

ditaxhc.

x-suntetagmnh enc shmeou, up thn epdrash tou T , metasqhmatzetai

smfwna me th sqsh

x 7

dx + c
bx + a

pou enai nac probolikc metasqhmatismc.

Sunepc,

ap thn Prtash

13.5.1, to staurwt phlko tessrwn shmewn ston xona

x0 x

enai to dio

me aut twn eiknwn touc ktw ap thn epdrash thc optikc ditaxhc.

Wc efarmog tou parapnw, jewrome na lept summetrik fak pou


brsketai sthn arq

tou sustmatoc suntetagmnwn me estiak mkoc

f.

T SL2 (R) pou perigrT () = f . Ap th summetra thc


1
ditaxhc, prokptei ti T
() = f kai epiplon T (0) = 0. En to edwlo
enc shmeou pou brsketai se apstash u arister tou fako brsketai se
kpoio shmeo se apstash v sta dexi tou fako, tte T (u) = v . Tra ap

Ap ton orism tou estiako mkouc, to stoiqeo


fei thn optik ditaxh qei thn idithta

thn analloithta tou staurwto phlkou ktw ap probolikoc metasqhmatismoc, prokptei ti

( f ; 0 u) = (T () T (f ); T (0) T (u)) = (f ; 0 v)
Sunepc ap ton orism 13.5.1 tou staurwto phlkou prokptei ti

0f
u + f
=
,
f
vf
dhlad

1 1
1
+ = ,
u v
f
pou den enai llh ap th gnwst sqsh thc optikc.

101

14.2

Eidik

Jewra Sqetikthtac

Sthn Eidik Jewra Sqetikthtac (

A. Einstein

1905), jewrome ton (ep-

pedo) qwrqrono tessrwn diastsewn wc to dianusmatik qro


tetagmnec

(x1 , x2 , x3 , t),

R4

me sun-

efodiasmno me thn exc tetragwnik morf

Q(v) = x21 + x22 + x23 c2 t2


pou enai gnwst sth fusik wc metrik

Minkowski

(h stajer

enai h ta-

qthta tou fwtc, pou apotele peiramatik dedomno).

Orismc

1.

Lorentz enai
v
7 Av + u, pou

H omda twn (anomogenn) metasqhmatismn

h omda twn metasqhmatismn

A : R4 R4 enai nac
th metrik Minkowski,
4
kpoio u R .

T :R R

thc morfc

grammikc metasqhmatismc pou diathre anallowth


dhlad isqei ti

Q(Av) = Q(v), v R4

kai gia

Ap gewmetrikc skopic, h eidik jewra sqetikthtac enai h melth


twn anallowtwn posottwn ktw ap th drsh thc omdac

Mia anallowth posthta enai arket profanc.

En

Lorentz.
v 1 , v2 R 4 ,

tte

Q(v1 v2 ) = Q[A(v1 v2 )] = Q[(Av1 + u) (Av2 + u)], sunepc h posthta Q(v1 v2 ) apotele mia anallowth posthta enc zegouc diaforetikn
4
shmewn tou R .
En exeidikesoume th melth mac sthn upoomda thc omdac

x 2 = x 3 = 0,

diathre anallowto to eppedo


smoc

(x, t) 7 (x + t + b1 , x + t + b2 )
kai

(ax + t)2 c2 (x + t)2 = x2 c2 t2


pou shmanei pwc


=

Sunepc nac metasqhmatismc

cosh u
c sinh u
c1 sinh u cosh u

Lorentz

qei th morf

x 7 x0 = (cosh u)x + c(sinh u)t + b1


kai

t 7 t0 = c1 (sinh u)x + (cosh u)t + b2


102

Lorentz pou

parnoume touc metasqhmati-

pou

sinh u

kai

cosh u

oi gnwstc uperbolikc trigwnometrikc sunartseic.

En milsoume me fusikoc rouc, oi metasqhmatismo

Lorentz

susqet-

zoun tic apyeic tou ksmou (metrseic fusikn megejn) do parathrhtn


(adraneiakn pou kinontai me stajer taqthta o nac wc proc ton llo),
kat' analoga me touc probolikoc metasqhmatismoc tou epipdou pou susqetzoun do diaforetikc katyeic tou idou antikeimnou.

En o parathrhtc me suntetagmnec
tetagmnwn

x = 0 t,

(x, t)

brsketai sthn arq twn sun-

tte o parathrhtc me suntetagmnec

(x0 , t0 )

parathre

x0 = c(sinh u)t + b1
kai

t0 = (cosh u)t + b2
dhlad parathre na antikemeno pou kinetai me omal taqthta

dx0
= c tanh u = v,
dt0
prgma pou prosddei stouc parapnw metasqhmatismoc thn gnwst ap th
fusik morf

1
x0 = q
1
kai

t0 = q

En

x = ct,

taqthta tou

v2
c2

(x + vt) + b1

(
v2
c2

vx
+ t) + b2
c2

x0 = ct+staj, opte antikemena pou


fwtc c se kpoio ssthma anaforc, ja

tte

kinontai me thn
kinontai me thn

dia taqthta kai se kje llo ssthma anaforc. Gia tic llec taqthtec
mwc uprqei mia analogik diaforopohsh. Den enai to katllhlo mroc gia
na mpome se perissterec leptomreiec gia thn eidik jewra sqetikthtac.
Epanalambnoume me mfash to gewmetrik gegonc pwc ta basik stoiqea
thc eidikc jewrac sqetikthtac prokptoun mesa ap thn analloithta
ktw ap thn omda

Lorentz

pou apotele thn omda summetrac thc eidikc

jewrac thc sqetikthtac. H sqsh thc omdac

Lorentz

me touc probolikoc

metasqhmatismoc (tou migadiko epipdou) ja apotelsei to antikemeno tou


epmenou kefalaou.

103

15

Upoomdec

thc

Probolikc

Migadiko Epipdou

H omda

P GL2 (C)

ep'

tou

P GL2(C)

dra sth migadik probolik eujea

autc prokptei me thn prosjkh enc


arijmoc

Omdac

peiron

shmeou

P (C2 ).

O qroc

stouc migadikoc

kai qrhsimopoietai suqn kai sth migadik anlush.

Topologi-

k enai mia sfara me pragmatik distash 2 (kai migadik distash 1)

S2

pwc edame sto pardeigma 3.6.5, kti pou fanetai kai ap thn paraktw
amfeiknish

(z0 , z1 ) 7 (

z0 z 0 z1 z 1 z1 z 0 + z0 z 1 z1 z 0 z0 z 1
,
,i
)
z0 z 0 + z1 z 1 z0 z 0 + z1 z 1 z0 z 0 + z1 z 1

H parapnw amfeiknish apeikonzei na shmeo thc migadikc probolikc eujeac

P (C2 ) me omogenec suntetagmnec (z0 , z1 ) se na dinusma (x1 , x2 , x3 )

pou ikanopoie th sqsh

x21 + x22 + x23 = 1


Jewrome thn upoomda thc omdac
(antistryimoi

C2 C2

22

GL2 (C)

pou apoteletai ap ta stoiqea

migadiko pnakec) pou metatjentai me thn prxh

S :

stic akloujec periptseic:

(i)S(z0 , z1 ) = (0, z 0 ), S 2 = 0
(ii)S(z0 , z1 ) = (z 1 , z 0 ), S 2 = 1
(iii)S(z0 , z1 ) = (z 0 , z 1 ), S 2 = +1
Autc oi prxeic den apotelon grammikoc metasqhmatismoc sto sma twn
migadikn arijmn all par' la aut, toulqiston stic do teleutaec periptseic, ddoun mia kal orismnh apeiknish ap th migadik probolik
eujea ston eaut thc, miac kai

S(z0 , z1 ) = S(z0 , z1 ),

zei na monodistato migadik dianusmatik upqwro tou


Sumbolzoume aut thn apeiknish me

En

T GL2 (C)

T =
a, b, c, d C

kai

C
: P (C2 ) P (C2 ).

apeikon-

ston eaut tou.

orzetai ap ton pnaka

me

opte h

ad bc 6= 0,

a b
c d

kai en h

,
S

enai aut thc perptwshc

tte

ST (z0 , z1 ) = (0, az 0 + bz 1 )
104

(i),

kai

T S(z0 , z1 ) = (bz 0 , dz 0 ),
tte parathrome ti
meo

(0, 1)

T S = ST b = 0

kai

paramnei kajorismno ap la ta

h parapnw omda metasqhmatismn dra sto

z = z1 /z2 .

T
C

d = a.

To ep' peiron sh-

san to parapnw, sunepc


me anomogen suntetagmnh

Enai o metasqhmatismc

z 7 a1 (az + b) = ei z + k
Afo

|T z1 T z2 | = |ei z1 + k ei z2 k| = |z1 z2 |,
o parapnw apotele metasqhmatism pou diathre th gnwst apstash thc
Eukledeiac gewmetrac kai ra diathre th gnwst eppedh Eukledeia gewmetra. H omda aut mwc den sumperilambnei kai tic anaklseic pou epshc
diathron tic apostseic. H plrhc Eukledeia omda se tuqaec diastseic
ddetai ston paraktw orism:

Orismc 1.

enai h omda twn metasqhmatismn


pou

A : R n Rn

T :R R

uR

thc morfc

enai nac grammikc metasqhmatismc pou diathre anal-

lowth thn Eukledeia metrik, dhlad isqei ti


gia kpoio

n-diastseic
v 7 Av + u,

H omda twn Eukledeiwn metasqhmatismn stic

Q(Av) = Q(v), v Rn

kai

. Upenjumzoume pwc h Eukledeia metrik ddetai ap thn

tetragwnik morf

Q(v) = x21 + x22 + ... + x2n .


H omda twn metasqhmatismn pou perigryame pio pnw apoteletai ap thn
upoomda thc Eukledeiac omdac tou

R2 = C

pou diathre ton prosanatoli-

sm.

Jewrome tra thn

thc perptwshc

(ii).

Ap ton orism thc amfei-

knishc pou tautzei th migadik probolik eujea me th 2-distath sfara,


prokptei pwc h drsh thc

sth migadik probolik eujea antistoiqe kje

shmeo thc 2-distathc sfarac sto antidiametrik tou shmeo. Sthn perptwsh aut

ST (z0 , z1 ) = (cz 0 + dz 1 , az 0 bz 1 )
kai

T S(z0 , z1 ) = (az 1 bz 0 , cz 1 dz 0 ).
Sunepc

T S = ST b = c

kai

a = d.

105

H omda twn metasqhmatismn thc migadikc probolikc eujeac (sfara


2-diastsewn) pou orzetai ap aut thn

thc perptwshc

(ii),

metatjetai

me thn antidiametrik apeiknish (autn pou antistoiqe kje shmeo sto antidiametrik tou). Sunepc an

enai nac probolikc metasqhmatismc pou

ankei sthn en lgw omda, tte ja isqei ti

'Estw

x, y P (C2 )

= .

do diaforetik shmea ttoia ste

y 6= (x).

T-

x, y, (x), (y), sunepc mporome


(x y; (y), (x)). Afo to staurwt

te apoktme tssera diaforetik shmea


na sqhmatsoume to staurwt phlko

phlko enai anallowto ktw ap touc probolikoc metasqhmatismoc,

(x y; (y) (x)) = ( (x) (y); ((y)) ((x))) = ( (x) (y); ( (y)) ( (x))).
Sunepc aut h sunrthsh twn zeugn shmewn enai anallowth ktw ap
thn omda twn probolikn metasqhmatismn pou metatjentai me thn

Mpo-

rome loipn na th qrhsimopoisoume gia na orsoume mia apstash (metrik)


metax twn shmewn pou enai anallowta ktw ap th drsh thc omdac.
H metrik aut enai arket gnwst pwc ja dome.
kai

y = (w0 , w1 ),

Jtoume

x = (z0 , z1 )

qrhsimopointac omogenec suntetagmnec, opte ap ton

orism 13.5.1 tou staurwto phlkou qoume

(x y; (x) (y)) =

(z0 w0 + z1 w1 )(w0 z 0 + w1 z 0 )
(z0 z 0 + z1 z 1 )(w0 w0 + w1 w1 )

x,
y R3 enai do monadiaa diansmata
x kai y msw thc amfeiknishc metax thc dis-

Ap thn llh meri mwc an


pou antistoiqon sta shmea

distathc sfarac kai thc migadikc probolikc eujeac, tte to eswterik


(bajmwt) ginmeno ddetai ap thn exc sqsh:

x
y :=
(z0 z 0 z1 z 1 )(w0 w0 w1 w1 ) + (z1 z 0 + z0 z 1 )(w1 w0 + w0 w1 )

(z0 z 0 + z1 z 1 )(w0 w0 + w1 w1 )

(z1 z 0 z0 z 1 )(w1 w0 w0 w1 )
=
(z0 z 0 + z1 z 1 )(w0 w0 + w1 w1 )

z0 w0 + z1 w1 )(w0 z 0 + w1 z 0 )
.
(z0 z 0 + z1 z 1 )(w0 w0 + w1 w1 )

Sunepc (x y; (y) (x)) = x y = cos , pou enai h gwna pou sqhma

tzoun ta diansmata x kai y . Opte an orsoume thn apstash (metrik)


=

wc

d(x, y) := cos1 (x y; (y) (x)),


106

autc o orismc ddei th suntomterh apstash kat mkoc enc mgistou


kklou pou sundei do shmea pnw sth sfara (migadik probolik eujea).

Jewrome tra thn teleutaa perptwsh

(iii)

S.

thc

S ddei apl
GL2 (C) pou metatupoomda P GL2 (R)
Tra h

to migadik suzugc enc shmeou opte h upoomda thc


jetai me thn

enai h omda

GL2 (R)

opte ddei thn

P GL2 (C).
En to

(z0 , z1 )

enai pragmatik, tte ktw ap thn amfeiknish metax

thc disdistathc sfarac kai thc migadikc probolikc eujeac, h pragmatik


probolik eujea msa sth migadik probolik eujea apeikonzetai sto mgisto kklo

x3 = 0.

'Eqoume dh dei th gewmetra thc pragmatikc probolikc

eujeac ktw ap th drsh thc omdac

P GL2 (R).

'Omwc autc o (mgistoc)

kkloc tmnei th sfara se do hmisfaria kai h omda dra se kajna ap


aut.

Jewrome th drsh thc


ap th sqsh

x3 < 0.

P GL2 (R)

Afo to shmeo

sto hmisfario, stw

(0, 1) P (C )

H,

pou orzetai

den brsketai se aut

to hmisfario, mporome na qrhsimopoisoume thn anomogen suntetagmnh

z = z1 /z0

h opoa apeikonzei to

sto nw hmieppedo

Argand,

dhlad stouc

migadikoc arijmoc me jetik fantastik mroc.

(x) enai tra to migadik suzugc tou shmeou x kai brsketai


hmieppedo Argand. Sunepc, dojntwn do shmewn z, w H ,

To shmeo
sto ktw

mporome na sqhmatzoume na anallowto staurwt phlko

(z w; w z) =

|z w|2
4=(z)=(w)

opte mporome na orsoume thn apstash (metrik)

d(z, w) := sinh1

p
(z w; w z)

H gewmetra pou orzetai ap th drsh thc omdac


ppedo

Argand,

P GL2 (R)

sto nw hmie-

lgetai uperbolik gewmetra. Aut emfanzetai sthn Eidik

Jewra Sqetikthtac.

107

16

16.1

To Axwma

To

thc

Eukledeio

Parallhlac

Athma

H gewmetra tou nw migadiko hmiepipdou me th drsh thc omdac metasqhmatismn

P GL2 (R),

apkthse meglh spoudaithta sta tlh kurwc

tou 19ou aina diti apotele na pol sugkekrimno pardeigma, to prto


istorik, miac mh-Eukledeiac gewmetrac. Gia polloc ainec h anjrwpthta
jewrose pwc h skyh tou Eukledh pou sungage ta gewmetrik jewrmata ap autapdeiktec nnoiec kai aximata, antiprospeue qi apl na
pol epituqhmno montlo tou fusiko ksmou ston opoo zome all kai
mia apluth logik dom. Par tata, uprqe na axwma to opoo fntaze
partairo kai smfwna me thn kratosa poyh ja prepe na aporrei ap
ta uploipa aximata. Ousiastik apotelose jerhma, na jerhma mwc
tou opoou h apdeixh mac difeuge!

O roc pou qrhsimopoijhke gia thn

perigraf tou enai axwma kaltera athma thc parallhlac, miac kai o
roc athma, shmanei akribc aut:

mia prtash pou pisteoume ti isqei

all den mporome na thn apodexoume. Me ta lgia tou diou tou Eukledh,
aut perigrfetai wc exc: ...an mia eujea tmnei do llec eujeec tsi ste
h eswterik gwna thc diac pleurc na enai mikrterh ap do orjc gwnec,
tte oi do eujeec an proektajon aperirista ja sunanthjon sthn pleur
sthn opoa oi gwnec enai mikrterec ap do orjc.

Diforec isodnamec diatupseic parousisthkan kat kairoc, swc h


pio gnwst diatpwsh enai aut tou

P
P

ektc miac eujeac


kai den tmnei thn

l,
l.

Playfair

to 1795: Ap dosmno shmeo

uprqei monadik eujea pou dirqetai ap to shmeo

Oi perissterec prospjeiec gia thn apdeixh autc thc prtashc qrhsimopoiosan th mjodo thc

eic topon apagwgc

. To topo pou prospajosan

na katalxoun tan pwc to jroisma twn gwnin enc trignou tan mikrtero ap do orjc, wstso lec oi apodexeic eqan ken. 'Eprepe na perimnoume mqri thn emfnish twn

Gauss, Bolyai, Lobatchevsky

gia na apodeiqje

pwc ntwc uprqei mia gewmetra, h legmenh uperbolik gewmetra, sthn


opoa ikanopoiontai la ta aximata tou Eukledh

ektc

ap to axwma

thc parallhlac. Me lla lgia, o Eukledhc eqe knei ljoc sthn eikasa
tou kai fusik lec oi apodexeic pou eqan parousiaste tan ntwc lanjasmnec diti aplostata h prtash pou prospajosame na apodexoume tan
ljoc:

to axwma thc parallhlac den prokptei ap ta uploipa aximata

thc gewmetrac tou Eukledh, all enai telewc anexrthto!

(H perptwsh

swc jumzei thn gnwst istora me to axwma thc epilogc kai ta uploipa 9

108

aximata

16.2

Zermelo-Fraenkel

Ta

Aximata

thc axiwmatikc jewrac sunlwn).

thc

Eukledeiac

Gewmetrac

Ta aximata tou Eukledh apkthsan pio austhr kai sgqronh diatpwsh

D. Hilbert sta tlh tou 19ou, arqc tou 20ou aina. Ta aximata thc
Eukledeiac gewmetrac tou Hilbert xekinon me kpoiec prwtarqikc nnoiec
ap ton

pou den mporon na oriston kai prokptoun ap thn anjrpinh diasjhsh.


Autc oi prwtarqikc nnoiec sth sgqronh axiwmatik jemelwsh twn majh-

B. Russell kai labe thn plrh morf thc me ta


Zermelo-Fraenkel me qwrc to axwma thc epilogc), onomzontai
enorseic (intuitions). Ttoiec nnoiec enai h nnoia tou
, thc
,

matikn (pou xeknhse ap ton


aximata

shmeou

h nnoia tou

periqesjai

qi se kpoia eujea), h nnoia tou

nce

eujeac

(h sqsh shmeou kai eujeac, an na shmeo ankei


anmesa

zeugn shmewn kai h nnoia thc

, h nnoia thc

sumfwnac (

congrue-

sumfwnac (

congruence

metax gwnin.

Ta aximata enai ta paraktw pnte (qrhsimopoisame thn agglik metfrash tou rgou twn

I.

Aximata

Hilbert and Cohn-Vossen: Geometry and the Imagination ):


(

Perstashc

Axioms of Incidence)

1.

Ap do diaforetik shmea dirqetai monadik eujea.

2.

Kje eujea periqei toulqiston do shmea.

3.

Uprqoun toulqiston tra shmea pou de brskontai sthn dia eujea.

II.
1.

Aximata

Ditaxhc

Axioms of Order)

Ap tra tuqaa shmea pnw se mia eujea, mno na ex autn brsketai

metax twn llwn do.


2.

En

kai

ston na shmeo
3.

enai do tuqaa shmea se mia eujea, tte uprqei toulqi-

thc eujeac pou brsketai metax twn shmewn

kai

B.

Kje eujea pou tmnei mia pleur enc trignou, ete pern kai ap thn

apnanti (trth) koruf tou trignou ete tmnei kai kpoia llh pleur.

III.
1.

Aximata

Sumfwnac

Axioms of Congruence)

Se mia eujea, na dosmno eujgrammo tmma mpore na topojethje kai

stic do meric enc dosmnou shmeou. To eujgrammo tmma pou kataskeuzetai me ton trpo autn enai smfwno (

congruent) me to dosmno eujgrammo

tmma.
2.

En do eujgramma tmmata enai smfwna me kpoio trto, tte enai

smfwna kai metax touc.


3.

AB kai A0 B 0 enai do smfwna eujgramma tmmata kai en ta shC kai C 0 pou brskontai sta AB kai A0 B 0 antstoiqa enai ttoia ste

En

mea

109

na ap ta eujgramma tmmata sta opoa to

AB

diairetai ap to

A0 B 0

smfwno me na ap ta eujgramma tmmata sta opoa to


to

C 0,

tte kai to llo eujgrammo tmma tou

eujgrammo tmma tou


4.

AB

na enai

diairetai ap

enai smfwno me to llo

AB.

Mia dojesa gwna mpore na topojethje me monadik trpo se kajema

ap tic do meric miac dosmnhc hmieujeac, opte h gwna pou kataskeuze-

congruent)

tai me autn ton trpo na enai smfwnh (


5.

me th dosmnh gwna.

En do pleurc enc trignou enai sec me tic antstoiqec do pleurc

enc llou trignou kai en kai oi perieqmenec stic do autc pleurc antstoiqec gwnec enai sec, tte ta trgwna enai smfwna (

IV.
Ap

Axwma

kje

th dosmnh

V.
1.

Parallhlac

shmeo

AB

Axiom of Parallelism)

eujeac

dirqetai

monadik

eujea

pou

den

tmnei

eujea

Aximata

En

ektc

congruent).

kai

Sunqeiac

CD

Axioms of Continuity)

enai do tuqaa eujgramma tmmata, tte sthn eujea

AB uprqoun shmea A1 , A2 ,...,An ttoia ste ta eujgramma tmmata AA1 ,


A1 A2 , A2 A3 ,...,An1 An na enai smfwna me to CD kai to shmeo B na brsketai metax twn shmewn A kai An .
2.

Kje peirh akolouja ap fwliasmna eujgramma tmmata (pou to na

brsketai msa sto llo,

nested segments),

Sqlio (gia th metfrash):

qei na koin shmeo.

H metfrash tou rou

congruent

wc sm-

fwnoc prokptei ap to poltomo lexik Agglikc Glssac thc Oxfrdhc


pou grfei sto lmma aut, wc prth ermhnea, ta exc:

fact or condition of according or agreeing.


qrhsimopoietai o roc

moioc

congruence: the

Sthn ellhnik bibliografa suqn

gia thn apdosh tou

congruent.

Den uiojet-

same aut th metfrash gia trec lgouc: o prtoc enai aut pou gryame
parapnw gia thn ermhnea tou rou sthn Agglik.

O deteroc lgoc enai

ti me ton ro moioc apoddetai sta ellhnik h agglik lxh

similar.

O tr-

toc lgoc enai o exc: ap to gumnsio emaste sthn Ellda exoikoiwmnoi


me ton ro moioc, gia pardeigma ap ta trgwna: ex orismo, do trgwna
lgontai moia en qoun tic gwnec touc ma proc ma sec. Ap to Axwma III
5 fanetai ti h qrsh tou rou

congruent

ap ton

Hilbert

shmanei aut pou

sto gumnsio kalosame isthta trignwn kai qi omoithta.

Ex orismo,

do trgwna lgontai sa en oi pleurc touc enai sec ma proc ma. To axwma III 5 tou

Hilbert

sto gumnsio sthn Ellda parousizetai wc na ap

ta legmena kritria isthtac twn trignwn. H ousa pntwc enai pwc ap


ta parapnw fanetai pwc o roc moioc den enai swstc gia na apodsei

110

thn agglik lxh

congruent en tautqrona dhmiourge sgqush me aut pou

(orjc qi) gnwrzoume ap to gumnsio afo shmanei soc kai qi moioc


(bbaia do sa trgwna enai pntote kai moia all to antstrofo fusik
den isqei).

congruence, congruent

Shmeinoume tloc pwc o roc

uprqei

kai sth jewra arijmn kai shmanei thn idithta do akraiwn arijmn pou an
diairejon kai oi do me ton dio trto akraio arijm afnoun to dio uploipo.

16.3

probolik

gewmetra

kai

ta

aximata

tou

Eu-

kledh

Jewrome tra to nw migadik hmieppedo

H , th drsh thc omdac P GL2 (R)

se aut kai th metrik sunrthsh

d(z, w) := sinh1

p
(z w; w z).

Aut mac epitrpei na orsoume sumfwna metax zeugn shmewn: ta zegh


shmewn

(z1 , w1 )

kai

(z2 , w2 )

enai smfwna en kai mno en

d(z1 , w1 ) = d(z2 , w2 )
H omda

P GL2 (R) emplketai sthn nnoia thc sumfwnac msw thc paraktw

prtashc:

Prtash

1.

'Estw

(z1 , w1 )

Tte uprqei monadik stoiqeo

kai (z2 , w2 ) do smfwna zegh shmewn.


P GL2 (R) ttoio ste z2 = (z1 ) kai

w2 = (w1 ).
Apdeixh:

kai ta shmea

Jewrome ta tra diaforetik shmea

z1 , w1 , w1 C P (C2 ),

z2 , w2 , w2 . Ap to jerhma 4.2.1 uprqei monadikc proboli P GL2 (C) ttoioc ste (z1 ) = z2 , (w1 ) = w2 ,

kc metasqhmatismc

(w1 ) = w2 .

'Omwc epeid ta zegh enai suzug, o orismc thc apstashc

msw tou staurwto phlkou shmanei ti

(z 1 w1 ; w1 z1 ) = (z 2 w2 ; w2 z2 ) = (z 2 (w1 ); (w1 ) (z1 ).


Sunepc, ap thn analloithta tou staurwto phlkou ktw ap probolikoc metasqhmatismoc, qoume

(w1 ) = (w1 ).

(z 1 ) = z 2 .

Me lla lgia qoume do lseic, tic

ktw migadik hmieppedo thc exswshc

az + b
az + b
=
.
cz + d
cz + d
111

(z 1 ) = (z1 ) kai
z = z 1 kai z = w1 sto

Opte qoume

z ),

Aut enai mia tetragwnik (trinumo wc proc

me fantastikoc suntele-

stc:

(ac ac)z 2 + (bc bc + ad ad)z + (bd bd) = 0


h opoa ete mhdenzetai ek tautthtoc ete qei pragmatikc migadikc suzugec rzec.

Aut mwc enai adnato diti oi

z1

kai

w1

qoun arnhtik

fantastik mroc. 'Ara h sqsh (exswsh)

az + b
az + b
=
cz + d
cz + d
isqei ek tautthtoc, opte o probolikc metasqhmatismc
th (migadik) suzuga, opte

metatjetai me

P GL2 (R). 

H sumfwna mpore sunepc na orisje msw miac gewmetrikc knhshc tou


qrou

(nw migadik hmieppedo):

uprqei na stoiqeo

do zegh shmewn enai smfwna en

P GL2 (R) pou na apeikonzei to na zeugri shmewn

sto llo zeugri shmewn.

16.4

Eujeec

tou

nw

migadiko

hmiepipdou

H . O orismc pou
w1 enai to snolo

Ja prpei na orsoume eujeec sto nw migadik eppedo


ddoume enai o exc: h eujea pou ennei ta shmea
twn shmewn

zH

z1

kai

pou enai ttoia ste to paraktw staurwt phlko na

enai pragmatikc arijmc:

(z 1 w1 ; w1 z) R
Faner, ap thn analloithta tou staurwto phlkou, h omda

P GL2 (R)

apeikonzei eujeec se eujeec.

Gia na dome me ti moizoun autc oi eujeec, jewrome

z1 = i kai w1 = ia.

Ap thn Prtash 16.3.1 kje eujea enai isodnamh, ktw ap thn drsh thc
omdac, me mia eujea autc thc morfc. Apoktme loipn

(z 1 w1 ; w1 z) = (i ia; ia z) =

(1 a)(z ia)
(z + i)2

to opoo enai pragmatik en kai mno en to

enai fantastik.

olklhroc o fantastikc xonac apotele mia eujea.

112

Sunepc

Oi uploipec eujeec apoktntai efarmzontac th drsh twn stoiqewn

P GL2 (R)

sto fantastik xona. Brskoume ti h

iat + b
ict + d

z=

a, b, c, d R, perigrfei mia eujea parllhlh sto fantastik xona


c = 0) nan kklo pou metasqhmatzetai ston eaut tou ktw ap th
migadik suzuga z 7 z opte tmnei to fantastik xona orjognia.

pou
(an

ia kai ib tou fantastiko xona ja enai:


r
p
1
(a b)2
1
1
d(ia, ib) = sinh [ (ia ib; ib ia)] = sinh [
] = | log b log a|
4ab
2
H apstash metax do shmewn

Sunepc en parametrsoume to jetik fantastik hmixona me th sunrthsh

iex ,

h apstash enai apl h Eukledeia apstash kat mkoc miac eujeac.

Aut ddei ta aximata sunqeiac

1 kai

2 kajc epshc kai ta aximata

III 1 kai III 3, kajc kai ta aximata II 1 kai II 2 maz me ta aximata I 2 kai
I 3.

To gegonc ti uprqei monadik gramm pou ennei do diaforetik shmea, prokptei faner ap to gegonc ti loi oi kkloi (pou antiproswpeoun
tic eujeec), tmnoun to fantastik xona to pol se na shmeo.

16.5

Gwnec

sto

nw

migadik

hmieppedo

'Eqontac orsei tic eujeec thc gewmetrac mac (pou pwc edame enai ete
eujeec parllhlec sto fantastik xona ete kkloi), seir qoun oi gwnec.
Uprqei mia arijmhtik gwna metax do eujein h opoa diathretai anallowth ktw ap th drsh thc omdac
sto eppedo (

Argand) R2 = C.

P GL2 (R), kai aut enai h sunjhc gwna

Aut sumbanei diti oi metasqhmatismo

z 7

az + b
cz + d

enai olmorfoi, sunepc pwc gnwrzoume ap th migadik anlush diathron


tic gwnec. Aut arke gia na proume to axwma III 4. Mporome bbaia na
qrhsimopoisoume kai thn omda metasqhmatismn:

Prtash

1.

Uprqei monadik stoiqeo

mia hmieujea se mia llh hmieujea.

113

P GL2 (R)

pou apeikonzei

Apdeixh:

Ap thn Prtash 16.3.1 kje hmieujea, msw thc drshc enc

stoiqeou thc omdac, mpore na apeikonisje sthn hmieujea

z = it (t 1).

kai enai do ttoioi metasqhmatismo, tte uprqei metasqhmatismc


= 0 1 P GL2 (R) pou kajorzei th fantastik monda i kai apeikonzei
En

thn hmieujea ston eaut thc. 'Omwc tte

(it) =
ap to opoo petai ti

enai


c=0

kai

iat + b
= is, t 1
ict + d
b = 0.

En

(i) = i,

tte

a/d = 1,

opte to

o tautotikc metasqhmatismc (monadiaoc pnakac). Sunepc

0 = .

Qrhsimopointac ta parapnw, blpoume pwc uprqei monadikc trpoc


na metasqhmatiston do hmieujeec me koin arq kpoio shmeo stw
se do hmieujeec me koin arq to shmeo

wH

z H,

tsi ste mia hmieujea ap

ta zeugria na tautzetai. H sumfwna gwnin kajorzetai ap to en tautzontai kai oi llec do hmieujeec ap ta jewromena do zegh hmieujein.

H parapnw diadikasa apotele thn exghsh thc lxhc

...na topojethje

(sthn kajemi pleur miac dosmnhc hmieujeac...), pou anagrfetai sto axwma III 4.

Oi metasqhmatismo thc omdac

P GL2 (R)

diathron tic pleurc

(dhlad ton trpo pou aisjanmaste to qro), opte gia na topojetsoume


thn gwna sthn antjeth pleur thc hmieujeac ja qreiazmastan na geniktero metasqhmatism. 'Omwc h anklash ston xona

y0y

z 7 z
diathre epshc tic apostseic, afo

(z w; w z) = (z w; w z)
Aut h anklash se mia hmieujea mpore na qrhsimopoihje gia thn plrh
dikaiolghsh kai ikanopohsh tou Aximatoc III 4.

16.6

Suzuga

Trignwn

To mno enapomenan Axwma enai to III 5 pou afor th suzuga trignwn.


En do trgwna me korufc stw ta shmea tou nw migadiko hmiepipdou

z0 , z1 , z2

w0 , w1 , w2 antstoiqa, qoun d(z0 , z1 ) = d(w0 , w1 ) kai oi gwnec


twn korufn z0 kai w0 enai suzugec, tte, (pijann met ap mia katllhlh
kai

114

anklash), ap thn Prtash 16.3.1 petai ti uprqei monadikc metasqhma-

P GL2 (R)

(z1 ) = w1 kai o opooc


apeikonzei thn hmieujea pou dirqetai ap ta shmea z0 kai z2 sthn hmieujea
pou dirqetai ap ta shmea w0 kai w2 . Mporome mwc na parametrsoume

tismc

ttoioc ste

(z0 ) = w0

kai

th gramm me ton Eukledeio trpo qrhsimopointac thn apstash (to mkoc


txou), opte an

d(z0 , z2 ) = d(w0 , w2 ), tte z2 = w2 . 'Ara o metasqhmatismc


z0 , z1 , z2 sto trgwno w0 , w1 , w2 kai su-

apeikonzei olklhro to trgwno

nepc lec oi pleurc kai lec oi gwnec enai smfwnec.

'Omwc, to axwma thc parallhlac olofnera den isqei: uprqounn pollc eujeec pou dirqontai ap to shmeo stw

z
/ iR

kai pou den tmnoun to

fantastik xona.

H gewmetra pou perigryame parapnw lgetai kai uperbolik gewmetra


tou epipdou.

'Etsi

blpei

to Eukledeio eppedo kpoioc omal epitaqun-

menoc parathrhtc smfwna me th Genik Jewra thc Sqetikthtac tou

Einstein.

115

A.

17

Parrthma

Gia eukola stouc anagnstec, parajtoume sto parrthma touc orismoc


thc omdac, tou daktulou, tou smatoc, tou dianusmatiko qrou, thc (grammikc) lgebrac, thc emfteushc kai thc embptishc.

A na mh-ken snolo. Wc eswterik prxh sto A ennoome mia


: A A A. En A, F do mh-ken snola, tte wc exwterik
sto A ennoome mia apeiknish : F A A.

'Estw

apeiknish
prxh

'Estw to zegoc

Orismc 1.

nolo

(G, )

pou apoteletai ap na mh-ken s-

efodiasmno me mia eswterik prxh

To zegoc

(G, )

ja lme ti

apotele omda en ikanopoiontai oi exc idithtec:


(a).

Isqei h

prosetairistik idithta

a (b c) = (a b) c, a, b, c G.

e G pou ja lgetai oudtero stoiqeo (thc pre g = g e = g , g G.


0
Gia kje stoiqeo g G uprqei stoiqeo g G pou lgetai summetrik
0
0
stoiqeo tou g (wc proc thn prxh ), ttoio ste g g = g g = e.
Uprqei na stoiqeo

(b).

),

xhc

gia to opoo isqei ti

(g).

Apodeiknetai ekola pwc to oudtero stoiqeo kai to summetrik stoiqeo (kje stoiqeou) se mia omda enai monadik.

(G, ) isqei kai h antimetajetik idithta, dhlad en


isqei ab = ba, a, b G, tte h omda lgetai antimetajetik Abelian.
En sthn omda

Paradegmata omdwn apotelon ta zegh

(Z, +), (R, +), (C, +),

dhlad

ta snola twn akraiwn, pragmatikn kai migadikn arijmn antstoiqa me


prxh th gnwst mac prsjesh.

Orismc 2.

(R, +, ) apotelomenh ap na mh-ken snolo R


+ (pou sunjwc ja th lme prsjesh
tautzetai me th gnwst prsjesh) kai (pou sunjwc

Mia trida

efodiasmno me do eswterikc prxeic


qwrc kat' angkh na

ja th lme pollaplasiasm qwrc kat' angkh na tautzetai me to gnwst


pollaplasiasm) ja lgetai daktlioc en isqoun ta exc:

(R, +) apotele Abelian omda.


isqei h prosetairistik idithta.

(a).

To zegoc

(b).

Sthn prxh

(g).

H prxh

enai epimeristik ap dexi kai ap arister wc proc thn

+, dhlad isqoun ta exc:


x (y + z) = x y + x z kai (y + z) x = y x + z z , x, y, z R.
prxh

En h prxh

tou pollaplasiasmo enai antimetajetik, tte o dakt-

116

lioc lgetai antimetajetikc daktlioc.

En uprqei oudtero (monadiao)

stoiqeo wc proc thn prxh tou pollaplasiasmo

tte o daktlioc lgetai

daktlioc me monda.

Paradegmata daktulwn enai ta

(Z, +, ), (R, +, ), (C, +, ),

dhlad ta

snola twn akraiwn, pragmatikn kai migadikn arijmn me tic sunjeic


prxeic thc prsjeshc kai tou pollaplasiasmo.

Orismc 3.

(F, +, ) apotelomenh ap na mh-ken snolo F


+ (pou sunjwc ja th lme prsjesh
tautzetai me th gnwst prsjesh) kai (pou sunjwc

Mia trida

efodiasmno me do eswterikc prxeic


qwrc kat' angkh na

ja th lme pollaplasiasm qwrc kat' angkh na tautzetai me to gnwst


pollaplasiasm) ja lgetai sma en isqoun ta exc:

(F, +, ) apotele metajetik daktlio me monda.


F := F {0} (pou me 0 sumbolzoume to mhdenik stoiqeo, dhlad

oudtero stoiqeo thc prsjeshc), tte to zegoc (F , ) apotele omda.

(a).

H trida

(b).

En

to

Dhlad sma enai nac metajetikc daktlioc me monda tou opoou la


ta mh-mhdenik stoiqea qoun antstrofo.

Paradegmata swmtwn apotelon ta snola twn rhtn, pragmatikn kai


migadikn arijmn efodiasmna me tic gnwstc prxeic thc prsjeshc kai tou
pollaplasiasmo.

Orismc 4.

'Estw

eswterik prxh 
pou ja th lme

+

sma kai

pou ja th lme

bajmwt

prsjesh

pollaplasiasm

dianusmatikc qroc (me sma

(V, +)

na mh-ken snolo efodiasmno me mia

F)

kai me mia exwterik prxh  

. H tetrda

(F, V, +, )

ja lgetai

an ikanopoiontai oi exc idithtec:

(a).

To zegoc

(b).

O bajmwtc pollaplasiasmc ikanopoie tic exc idithtec (upojtoume

apotele Abelian omda.

, F kai a, b V ):
(a + b) = a + b
( + ) a = a + a
() a = ( a), pou
ti

sthn arister parnjesh ennoetai o pollapla-

siasmc metax twn stoiqewn tou smatoc

1 a = a,

pou

1F

plasiasmo) sto sma

to monadiao stoiqeo (oudtero stoiqeo tou polla-

F.

Paradegmata dianusmatikn qrwn me sma touc pragmatikoc arijmoc


apotelon ta snola twn elejerwn dianusmtwn tou epipdou kai tou qrou.

117

Mia pentda

Orismc 5.

V,

mh-ken snolo

(F, V, +, , ) apotelomenh ap na sma F, na


+ kai sto V (pou ja tic lme

do eswterikc prxeic

antstoiqa prsjesh kai pollaplasiasm qwrc kat' angkh na tautzontai me


th gnwst prsjesh kai to gnwst pollaplasiasm) kai mia exwterik prxh

sto

V,

dhlad

: FV V,

(pou ja th lme bajmwt pollaplasiasm),

ja lgetai (grammik) lgebra ep tou smatoc

F, en isqoun ta exc:
(F, V, +, ) apotele dianusmatik qro me sma to F.
H trida (V, +, ) apotele daktlio me monda.
Isqei h exc idithta: (f g) = ( f ) g = f ( g), F
f, g V .
(a).

H tetrda

(b).

(g).

kai

Paradegmata pragmatikn (grammikn) algebrn (peperasmnhc distashc) apotelon ta snola

Mn (R),

(gia

nN

me

1 < n < ),

twn

nn

pragmatikn tetragwnikn pinkwn me prsjesh th gnwst prsjesh twn


pinkwn, pollaplasiasm to gnwst pollaplasiasm twn pinkwn kai bajmwt pollaplasiasm to gnwst pollaplasiasm (pragmatiko) arijmo

pnaka.

Pardeigma pragmatikc (grammikc) lgebrac peirhc distashc apote-

C0 (R) := {f : R R|f

le to snolo

suneqc kai

f (x) < , x R}

twn peperasmnwn suneqn pragmatikn sunartsewn miac pragmatikc meH prsjesh kai o pollaplasiasmc sto C0 (R) orzontai kat
pointwise), qrhsimopointac tic antstoiqec prxeic sto R wc exc:
(f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x), kai (f g)(x) := f (x)g(x), f, g C0 (R). O baj-

tablhtc.
shmeo (

mwtc pollaplasiasmc orzetai pli kat shmeo qrhsimopointac ton pollaplasiasm metax twn pragmatikn arijmn wc exc:

f C0 (R)

( f )(x) := f (x),

R.

kai

Gia na dsoume ton orism thc emfteushc kai thc embptishc, prpei na
gnwrzoume orismnec basikc nnoiec ap thn topologa.

Arqzoume me ton

paraktw orism:

Orismc

6.

'Estw

mh-ken snolo. Mia klsh

lme pwc orzei mia topologa sto

XT

T,

(b).

H nwsh opoioudpote pljouc meln thc

(g).

H tom opoiwndpote do meln thc

foume mno to snolo

pou

Isqei ti

(X, T )

uposunlwn tou

en ikanopoiontai ta paraktw:

(a).

To zegoc

kai

to ken snolo.

ankei epshc sthn

ankei epshc sthn

T.

T.

lgetai topologikc qroc all gia suntoma ja gr-

qontac katastsei safc poia topologa jewrome

kje for (ap ton orism fanetai kajar pwc kje snolo epidqetai pol-

118

lc topologec). Ta mlh thc

lgontai anoiqt uposnola tou sunlou

X.

An sto snolo

R orsoume wc anoikt uposnola ta gnwst anoikt diastmata (x, x+) me kntro kpoio tuqao shmeo x R kai aktna , pou
 kpoioc jetikc pragmatikc arijmc, tte o dianusmatikc qroc R apotele topologik qro kai h sugkekrimnh topologa lgetai sunjhc topologa
tou

R.

To parapnw genikeetai me profan trpo stouc dianusmatikoc q-

rouc megalterhc distashc

Rn ,

pou tra ta anoikt uposnola ja enai

anoiktc sfarikc perioqc distashc


aktna

me kntro kpoio shmeo

x Rn

kai

.

'Estw

mia epifneia (pollaplthta distashc 2). Qwrc na mpome se

pollc leptomreiec, mpore kanec na katalbei pwc oi epifneiec (kai geniktera oi pollaplthtec), apotelon autmata topologikoc qrouc diti ex'
orismo enai topik omoiomorfikc me ton topologik qro
me ton

Orismc

7.

Ja lme ti h epifneia

enai emfuteumnh ston

enai omoiomorfik me kpoio uposnolo tou

globally)

so

locally),

'Olec oi epifneiec embaptzontai ston

R3

en

En h emfteush den

all mnon topik (

ti h epifneia enai embaptismnh ston

R2

jewrontai efodiasmna me thn sunjh topologa).

mpore na gnei sunolik (

(geniktera

gia pollaplthtec megalterhc distashc, pou tso to

kai geniktera to

R2

tte ja lme

R3 all den emfuteontai lec ston

. 'Iswc ta pio gnwst paradegmata epifanein pou den mporon na emfu-

teujon ston

R3

enai h epifneia

eppedo) kajc kai h filh

Klein.

Boy

pou edame (to pragmatik probolik

To prblhma sunjwc ofeletai sto ti

an epiqeirsoume na sunarmologsoume touc topikoc omoiomorfismoc gia na


proume mia apeiknish pou na enai sunolik omoiomorfismc, h apeiknish
aut apotugqnei na enai sunolik 1-1, gia pardeigma sthn epifneia

Boy

uprqei na legmeno tripl shmeo pou katastrfei thn sunolik kataskeu


(all tautqrona knei thn melth thc topologac twn epifanein pol pio
endiafrousa)!

Tloc shmeinoume pwc uprqei kai lloc isodnamoc orismc gia thn emfteush kai thn embptish pollaplottwn all apaite proqwrhmnec gnseic jewrac pollaplottwn pou xepernon ton skop tou en lgw majmatoc
(qrsh efaptmenwn desmn kai efaptmenwn qrwn pollaplottwn).

Gia

ton endiafermeno anagnsth parapmpoume se na kal biblo diaforikc


gewmetrac, (gia pardeigma to biblo twn

119

Kobayashi, Nomizu).

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