"

a...

It"
l

1;Il
..
2. ...

~r
., 2:
n

i:
.

I..

'Pf;

m '.....

t t'..

[
!i~f

2-

:'

(f.....

...

'

It

'"

hJ:

",.

...::J:.

~
flI

. "

"

~.l ~~

Q.

~,
.l ~
~
It ~.

11>"

!M>l

r..: ~.I.

i.
.,
....

tIl~ I

>T'

i. '

~..
g~.
1;1
'~.rJ'l

.
-.

~
-

faiLure" tool Hfe. effects of? cutti:n;gparaTIEters on lool llife",tool :faiilurecriteria.

Taylo ....s tool life equation. proolenE on toullffe evaluation.
7 Hou!l:S
UNIT 2:
Cutting tool ma1eriah:

Desired properties". types of cutting tool .1JIlaf.eriaIs_

HSS? carbides coated carbides. ceramrcs CHitLing
fluids. Desired Properties,.
types and selection.
Heat ~1!le.-afim1 in metal .cutting":factors afrettil1g .beat
Fneration..
Heat distribution
in tool :and ""'tp~l\>:feasUTelDent: of tool tip
;f.e;mper.rture~

llNIT3:

Tun:riDg

(Lame)", 8Ilapin;g' and phuming

~ines::
.. Classification"
consf.ructiortal matures or turret and caps.tan lathe. tool layout" shaping 1ID"c"
planniDg IID"c"drivi'll(g :meen.anis:ms0'1' Ia.tne" shaping and pl:anni:ng :m.am1]1le:S,.
opemti.on:s. on Jathe.~sbapiDg Tuachine and. planning ~inee

UNIT 4:
Drilling
~bines::
ClLassificaliDIl;,consrructronru
fea:t::ure~drilUng
oiperaHon.~types of drill &. drill bit nomenclature . denl nUlterial.s..

.............................
-

PART-B

"

.& related

UNITS:
:MiUiDgmachines:: Classification.

constn:ictional <features., mini~1iclifJ1:ern

11l0DEoclature" IIIIUUng,o;per:atio:ns" up nli:lilllllgand tID'WD mt"1.1ing:
concepts..
Im:lexing;: SiHIrple~compound,. differential and. anglJibr indexing calculations.
Sinple pr.oble:mson s.t:~le and co;mpound indexi!El:&e
UNIT:6:
Grinding
IDadtine.s: "Types of abrasi'l.'es. honding prooess .., dassificaltiion.
consuucHonaJ
Imitures (c:yHooEicru
and surface ~nding),.
:selection .of
p.naling:""ihee'lL
;6 Hou!l:S

UNIT 7:
I:"aping and

,Honing DilaJclliines: Principles

of ope:mtion.,

appJications.

UNITS:
Non-traditional
IlDadlining
pruces.Ses:
Prii:nci.pie~
equ:ipH1eut"
o;pera:UO'n and .LBil""[~plasnn
ace :IJi1acf\ining,. ,E"1ectm c!beJl1!1ical m;3cIDL1Fllng.
ulllnisonic :rn.:.tdhimD& abrnsive let :nnacbinin.g"",
wMerjelt
IH3!chi:Tliii'ng:.
..

need..

2~

3.

L
2..

80

WT.ol"ksbop'Jedluo'Jogy by
.& PubHshe.lrsPvt.. LJd. 2004

Hazara Cboudn.ry.

VOI-illI" :f\.'ledia P'rOlUlters

.'
ProductionTecliuology by R.K..Jain. Khanna Publications.
2003.
Produdion 1edllDolo.gJ~by H.~1T.Tata MacGraw Hin~ 200'1,

Maniluaclurimg Science by ADJiltabha 'Gbosh and MalJUk,. ::lllfiiliiated East

""resl Press. 2OfJ3.
,i"qndaDleIJ:tah of' J:\Ifetal .l\\<faebiuing and; .l\\<fachiine 'TooL.. by G_
Boothroyd. McGra".....Hill .. 2tJOO,
-

Question to be sel: fn:nn.eacb cllapter_ Students ha'!o'e'to ans ....-.er a(l'l!y.FIVE

questi.ODS out of' EE('1/Hir questions., cRorcl-.simg.
al Ie&<;.![ 2; questions
Jroru
A and 2 qu.es.tlo:ns [In:)U p"'dirt. B.

'1)

J!{ Sem B EExaminatien

MANUFACTURING PROCESS ..II

[Common toME/JP

IIMI AU IMAJ

MODEL QUESTION

PAPER'

Time: 3 Hrs.]
[Max. Marks: 100
Note: Answer any five :fi.I1IQuestions; oItoosingat least 2 Questionsfren each part. .
PART A
Explain the following with a neat .tch
i) Side reHefangle
ii) Rake angle
iii) End&side cutting edge angle iv) Clearance angle
b) 'Ih an eXperiment on an orthogonal cutting a chip length 95 mm was obtained from an uncut chip
length of 225 mm while cutting with a tool of 20~'C
angle using a depth of cut of 0.5 mm.
Detennine the shear plane angle. friction angle and cfiip'thickness, if the horizontal and vertical
.,~com~Qf.Cutting
force are 1200 Nand 360 N respeCtively.
'.~
"~"""-.:'~'
-

..... ;~

--~ 1 - ;"'a}

(8)

ra.~!t

2
-t-

--

~rWhat are::lfi~fmCliil=t1i~acteristics

a cutting tool material should posses.

~'b)'"'""Mention~~ffE!cfS1>f adding following alloying elements in tool materials. Also mention

.

approximat$''Pe(c~'U~ge-of each element.

i) Carbon
:.ii) Chromium
iii) Tungsten
.. c) ....ExpiainJhethree~zones of heat generation in metal cutting

3
.---:,;_- ...

;(6)-

..... -.-.:-:~ ..

-,

-.

-'-':~..!'-::'~'.

(6)

'-'.'-'.'~":';

(6)

(SF

a)
b)
c)

With a neat"sketch explain'the turret indexing mechanism.

Describe the working and construction of a crank quick return mechanism of a shaper,
What are the main operations performed on planner? Explain.

(6)
(8)
(6)

a)
b)

Give the detailed classification of drilling machine.

With _a neat sketch explain the following operations which are performed on drilling machine.
i) Reaming
ii) Internal Thread cutting..
.....
.' Four.holes are to be drilled through asteel plate of 20 mm thick. Diameter of the hole is 15
mm. Drilling is carried out at a cutting speed of 25 mlmin and feed of 0.1 mm/rev. Assuming
approach and over travel fo be 3 111meach, calculate the machining time for all the four holes.

(6)
(8)

c)

PARTS
5

a)
b)

c)

Differentiate between-up milling and down milfing operations

..: .
A CSOsteel flat surface of .100X250 mm is to be produced on a horizontal axis milling machine. A -.'
+ISS slab mill of 10D mil) diameter and 150 mm width is to be used for the purpose. The milling
cutter has 8 teeth. Calculate the machining time assuming that the entire stroke cal) be removed in
one depth of 2 mm. Take cutting speed as 20 mlmin and feed 0.13 mm/teeth.
Show the calculation for indexing 111 division in a milling machihe.-The following index_plate are
available.
Plate No.1
Plate No. 2
Plate No. 3

a)
b)
c)

15
21

23

17
27

18
29

37

39

41

43

16

19
31
47

(8)

20
33

49

What are natural and artificial abrasives? Why are laHer preferred over the former?
Write a note on dressing and truing of grinding Wheel.
Explain the factors to be considered while selecting a grinding wheel.

al'~What'are the purposes of lapping and homing?

b) What are the governing parameters of lapping process? Discuss the influence of those
parameters.
c} How honing is done. How does it differ from lapping process? Discuss.
a)
b)

(4)

With a neat sketch, the operations of ECM.list its industrial applications

With a neat sketch, explain the working principle of abrasive jet machining. States its advantages.

(6)
(06)
(8)
.-";

(6)
(8)

(6)
(10)
(10)

t~_7-

IV Sem B E Examination

MANUFACTURING PROCESS _II

[Common toME I IP lIM I AU IMAl

MODEL QUESTION PAPER

Time: 3 Hrs.]
[Max. Marks: 100
Note: Answer any five full Questions, choosing at least 2 Question'Sfrom each part.
PART A
1

a)

Explain the forrowingwith a neat sketch

i) Side relief angle
ii} Rake angle
iii) End & side cutting edge angle
iv) Clearance angle
b) In an experiment oli orthogonal cutting a chip lengtl,J of 95 mmwas obtained from all
uncut chip length of 225 mm while cutting with a tool of 20 rake angle ariing a depth of
cut of 0.5 mm. Determine the shear plane angle,. friction'angie(::chip thickness if
hOrizol1tal & vertical components of cutting force are 1200 Nand 360N respectively.

a) What are desirable properties of cutting tool material?

..
b)' Discuss the salienrfeatutes 6fooafed carbides and ceramics. Comment on their
suitability
as'cutting't.oolmaterials: "
.
,
,

a)

DeSClibeiIle constructional features of a .turret, lathe. How in R diflereirt from an engine

lathe.

b)

Draw a tool layout for hexagonal headed bolt in a capstan lathe.

a)
b}

Sketch and explain the nomenclature of a twist drill.

Explain any five operations earnedin drilling machine using simple sketch

(8

(1~

(8;
(12

(12
(8)

(10
(10:

PARTB
5

a)

b)
e)

Differentiate between
i) Up and down milr!1lg: ii} Peripheral and face milling
iii) Simple and differential indexing'
Write a brief note on end milling cutters.

(9),
_

With neat sketch explainthe principle of operation of dividing head attachment used on
mIlling machin~.

(3)
(8)

a}

Differentiate between

b)

i)
Plunge cut and traverse grinding
ii)
In-feed and through feed grinding
Discuss the advantages and limitations of the centre less grinding operations.

a)

Explain the forrowingwith sketches

i) Honing
ii) lapping .

a)

With a neat sketch, explain the working principle of abrasive jet machining; State its
. advantages and limitations.
,

b)

Explain with a neat sketch ECM process. state Usindustrial applicationsand advantages

(12)

(08)
(20)

(10)
(10)

10MElAU/PMrrL45
Fourth Sem.ester B.I. Degree Examination" June 2012
Manufacturing Process -II
Time: 3 hrs,

Ma.'t. Marks: 100

Note: An.JWel'FIVefull '1#e$t;qlf~selecting

tit least TWOqueRWM./n1m eb ptlrl.

PART-A
I

a. Wilb neat sketches, explain clearly the di:iferem types of chips by enumerating the
c:oJ\didQns under \\'hidJ each 'Il3riety of chip will ~ IDnncd.
(., Mark5~
b. MUd sted bars of 50 mm di~ter are to be: turned over a Itnilb of 160 mm wtth a depth of
Cllt of 1.5 mm, teed of'O.2 mmlrev at 230 rpm by H5S toot If the tool life equation is glcn
by, VTJl..2rflJd{iU "'"SO. determine how many compol1ii?nBmay be turned befoffe regrinding of
the too I.
(07M.rk$~
C. Write an explanatory note on tlank wear.
(1M M",r'ks~

'1

"b.
c.

..

I ,ior;'~,. rl:pl\!!in thr ""''1!'Pm~j~1P!QP~ff~'p ..f':;-:11ttins tf,\l'llmllt"..ri.lll..

li:5Uhe various functions ofa cutting fluid in meta) cutting;
Slate:the vnrious mcthnd5 of meltSurins Ih~ tool tip temperature
otthem with Ilealsteteh.

(rut'\\brk;~
pp

~MMaNl ..

and hence explain anyone

(es M."8~

Distinguish clearly between sh~jng and planing,

b. Explain <:Iearly me taU stock ol\r.;;ctmethod ofupcrturn_ng in a Isthe.
c. With a neat sketch. explain cleMly the construction aM wottingofa shapero
a,

(94 Marks)

C01Marks)
(09 1\>1slr'ks~

With a neat diagram. explain briefly the coostn;tion and vrrorking principle or upright
dritHng machine. State its relative merits and demerits.
O' Marks)
h. E~plain brieily with su'tab~ sketches the various operations to be perfumed 00 a drilling
a,

machine,

O. Marks)
PA.RT-B

a. With the aid of :Hlil~bJe sketches. explain dearly the C(lncepts of up miltiIflg and down
milling.
I
With a neat s,ketch. explain briefly the w0r.king of'a universal dividing head.
c. Differentiate between simple indexing 00 compound inde;in~.

h.

3,10

D.

W...ith .. ..De.ilt s.t.e...tc':h... e.,xp

...lain dearly
grinding machine.
Explain the following:

the J01l$.trttctiLm
.

and ,,'otting

principle

(08 ~tarlB)
({III IMa"s)

(lHM .... ~)

of :. surface
(" ~b"',)

I}. T)'1'<' of .b""ives .'.:%.!din grind.. ing jeela.

ii) Dressing and tru ing of srindin,g wheelr
7

a. Distinguish clearl)< Dctween push broach ~nd pull broach.

b. What is. oofling? With.1} neal sketch, explain clearly the vtrtkal honlrlJg machine.
c, Explain with ;;1ne41t s.ketch. the proc~ss oflapping.

a.

(ot,Marb)

With a OC:~t 5ket~h, explain clearly the principle Qfworking ~ndoI,.'(In5UU(;ti~)n

ora Abnt!iivt;:
Water Jet Mru::hiIfling (A \V.l 1'0.1). Slate the pl'OOeS5parameters.

(It Martis)

b. Explain briefl;,( the principle of EDM. with It neat sketch. Li5t the variQt.Js factors afkcling
the MRR in EDM pr'l.~ss and explain any {me of them.
nt Marks)

IIIIIIIIIII

USN

06ME45

Fourth Semester D.E. Degree ExamjDation~.June/.July2011

Man~facturlngProcess - ..
Time: 3 hrs.

Max. Marks:l00

Note: Answer FIYEfuU lJuestionsseiecting

III/east TWO questJonsJi'omeach part.
PART-A
1

How is 'TOOL LIFE' defined? On what factors does the tool life depend?
(06 Marks)
What is TAYLOR's Tool life equation? CaJculatethe cutting speed for a tool to have a tool
life of 160 min. The same too) had a life of 9 minutes when cutting at 250 mlmin.
Take n =0.22 in the Taylors tool life equation.
(08 Marks)
c. Why can relief or clearance aJ?gIesnever be zero or negative? ~
is the effect of cutting
speed, feed rate and depth of cut on the force on cutting tool?
.. ""'"
(06 Marks)

a.

a.
b.

Write short notes on the folloWing cutting tool maleQ

i) Carbon steels
li) High speed steels
iii) Ce
b. Discuss briefly "Temperature distribution in metal f
measuring chip-tool interface temperature.
~.
a,

DijferentiatebetweenCAPSTAN
and
How shapers are classified? Explain b .
neat sketch.......
c. State the main differences
II _

..
.

b.

Draw a neat sketch

nomenclature.
b. Find the time requir
thickness = 30
c. List various work
B.

<,

5 a. Expl~fly

(Jl.Marks)

g". List the various methods of

(08 Marks)

TIlES~

ex Return Mechanism"

(86 Marks)

used in sbaper with

(II Marks)
(N Marks)

~.,

DRILL by showing

various

parts and expJam its

(II Marks)

6 holes of 16 mm dia-each on a flange. Assume flange

speed = 20 mlmin, feed = 0.2 mmlrev.
devices used in a DRILLING machine.

(06 Marks)
(04 Marks)

~
~~

PART-B

with neat sketch the following MILLING operations:

i) Fa~~jrmg
ii) Angular Milling iii) End Milling
(09 Marks)
b. __
~ the calculation for indexing 28 equal divisions in a milling machine. The folio wing

~lates areavaileble:
Plate No. I
15

c.
(;

16
17
18
19
Plate No. 2
21
23
27
29
31
Plate No. 3
37
39
41
43
47
Find the simple mdexing arrangement.
List and explain briefly the various attachments used in milling machine.

20

33
49
(06 Marks)
(05 Marks)

a. Explain the factors to be kept in mind in selecting a GRINDING WHEEL.

(08Marks)
b. Describe the "CENTRE LESS GRINDING PROCESS". What are the various feeding
methods used in centrelcss grinding?
(08 Marks)
c. What are naturaI and artificial abrasives?
(04Marks)

10f2

USN

I I I I I \1 n I I I
Fourth Semester D.E. Degree Ex.amiDation, May/June ,2010
Manufacturing Processes - n

Time: 3hrs.

Max. Marks:~OO
Note: Answer any FIVE fuN qJU!sdons. seJeding
at least TWO questions from eachpart.

PART-A
1

a. With a neat sketch, explain the various parameters which make up the tool sigJ13tureof a
single point cutting tool.
(08Marks)
b. Derive an expression for the shear angle in orthogonal cutting, in terms of rake angle and
chip thickness ratio.
(08 Marks)
c. Explain the functions of cutting fluids.
(04 Marks)

a. Explain the factors which affect the machinbility of a material

(08Marks)
b. A cast iron bar stock was turned at 50 mlmin, for which,
ife was 3 hours. For the
same material, at 40 mImin, the tool life was 5 hours. F' ,
alue of constant c and D in
the Taylor's tool life equation. Also, state tb~.typeOf\:J. \,
terial based on the value ofn.
(08 Marlls)
c. With neat sketches. explain flank and crater wear
3
(04 Marks)
a. WIth the help of a neat sketch, explain the tune
~xlng mechanism.
(D8Marks) ,
b. E"Plain the working of a hydraulic shaper
, with a neat sketch.
. (08Marks)
c..
shaper and planer in,terms o~
.on, type of workpiece and aj,p~=)..

cOmPare

4" .~

Draw a neat diagram of a radial ~~Chine.

Name all the parts and explain the
principle of operation.,
' .
(08 Marks)
b. Explain the following operati
simp1esketches :
i) Reaming;
ii) Boring
1) Counterboring
iv) Trepanning.
(08 Marks)
c. Sketch and explain the no
me of a twist drill.
(04 Marks)
PART-B

..

a. Differentiate betw
i)
Up - milli ".~ down milling
ii)
Simple'
and compound indexing.
(08 Marks)
b. 69 teeth of 4~p hear are to becut around the periphery of a cylindrical blank, Recommend
a suitab
ing mechanism.
(06 Marks)
c. With~
ketch, explain the woncing of an universal dividing head.
(06 Marks)

a. ~~
centre1ess grinding process with a neat sketch. Also discuss the advantages and
Iimitations of the same.
.
(08Maills)
b. Write a note on : i) Dressing.and truing of grinding whee1s ; Ii) Wheel balancing. (08Marks)
c. With an example, explain the specifications of a grinding wheel.
(04 Marks)
a. Explain the following, with neat sketches : i) Honing ;. ii) Lapping.
(19 Marksj
b. List the, factors which affect the Japping'process. Discuss the influence of these;paramet~'
on lapping,
(10 Marks)
a. Explain the principle of Laser Beam Machining [LBM}, with a neat sketch.
(08Marks)
b." With a schematic diagram, explain the ultrasonic machining process [USM].
(08Marks)
c. Discuss the applications and limitations of non - conventional machining processes ov
conventional machining processes.
(04 Marks) I

s
o
;z

'1
Theory of Metal Cutting
Introduction:
Metal cutting or "Machining" is the process of producing a
workpiece by removing unwanted material from a block of metal, in the form of
chips. This process is most important since almost all the products get their final
shape and size by meta] removal, either directly or indirectly. The major drawback
of the process is loss of material in the form of chips. Inspite of these drawbaks,
the machining process has the following characteristics:
1. They improve the dimensional accuracy and tolerances of the components
produced by other processes.
2.. Internal and external surface features which are difficult or notpossible to
by other processes, can be produced by machining processes.
3. Specified surface characteristics or texture can be achieved on a part or
whole of the component. .
4. It may be economical to produce a component by machinieg process.
In this chapter, we shan have a fundamental understanding of the basic
meta) cutting process.

..be produced

Machining of materials is basically adopted to get higher surface finish, close

tolerance and complex geometric shapes, which are otherwise difficult to obtain.
Of all the manufacturing processes available, metal removal is probably the most
expensive one. This is because a substantia! amount of materia! is removed from
. ,.~the. raw material ~ the form of chips in order to achieve the. required Sh~pe:Also,
a lot of energy IS expended when no other manufactunng process ISUlfs the
purpo~e. However.,. invariably all components undergo a .material,: removal
. operation at some pornt.
I
I

Essentially five conditions are to be met in machmitrg processes.

I. There has to be a tool. The tool win have sharp cutting edges and a suitable

.geometry to carry out cutting effetely.

:
2. Tool should harder than the workpiece. I
... 3. There should a relative speed between the workpiece and the tool. There is
recommended range of values for cutting speed, depending on-the work
material and tool materIal. For obtaining this speed, the work or tool is
reciprocated or rotated at a specified revolution per minute. The peripheral
speed of tool or workpiece is the cutting speed.
.
_.- 4. There should be some interference between the tool and workpiece. This is

called depth of cut

5. The tool should advance info the workpiece by a small amount per every
revolution of the tool or workpiece. This is called.the feed,

Metal. cutting machines and tools

..

.Metal cutting processes are performed on metal cutting machines, more

commonly termed as Machine Tools by means of various types of cutting
tools.
A machine tool is a power-driven machine, so designed that it is capable of
holding and supporting the job to be worked and at the same time direct and
drive the cutting tool or job or both to perform a defmite metal removing
operation in order to produce a desired shape of predetermined size on the
job surface which is being machined.
A cutting tool is a body having teeth or cutting edges on it. A single point
cutting tool (such as a lathe tools) has only one cutting edge, whereas a
multi-point cutting tool (such as a milling cutter) has a number of teeth or
cutting edgeson its periphery. "
" ..... ,

Classification of cutting tools

All the cutting tools used in metal cutting can be broadly classified as:
1. Single point tools.i.e., those having only one cutting edge; such as lathe
tools, shaper tools, planer tools, boring tools, etc.
2. Multi-point tools.i.e., those having more than one cutting edges; such as
milling cutters, drills, broaches, grinding wheels, etc. these tools may, for
'.the sake of analysis, be considered as consisting of a number of single point
tools, each forming a cutting edge.

.,

The cutting tools can also be classifiedaccording to the motion as:

a. Linear motion tools-lathe, boring; broaching, planning, shaping
tools, etc.
.
b. Rotary motion tools-milling cutters, grinding wheels, etc.
c. Linear and rotary tools-drills, honing, boring heads, etc,

Single point cutting tool

A single point cutting tool consists of a sharpened cutting part called its point and
the shank, (Fig 1.1) the point of the tool is bounded by the face (along which the
chips slide as they are cut by the tool), the side flank or major flank,the end flank, 0~
minor flank and the base. The side cutting edge, a-b, is formed by the intersection
of the face and side flank. The end cutting. Edge a-c is formed by the intersection
of the face and end flank.. The chips are cut from the work piece by the sidecutting edge.The point 'a' where the end and side-cutting edges meet called the
"nose" of the tool. (Fig 1.1) is for a right hand tool. Below, the definitions of the
various tool elements and tool angles are,~;ve.n.

is

Shank.

It is the main body of the tool.

MAJOR CUTTlNG---.

EDGE

.. . .......

Fig 1.1 Sing1e Point Cutting Tool

.Flank, The surface or surfaces below adjacent to thercutting edge is called flank
of the too 1.
__.
.. .

face. The surface on which the chip slides is-called the face of the tool"
.Heel. It is the intersection of the flank and the base of the tool.
Nose. It is the point where the side cutting edge and base of the tool, ",eet5.(;o;~.
Cutting edge. It is the edge on the face of the tool wl>ich removes the material
from the workpiece. The total cutting edge consists of the side cutting edge (major
cutting edge). end cutting edge (minor cutting edge and the nose).
A single point cutting tool may be either right Or left hand cut tool depending on
..the direction of feed. In a right cut tool, the side cutting edge is on the side of the
thumb when the right hand is placed on the tQolwith the palm downward and the
.fingers pointed towards the tool nose (Fig 1.2 (b) Such. a tool will cut when fed
.from right to left as in a lathe in which the tool moves from tailstock to headstock.
A left-cut tool is one which the side cutting edge is on the thumb side when the
left hand is applied (Fig 1.2(a Such a tool will cut when fed from left to right.

PRI ...... RY
CUTTING
eOGE

--FEED

--FEED

Fig 1.2 Left and Right Cut Tools

Principle angles of single point tools

The various.tool angles are defined and explained below:

FACE

SHANK

NOSE

RAD!:.JS

---....:..
SIDE CUTTING
EDGE M!GlE

Si DE RAKE

.\.l--r--~
t-.

SHANK

SlOE .
Cl"ARANCE
AN('lE

f-t
),

__I.
END
RELIEF

_ANGLE

Fig 1.3. Principal angles of a single cutting tool

Side Cutting Edge Angle (SCEA). Side cutting edge angle Cs also known as
lead angle, is the angle between the side cutting edge and the side of the tool
shank The complimentary angle of SCEA is calied the "Approach angle

.
,

~
.

End Cutting- Edge ~;\ngle(ECEA). This is the angle between the end cutting
edge and a line !l0!11laI to the tool shank Cc

Side Relief Angle (SRA). It is the angle between the portion of the end flank
immediately below the end cutting edge and line perpendicular to the tool, and
measured at right angle to the end flank as-

End Relief Angle (ERA). It is the angle between the portion of the end flank
immediately below the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the
tool, and measured at right angle to the end flank ae

Back-Rake AngJe (BRA), abo it is the angle between the face of the tool and a
line parallel to the base of the tool and measured in a plane (perpendicular)
through the side cutting edge. This angle is positive if the side cutting edge slopes
downwards from thepoint towards the shank and is negative if the slope of the
side cutting edge is reverse. So this angle gives the slope of the face of the tool .
..........from the nose towards-the shank .
.

Side-Rake Angle (SR), as It is the angle between the tool face and a line
parallel to the base of the tool and measured in a plane perpendicular to the base
and the side cutting edge. This angle gives the slope of the face of the tool from

the cutting edge. The side rake is negative if the slopeis towards the cutting edge
and is positive if the slope is away from the cutting edge.

TOOL SIGNATURE
The term tool signature or tool designation is used to denote a standardized
system of specifying the principal tool angles of a single point cutting tool. Some
common system used fer tool designation or tool nomenclature arethe foll(J.~ing:.
1. American (or ASA) System.
__
2. British system:
'3. Continental system.
4. International system.

REFERENCE PLANES
The following two systems of reference planes are used to deride the geometry
and locaTe the different parameters of a single point cutting tool:
I

l. The Coordinate system. In this system it is assumed that the tool,

although held in position in space with reference to the work piece, is_
not operating on the work piece. This situation can be conceived as-the
as being held in position by hand against 2 stationary workpiece. It is for
this system is also known as Too) in hand sys~em._
This system consists
of three principal reference planes, as shown in (Fig 1.4). The horizontal
plane which contains the base of the shank of the cutting tools is known

to

as Base plane. The second reference plane is a vertical plane, normal

the base plane and parallel to the direction of feed (f) of.the.cutting tool.
It is called the ~ongitudinal
Plane (XX). Th~__
third reference plane,
called the Tr-ansverse Plane (yY), is perpendicular
both the above
reference planes and is parallel. to the transverse motion of the tooi.i.e.;
the depth of cut (d). This combination ofreference planes is known as
.coordinate system of reference planes .

to.

TRANSVERSE

PLANE

LONGITUDINAL
PLANE

Fig.

1"4- .Tool

and w~~.kpi:ce in coordinate system of reference planes .

. .

.'

WORK

CUTTING
PLANE

PIECE

MA.CHINED

SURFACE

ORTHOGONAL
PL,o..

i~c

PLANE

Fig.

J.-5.Tool

and Workpiece

in Orthogonal System of Reference

Planes.

2. The orthogonal

system. In this system of reference planes it is

assumed that the cutting tool is' operating against the workpiece_ As
usual. there are three main reference planes. One of these, the horizontal
plane. contains the base of the cutting tool and is known as the Base
Plane. The second plane, which is perpendicular to the base plane,
contains the principal cutting edge (c.) and is called the Cutting plane.
The third plane, which is perpendicular to both the above planes, is
known as Orthogonal plane. This set of reference planes is known as
orthogonal system of reference planes and is shown in (Fig 1.5).

Tool geometry in coordinate system. This system, having been

adopted by American Standards Association (A.S.A), is also known
as A.S.A system of tool signature. Also, because 'of the nomenclature of
reference planes as X, Y and Z, some authors describe it as X- Y;;.Z
Planes System. This system is quite convenient in. describing the tool
angles of a single-point cutting tool. This system of reference planes,
together with the principal angles of a singles of a single point cutting
tool, is sho!wn in (Fig 1.6). The various tool angles shown in the figure
are:

y'

I,_}_

;:./

ccx
SECTrON
ALONG x-x

'

.A*\c
I
-,

.,.
~ORKprEC~

-A----_.
I
~~
--1'-

----_.

x-._.

-.

-~-'-:-::.;.-.:::---r-- - x '
/3y .

Fig. 1,..f,,Tool ang!e~ in coordinate system rA SA ste:)

.
. \. - sy ill.

1"

Uy= Toprake/Backrake

ax -

angle

Side rake angle .

py = End relief/Clearance angle
Px = Side relief/Clearance angle
CPe = End cutting edge angle
$s = Side cutting edge angle
e = Nose angle
while describing the tool geometry in this system the different parameters are
mentioned in the order-Back rake, Side rake, End relief angles, side relief angle,
End cutting edge angle, Side cutting edge angle and Nose radius. The value of
nose angle "9" will depend upon the values of $e and $5
Example: Describe a tool with 8, 10, 6, 6,6, 10, 2 signature in A.S.A system .
......Solution,
Back rake
Side rake
End relief angle
Side relief angle
End cutting edge angle
Side cutting edge angle
Nose radius

= 8~

10
= 6~
= 65)
=

.......

=6~

= 10
=2mm

Tool geometry in orthogonal system

This system is also known as Orthogonal Rake System (O.R.S.) or
International System. Further, because of the' nomenclature (L, M and N) of the
principal planes (Fig 1.7) it is also described' by some authors as L-M-N Planes
system. As already stated earlier, the tool in this system is- supposed to be
operating on the workpiece. Therefore, many -tool parameters are variable in this
system and their actual values are effected by tool position with regard to the
workpiece in actual operation. The different tool angles in this system, as shown in
(Fig 1.7) are the following:
<1>0= Plan approach angle or Principal cutting edge angle or primary cutting

edge angle or Major cutting edge angle or simply Approach angle.

<I>}= Auxiliary cutting edge angle or auxiliary cutting angle or Minor
cutting edge angle or Secondary cutting edge angle.
",,-= Angle of Inclination or Inclination angle
u= Orthogonal rake-angle
.
'Y = Side relief angle

p= Wedge

angle
D= Cutting angle (= r+ ~)
(1}= Side fake angle
Y I= End rake angle
~1= Side wedge angle

..

MACHINED
SURFACE

/
SECTiON
BASIC
PlANE------

II

ORTHOGON
~~

PLANE

..

'ig 1.7, Tool angles in orthogonal (O.RS) or International system

Tool Designation

In

in ORS System
ORS system, only the mairi parameters of single point cutting tool: are ._

designated in the following order:

Inclination angle (A), Orthogonal rake angle ( olJ, Side relief angle (.y .), End relief
angle ('I,), Auxiliary cutting angle (q,,), Approach angle (4'0) and Nose radius (R)._
Generally, symbols for degrees and millimeters are not indicated. Each parameter
is indicated by a number only __For example, a cutting tool designated as 0-10-5-58-90-1 will have the following values of its-different parameters:

'A= 00 (Inclination angle)

a= 10o(Orthogonal rake .angle )
t= 5 (Side relief angle)

11= SO (End relief angle)

<Pl= 8 (Auxiliary cutting. angle)
<Po=900 (Approach angle)
R= .lmm (Nose radium).

Basic elements of machining

The basic elements of all machining operations are the following
l , Workpiece,
') Tool, and
3. Chip,
These elements are depicted in (Fig 1.8) which represents the cutting action of
a tool in two-dimensional or orthogonal cutting. For providing the cutting
action, a relative motion between the tool and the work piece is necessary. This
relative motion can be provided by either keeping the workpiece stationary and
moving the tool or by keeping 'the. tool stationary and moving the work or by
moving both in relation to one another.
..
CUTTING
FLUro

TOOL:

..-SHEAR
PLANE

WORK

PIECE

~----~---------Fig 1.8, Basic Elements of machining

<

The workpiece provides the parent metal, from which the unwanted metal is
removed by the cutting action of the tool to obtain the predetermmed shape and
size of the component. The chemical composition and the physical properties
of the metal of the workpiece have a significant effect on the machining
operation. Similarly, the tool material and its geometry are equally significant
for successful machining. The type and geometry of the chip formed are
greatly effected by,the metal of the work piece, geometry of cutting tool and
method of cutting, etc.Chemical composition, and the rate of flow of the
cutting fluid also provide considerable influence over the machining operation.

..

Classification of Metal Cutting process

The metal cutting process has been classified into two groups
1. Orthogonal cutting (two dimensional cutting).
2. Oblique cutting (three dimensional cutting) .
. Orthogonal Cutting: It is the cutting operation in which lli-ecuttingedge is
straight, parallel to the original plane surface of the workpiece, and perpendicular
to the direction of cutting, and in which the length of the cutting edge is greater
than the width of the workpiece. The essential characteristics of orthogonal cutting
are as follows:

WORK

prECE
r---

... .TOOI:.

DE PTH 0 F

CUT

--,

----.-.
CUTTING --....--~

EDGE

DIRECTION

OF, CHfP FLOW

\'ECOCITY
'TOOL

t.IV If") ~\
"

Fig

i. 9.Orthogonal cutting

""""';0'

1.. The tool is perfectly sharp and 'there is nocontact

along the clearance face.

2. _The-cutting edge is straight line, .perpendicular to the direction of-travel and

- generates a-plane surface as the work moves past it.
_
3: The.shear surface is a plane extending upward from the cutting edge.
4. The chip does not flow to either side but flows over the tool face and the'
direction of chip flow velocity is normal to the. cutting edge,' ihe angle
being measured in the plane of the tool face.
5. The depth of cut is constant and much smaller than the width-of cut.
6. The width of cutting edge is greater than the width of the workpiece and "it clears the workpiece on both sides.
7. A continuous chip is produced with no built-up edge.
8_ Only two components of the cutting force acts on the tool, and they are
perpendicular to each other and can be represented in a plane .

. Oblique Cutting: In this type of cutting, the cutting edge is placed at an angle to
the normal to the direction of tool travel in order to allow a free flow of chips as
the tool is fed into the wrokpiece. Practically all the machining operations in
moden manufacturing involve oblique cuttin~.
I

WORK PIECE-

..
-..&_"

root

-CUT-t:tHG EDGE INC LINE 0

AT nus :-ANGlE WITH
THE "DIREcTfON OF FEED

1.\ (,
I

\_b)

-,

MalIaN OF

WC?RK

If) f~un;U

Fig Ll O.Oblique cutting

The essential characteristics of oblique cutting may be enumerated as follows:
- 1. The cutting edge is inclined at
angle (known as inclination angle) with
'I the normal to the direction of tool travel.,
2. The width of the cutting edge mayor may not be more than the width of thr
workpiece.

an

3. The chip flows on the tool face making an angle with the normal to the
cutting edge, the angle being measured in plane of the tool face.
4. Three components of the cutting force acts at the cutting edge and they are

mutually perpendicular to each other.

5. The cutting tool mayor mayor may not generate a surface parallel to the
workpiece.

The mechanics of chip formation

A typical metal cutting process can be schematically represented as shown in
(Fig 1.11) wedge-shaped tool is made to mov~ relative to the workpiece. As the
too) makes contact with the metal, it exerts a pressure on it resulting in the
compression of the metal near the tool tip. ThL~jnduces sheCl!-typedeformation
within the metal and it starts moving upward along the top face of the tool. As the

tool adv~,

the materialesb..,_{of it is sheared continuously along a plane

called the "Shearplane?~lhisshear planeis~actually a narrow zone(oftheorderof

about 0.025 mm) and extends from the cutting edge of the tool to the surface of
the workpiece. The cutting edge of the tool is formed by two intersecting surfaces.
The surface along which the chip moves upwards is cal1ed "Rake surface' and the
other surface which is relieved to avoid rubbing with the machined surface is
called "Flank". The angle between the rake surface and the normal is known as
"Rake angle". D (which may be positive or negative), and the angle between the
flank and the horizontal machined surface is known as the "relief or clearance
angle",1 Most cutting processes have the same basic features as shown in
(Figl.ll) where a single point cutting tool is used (a milling cutter, a drill, and a
broach can be regarded as several single-point tools joined together and are known
as multi-point tools).

Chip --

...

r----

Tool
Lip (wedge)

angle
Cutting
ar.gle
B

4l.~ shear angle;

t :::.uncut chip thickness;

'l:::. chio thiCKness

after thE:: metal is cut

Fig 1. I 1 Schematic Representation of Machining Process

Types of chips: According to Ernst, the various"types of chips found in metal

cutting are classified under following heads:'
1. Continuous chip
2. Continuous chip with built-up edge (BUE Chip)
3. Discontinuous chip (Segmental chip)

Continuous "chip: Such chips are- in the form- of long ribbons of uniform
thickness as shown In (Figl.12). Usually the following conditions"favour their
formation

(aJ CONTINUDU's CHIP

a.
h.
c.
d.
e.

Ductile workpiece material

Fine feed
Higher cutting speed
Sharp cutting edge
Effective use of cutting fluid
f. Large rake angle
g.. Low friction at tool face.

It gives high':class sl.ii-fa~efini~h and the tool life is good. Tool failure may be

partly due to rounding of.cutting and, partly due to abrasion of tool face.

Continuous chip with built up edge: Such chips are long but not smooth as
shown in (Fig 1.13) and gene-ally considerably thicker than the feed of the tool
and their characteristic conditions are:

BurLT UP
ON \'/ORK

(c) t.:i.IILT-UP

CHIP

ne

a. Ductile workpiece

h.
c.
d.
e.
f.

material

Coarse feed
Low rake angle
Lower cutting speed
Ineffective use of cutting fluid.
High friction at tool face.

he finish on the work is rough and has' a torn appear<L'Icedue to fragments of

escaping with workpiece. The toot usually fails because of cratering
, nuilt-up-edge
the tool face.
he formation of built-up-edge takes place as follows, i.e., during the cutting
. peration only a very little time is available for the newly formed chip to acquire a
1m of oxide and also there is a little opportunity for an absorbed film to be
rmed from the cutting fluid, because of its scarcity in the reiion. This newly
rmed chip rubs against the face of the tool and thus the asperities of the tool and
hip come in contact at the high pressure and temperature existing in the region'
: d because of this, the particles of chip adheres to the tool and with time this
. ; d.hering of the particles of the chip results in an appreciable projection formed at
e tool near the nose which is called "Built-uPrEdge". This built-up-edge
creases in size until it becomes so large that it may Ibreak off. In the process of
e cutting Operation built-up-edge grows and collapses, and this phenomenon
peats. When this built-up-edge coilapses, a part of this passes off along with
ip, the other
part embeds itself On the finished surface as it passes into the toolorkpiece
interface.
iscoutinuous chips: These chips are in the form of small segments as shown in
ig 1.14) and are regullirly formed due to the rupture of the metal ahead of the
01..The following conditions favour ilie fonnation of discontinuous chips:
a. Brittle workpiece material
i
b. Lower cutting speed
I
C: Insufflcient rake angles.
I',

fact the discontinuous chips are short and brittle, and wh~ the pitch of the
gment is
chips are easily
sposed
off.small a good finish is produced on workpiece. The~e
!

(b) DISCONTINUOUS CHIP

Ioolfail.ure

._

J.. properly _designed and ground cutting tool is expected _toperform the

- metal cutting- operation in an effective and smooth manner. If, however, it

is -not giving .a satisfactory performance it is indicative of the too! failure
and the same is reflected by the following adverse effects observed during
th~ operation: :
1. Extremely poor surface finish on the workpiece.
2. Higher consumption of power
3. Work dimensions not being produced as specified.
4. Overheating of cutting tool.
5. Appearance of a burnishing band on the work surface.
During the operation, a cutting tool may fail due to one or more of the following
reasons:
.........
.......... L . Thermal.cracking and softening.
2. Mechanical Chipping.
3. Gradual wear:
1. Thermal cracking and softening. It has already been seen earlier that a lot
of heat is generated during the process of metal cutting. Due to this heat the
tool tip and the area closer to the cutting edge becomes very hot. Although
the cutting tool material is quite hard to.withstand this temperature without
losing its hardness. If that limit is crossed, the tool material starts deforming
plastically at the tip and adjacent to the cutting edge under the action -of the
cutting pressure and the high temperature. Thus, the tool loses its cutting
ability and is said to have failed due to softening, The main factors
responsible for. creating such conditions of tool failure are high cutting
speed, high feed' rate, excessive depth of cut, smaller nose radius and choice
of a wrong t9'01material. The temperature ranges within which the common'
tool materials can successfully operate without losing their hardness are:
Carbon tool steels 200C - 250C
High speed steels 560C - 600C
Cemented carbides 800C -1000oC

Fig.

i.i. Tool

failure due to thermal cracking.

. . ...

.~

Ii

~ On account of fluctuations in temperatures and severe temperature gradient the

f.. tool material is subjected to local expansion and contraction. This gives rise to the
g setting up of temp stresses or thermal stress due to which cracks are developed in
~ the materiaL These cracks, known as Thermal cracks, emanate known as failure
.~ due to Thermal cracking or due to Thermal stresses. Such a failure of tool is
shown in (Fig. 1.15)

'.,L,'. Mechanical

chipping. Mechanical chipping of the nose and/or the cutting edge

~ of the tool are commonly observed causes of tool failure. The common reasons for

such failure are too high cutting pressure, mechanical impact, excessive wear, too
high vibrations and chatter, weak tip and cutting edge, etc. A typical form of
!l mechanical chipping is shown in
:1 (Fig. I.16 ). This type of failure is more pronounced in carbide tipped and diamond
tools due to the high brittleness of the tool material.

1
,j
.......

CHIPPED
TIP

F13' 1.1(;. Too~1a.U.tu.rQ oJ.u.e

-to. rneehOl.\et.J. Q.h;'p'p
.'"

.....

~11'

..

Gradual wear. When a tool is in use for sometime it is found to have lost some
,w~~ght or mass, implying that it has lost some material from it~which is due to

wear.' The following

tools:

,," . ">:" ..: .'

"

two types of wears are generally found to occur in cutting

.' C~~te~ water, The principle region where wear takes place in a cutting tool is its
/-,~1~;,~
small distance (say 'a') from its cutting edge (See Fig. 1.17). This type of
, ~ ;.~eperally takes place while machining ductile materials, like steel and steel
IOY~;"in.which continuous chip is produced. The resultant feature' of this type of
ear.~~ftheformation ofa crater or a depression at the tool.chip interface. This type of
~';~~J~e formation of crater on the tool face, is due to the pressure of the hot chip'
~_l<l,ing,
up .the, face, of the tool. The metal from the _tool face is supposed to be
ferred tothe sliding chip by means of the diffusion process.
,
--

\'1 \

CRATER
WEAR

1
WORK PIECE

f i~ f 11:

~ ri,,"';
,I")

FI- !J~ "f NCWl"

th Q.

e...u.tt11J lQo~.

Q(3".l.nh

.
The shape of the crater formed corresponds the shape of the underside of the chip. The
principle dimensions of the formed crater are its breadth 'b' and depth 'd' as shown in
(Fig. 1.17) A continued ~owth of crater will result in the cutting edge of the tool
becoming weak and may finally lead to the tool failure. At very high speed, and the
consequent high temperatures (say lOOOu C),the H.S.S. tool will fail due thermal
softening of material, while the tools made from harder materials, like those containing
tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, cobalt etc., will not wear out so rapidly. Higher
feeds and lack of cutting fluids increase the rate of crater wear.
b. Flank wear: Another region where an appreciable amount of wear occurs,is the
flank below the cutting edge. It occurs due to abrasion between the tool flank and the
workpiece arid excessive heat generated as a result of the same.
abrasive action is
aided by the hard microconstituents of the cut material and broken parts of built-upedge, if it is there. That is why this type of wear is more pronounced while machining
brittle material, because the cut Ichips of such materials provide a lot of abrasive
material readily.
'

The

The entire area subjected to flank wear is known as wear land. This type of wear
mainly occurs on the tool nose and front and side relief faces, as shown in
(Fig. 1.18) The magnitude of this Wear mainly depends upon the relative hardnesses of
the workpiece and tool materials at the time of cutting operation and also the extent of
strain hardening of the chip. When the tool is subjected to this type of wear, 'the
workpiece loses its dimensional accuracy, energy consumption -is increased and the
surface finish is poor .. The effect of flank wear is expressed in terms of the width (or
height) of wear land which is dependent on time. This height is a linear measure and is
symbolically denoted by VB, WL or HF millimeters. The total flank wear,

l -'

E
E
..-...
en

>

a:
~
w

f-l

3:
x
z
<:

_1

LL

TIME (t) min. _

F'~ .1.13.Graph showing

~evelo~ent

of flank wear with time.

. .'
._';..Consists of three main .components, as shown in the graph (Fig~1.19,) drawn
.between the wear land height (VB) and time (t). The first component (A),
. which exists for a small duration, represents the period during which initial
,;..weartakes place at a rapid rate. The second segment (B), which exists for a
;~J{;lf.very long duration represents the period during which the wear progresses
:~~{Duniformly.
The last segment (c) represents the region in which wear occurs at a
to{'\;?~ery
rapid rate and results in total failure of the tool. That is why this region is
;M.Jf.~~also
known as the period of destructive wear
.

::~t~"ilt
is suggested that the tool be reground before the flank wear enters 'the last
~~~:.s~gment
(c), for which some definite value of VB (say O.~mm) is specified as
~l:~tthelimiting value of flank wear such thatthe cutting tool must be reground
i~f1:~-j~efore
this value is attained by VB. Table 5.1 below provides the limiting
:E}(' values of flank wear for different tool and work material combinations under
"~iiY given cutting conditions. This can serve as a useful guide for the selection 'of .
{.:<?'
flank wear criterion.
.
-_-"....

.-

T a bl e 51 FIan k .wear eriterien m cut tim_g tooIs

Cutting conditions I Limiting ~-l"Q of
Workpiece
r Topl-~ateri~
VB (mm)
material
-1.5 to 2.0
' Semi-rough
Castiron ..
H.S.S.
0~6to 1.0
Semi-rough
Steel
. H.S,S.
.._
:
Feed> 0.3 mm/rev 1.4 to 1.1
.Cemented carbide Steel
Feed < OJ mmfrev 0.8 to 1.0
Cemented carbide Cast iron
.............. ,...... 0.6
Cast iron or steel
Ceramic
-

a..l\..~

Mechanism of wear
The wear mechanism of cutting tools is a very complex phenomenon. However, the
common mechanisms supposed to be responsible for causing wear are the following:

....
....L

Al>rasi()n~Iris a type mechanical wear. Under this mechanism hard particles on

the. underside-of thesliding chip, which are harder than the tool material, plough
into the relatively softer material of the tool face and remove metal particles by
mechanical action. The material of the tool face is softened due to the high
temperature. The hard particles present on the underside of the chip may be:
(a) Fragments of hard tool material.
(b) Broken pieces of built-up-edge, which are.strain hardened,
. (c) Extremely hard constituents, like carbides, oxides, scale, etc., present in the
work material.
2. Adhesion, By now, it should have been quite clear that due to the excessive pressure
a lot of friction occurs between the sliding surface of the chip and the tool face. This
.' . gives rise to an' extremely high localized temperature, causing metallic bond between the
.:. materials of thetool face and the chip. But, an important point to be noted here is that the
. surfaces of both the chip underside f!lld the tool face although appear to be smooth
apparentiy- are microscopically rough. Therefore, the contact between these surfaces is
not truly a} surface contact bilt a point contact, as shown in (Fig. 1.20). Due to the
excessiTJely high temperature at the chip-tool interface a metallic bond takes place
between the chip material and tool material at contact points, in the from of~potirelds as
shown in the diagram. When the chip slides, these small welds are broken. But this
separation is not along the line of contact. A small portion of the welded tool contact is
also carried away by the sliding chip. Thus, small particles from the tool face continue to '
be separated through this phenomenon and carried away by the chip by adhesion to its
underside. The amount of the materia} so transferred from the tool face to the chip will '
depend upon contact area and relative hardness of the chip W-J.d
the tool materials. ..

3. Diffusion. Solid state diffusion, which consists of transfer of atoms in a metal crystal
lattice, is an_othercause of wear. This transfer of atoms takes place at
.

ated temperatures from the area of high concentration to that of Jow concentration.
' ev favorable condition for diffusion is rovided b, the rise in localized tern erature OVer
'. ' .actual contact area between the chip underside and the tool face. In such a condition,

e metal atoms are transferred from the tool material to the chip material at the points of
e tact. This weakens the surface structure of the cutting tool and may ultimately lead to
.~ failure. The amount of diffusion depends upon:

POiNTS

FI&.1.2.0. POIN: U:rr\~~

CJ.na-\
~f")t\~.
t~~.\~)fot"rO~ ~~Q.()
O).)~

~{J

I .

1",..
..... cOL

~fC\~'

~J

(a) Temperature at the contact area between the tool face and the chip
(b) The period of contact between the too] face and the chip.
(c) The bonding affinity between:he materials of the tool and the chip.
Chemical wear. This type of wear occurs when such a cutting fluid is used in the
process of metal cutting which is chemically atlive to the material of the 1001. This
clearly the result of the chemical reaction taking place between the cutting fluid'
.......
,.an
, :..........
themtool
material,
leading to a changej' the chemical composition of the
,'$Urface
aterial
of the tool.
d.,

1~;

IUfe:

.'

I~;can

,'" ..".....
;"..... .

be befined as the lime interval for which the tool works satisfuctorily
' een..twoSuccessive grindings (sh3IJlening).Thus; it
be basically conceived as
OOlil'lifeof the tool. As already discussed earlier, the tool is subjected to' wear
while ..11. i operating. Obviously, after Some time, when the tool wear is
".;consid~
the tool loses its ability to cut ~ffict~!I;r; and must be reground. If
It ",!II totaUy fail. The tool hfe
be effectIvely1as-tile basis to evaluate the
~,of
1001 'material, assess machinability of the workpiece material and
the'cuttingthe
conditions.
.

..

. iui~ly

can

can

'here are three common ways of expressing tool life:

I .. As time period in minutes between two successive grindings.
2: In terms of number components machined between two Successive grindings. This
mode is commonly used .when the tool. operates continuously, as in case of
automatic machines.
.
3. In terms of the volume of material removed between two successive grindings.
This mode of expression is commonly used when the tool is primarily used for
heavy stock removal.
The method of assessing the tool life in terms of the volume of material removed per
unit of time-is a practical one and <?anbe easily applied asfollows: Volume of metal
removed per minute
.
=='JfD.t.f.N mm3/rilm - (1.1)
D = dia. Of workpiece in mm
t = depth of cut in mm
; = feed rate in rum/rev.
N = No. of revolutions of work per minute
If 'T' be the time in minutes to tool failure, then:
Total-volume-of metal-removedtotoqfailure;
. -.::.D.t.f.N.T.mm" - (1.2)
........
We also know that the cutting speed
V= liDN
\0\)0

. TIDN

by substituting this value in equation (1.2), we get:

Total volume of metal removed to tool failure
= Vx lOOOx t x fx T mnr'
. Therefore toot life (TL) in terms of the 'total volume-of the metal removed to tool
. .failure is given by:
.:
TL = V .1000. t. f. T (mm') - (1.3)

Factors affecting tool life

The life of a cutting tool is affected by the following factors:
l , Cutting speed
2. Feed and depth 0: cut
3. Tool Geometry
4. Work material
) . Nature of cutting
6. Rigidity of machine tool and work
7. Use of cutting fluids.

Effect of cutting speed

Out of all the above factors. the maximum effect on tool life is of cutting speed. The tool
life varies inversely as the cllttingspeed i. e., the higher the cutting speed
it

,n

. the smaller the toollife ..Generally, t~e re~uction in tool life correspon_dingto anjcrease in
. rting speed is parabolic, as shown In (FIg. t.. 2. t _ ) Based on the pioneer work of F_W
. ~~Ylor,the relationship between cutting speed and too] life can be expressed as:

:l

~
Q

t
......
c

e
.a

E
E

>.~,

w
w
en

a.
:

<.:>

.z
....

..

t-

:::>

u
.

VTD= C

TOOL LIFE 'T' (min) _

... . ~~. ~.2J ..Curve showing parabolic reduction

V == Cuttingspeed (fil.:ifi/mih)
T = )'001 life (minutes)
....
N = an exponent, whose value largely depends on the material of the too, called tool life

ind,?" Upto ~,certain extent, its also influenced by some other variables like tool material,

cuttmg conditions, etc.

g_~
h

.~ ~.
q,rl2~

~\-\~
.11). ~

~ = A cons~t ,caiied machining constant: which is numerically Ihat would give a tool
ife of one mmute.

tI

)01

._

CARSON STEEL TOOL

-.
LOG T ~
Fig. 1--22...Cutting speed-tool life. curves fer different tool materials.

'01 or all practical purposes the average values of exponent 'n' for common tool materials .
. be taken as:
.
.::'0.1 to O.I5 for high speed steel tools
.\\

\rrS-.
I

= 0.2-to

0.5 for-cemented carbide-tools

0.6 to 1.0 for ceramic tools. -

'or assessing tool life the tools are operated at differenf cutting speeds to failure
ind the results recorded. If the relationships between -different cutting speeds and
he corresponding tool lives are plotted, on a log-log graph, straight lines are
ibtained as shown -in (Fig .1 2.1.. ) which reveal that the tool life decreases with
he increase in cutting speed.
Feed and depth of cut
Feed and depth of cot: are the other important-cutting variables which also effect
the tool life appreciably. An increase in the feed rate and depth of cuthas a similar
effect, i.e., reduction in tool life, as is experienced by the tool when cutting speed
is increased. However, the effect is not so severe as 'produced in the latter case,
The different variables, cutting speed, tool. life, feed. rate .and depth. of cut, are
inter-related as given in the following imperical formula' -.V-:::.. ?- 5

Where,

=r

TO'J"j-.5-0'3~

V= cutting speed in m1mm

T= tool life in minutes
F= Feed rate in mmlmin
Depth of cut in mm

t~-8\)

~
-~

t=

And,
For a given tool life the relationship among the other variables is also given by the
following imperical formula:
C
z:
1-5

.f_q
)

_ Where,

~tb

V= cutting speed (mlmin) for the give tool life

'.F= feed rate in rum/min
'depth of cut in mm
C=-: .. constant

.t=

~v.eCh.

anical
The exponents 'a' I and 'bl of (t) and (t) will depend upon
properties of/the workpiece material. From the expression .
above it is
quite clear that if the tool life is considered as constant the cutting speed
(V) will decrease if the feed rate (t) and depth of cut (t) are increased.

Tool geometry
Many geometry parameters (tool angles) of a cutting tool influence its
performance and life. For example, the Rake angle has a mixed effect. If it
is increased in a positive direction the cutting force and amount of heat
generated are reduced. Obviously, this should increase the life of cutting
tool. But, if it is very large cutting-edge is weakened and also its capacity to
conduct heat is reduced. Thus, a considerable increase of the positive rake
results in reduction of mechanical strength of the tool and, hence, lowering
of tool life. Since the above two effects are opposite to each other, for an
effectively economical tool life it is necessary to strike a balance between
the two, for which the optimum value of rake angle needs to be used. This
value varies from-~
The minus sigJ;l.indicafes a negative rake,
i.e., a rakeiWYi"de a--s~nttiiii
ed~wartJs
from the tip. Tools
carrying negative rake provide a stronger cptting: edge and,hence,a
stronger too1. Cemented and ceramic tools aregenerally provided negative
rake. Similar contradictory effects are observed with variations in relief
angles or clearance angles. These angle are provided on the cutting tools to
prevent rubbing of tool flank against the machined work surface. They,
thus, help in lowering the amount of heat generated and, therefore,
increasing the tool life. But, a very large relief angle results in weakening of
tool and, hence, reduction of tool life..Again, therefore, a balance needs to
be struck and only an ~g_timum value should be used. These angles
normally vary from 5) to ~ but in special cases, such as in carbide tipped
tools, a higher value upto lOjl can be used to prevent rubbing of shank

Itfp.

The two cutting edge angles aiso known as end ~~tting edge angle,
effects the tool wear. Upto a certain optim~ value an increase in this angle
pepnits the use of higher speeds without an adverse effect on tool life. But,
an increase beyond that value win result in reduction of too] life. It
generally -varies from 50 to 80 the side cutting angle or the plane
approach angle has a complex effect on too life. If this angle is smaIIer,
higher speeds can be employed. A large end cutting edge angle increases
tool life.
.Some other geometrical parameters effecting the tool life are:
(i)
Inciinati9D angle. Tool life increases withthe increases
in this angle upto an optimum value.
(ii)
Nose.radius. While it increases abrasio~ it also helps in
improving surface finish and tool strength and, hence, the
tool life.

Tool material
The main characteristics
of a good cutting tool material its hot
.
. hardness, wear .
resistance, impact resistance, abrasion resistance, heat CQ!!~hlct1v1!y, :;tr~!!g,th p:tc.
what is important to tool life is the likely changes in these characteristics at high
temperature because the metal cutting process is always associated with generation
ef geooflNieft"of high amount of heat and, hence, high temperatures. We have
- already seen that cutting speed has the maximum effect on tool lift; followed by
feed rate and depth of cut. All-these factors contribute to the rise of temperature. That is why it is always said that an ideal tool material is the one which will
remove the largest volume of work material at all speeds, It is, however, not
possible to get a truly ideal tool material. We, therefore, can say that the tool
material which can withstand maximum cutting temperature without losing its
principle mechanical properties (specially hardness) and geometry will ensure
maximum tool life, and hence, will answer the most efficient cuttingof metal.
We, therefore conclude that the higher the hot hardness and toughness in the tool
... material the longer the tool life.
7.

Work. material
...
\
. .
The microstructure of the work matenal plays a significant role because It directly
effects the hardness of the material. For example, presence of free graphite and
ferrite in cast iron and steel imparts softness to them. Pearlitic structure is harder
than this and the martensitic .structure is the hardest. Similarly scale formation and
presence of oxide layer on the work surface serve as abrasives and, therefore, have
a detrimental effect on tool life. The increases in cutting temperature and power
consumption vary directly as the hardness of workpiece material. Consequently,
higher the hardness of the work material greater win be the \tool wear and,
therefore, shorter will be the too! life. Adverse effects on tobl life are also
experienced in machining of pure metals because of their tendency to stick to the
'tool face, specially at high temperature. This results in more friction and, hence,
high amount of wear on tool and, therefore, a shorter tool life.
I
I

Nature of cutting
I
Tool life is also effected by the nature of cutting, i.e., whether itis continuous or
intermittent. In the latter case, the tool is subjected to repeated impact loading and
may give way much earlier than expected until it is made substantially strong and
tough. In continuous cutting, a similar tool will have ~ relatively longer life.
I

Rigidity of machine tool and work

Both the machine tool and the workpiece should remain rigid during the
machining operation. If not, vibrations will take place and then the cutting tool
will be subjected to intermittent cutting instead of continuous cutting. This will
result in impact loading of tool and, therefore, a shorter life.

Use of cutting fluids

Cutting fluids are used in machining work for helping the efficient performance of
the operation. They are used either in liquid gaseous form. They assist in the
operation in many ways, such as by cooling the tool and work, reducing friction,
improving surface finish, helping in breaking of chips and washing them away,
etc. these factors help in improving tool life, permitting higher metal removal rate
and improving the quality of surface finish. Details of the functions, properties and
types of various cutting fluid are given separately in latter chapters.
Sources of heat in metal cutting
During metal cutting, heat is generated in three regions as shown in (Fig. 1.2..3. )
These regions are the following:
.
1. Around shear plane: It is the region in which actual' (Ieformation of the
metal occurs duringIll~(;hillirlg. Pile to this defol"II11lti()1b
heatis g~Ilerated.
A .portion of this heat is carried away by the chip, 'due to which its
temperature is raised. The rest of the heat is retained by the workpiece. It is
known as primary defcnnation zone.
\

0'~

<-<1 ~ ~
~~.

TOOL

..0

-,
-,

WORK PIECE

-.1

F'ta12~. B~o..,tb~
.

h~~

"lfoQ...t-e1..f e..u.:tn.

.C2.(~.

2. TooJ~hip interface. As the chip slides upw ds along the face of the tool
friction occurs between their surfaces, due to which heat is generated. A
part of this heat is carried by the chip, which further raises the temperature
of the chip, and the rest transferred to the tool and the coolant. This area is .
known as secondary deformation zone. It is reckoned that the amount of
heat generated due to. friction incr~~s with the-increase in cutting speed.
However, it
is not -appreciably. ~ effected with the increase in depth of cqt.
,

When 'the feed rate is increased the amount of frictional heat generated is
-.relatively low. But, in thatcase, the surface finish obtained is iriferior..
3. Teet-workpiece interlace. niat .portion of the flank which rubs against the
work surface is..another source of heat generation due to traction, This
is also shared by the tool, wrokpiece and the coolant used. it is more'
pronounced when the tool is not sufficiently sharp.
.
(Fig. 1. 2. It. ) shows the distribution of the heat generated during meta}
cutting, neglecting the heat flowing to the atmosphere. On an 'average, .
about 700/0 of the total heat is carried away by the chip; about 150/0.is
transferred to the tool and the remaining 15% to the workpiece. From the
diagram you will observe that with.

heat

1.------------ ('/.)OF

100

t.
--.

TOTAL

HEAT

Iii WOR.

,...... SO
~

80

~
z
-

Z 70.

U bO
4

::::

~ 50~
~ 40
4
J 0Z

ffi
W

20

I-

<l: 10

W
.:1:

10

20

30

40

50.

60

70

eo

90

CUTTiNG SPEED (vf mfmin -

Flg.1.:2b-.Distributio,f
.
.

of beat ~eneraled. during metal cutting. to the chip.

workpiece and ~90L .

An increase in the cutting speed a higher amount of heat is absorbed by the

chip and lesser amount is transferred to the tool and the workpiece. It is an
obvious advantage in high speed machining. Some of the heat generated is
also shared and carried away by the flowing cutting fluid, when used. The
shear angle also effects the heat generation.. A larger shear angle leads to a
smaller heat generation in the primary deformation zone.
In metal cutting, the amount of heat generated per unit of time is given by
the thermal equivalent of the mechanical work done. Now, the mechanical
work done (W- D) is given by:
WD. Cutting force (kgf) Cutting velocity (mJrnin)
= Fe vc kgf m1min.
Now, if Q be the amount of total heat generated in cutting the metal then:

..
t~
&

~:

~:

i
j,

~
~

~.

r
~'
r

".,r

Factors Affecting Heat generation

The Factors Affecting Heat generation are, work material, tool material, Cutting
variables cutting speed, feed and depth of cut, tool geometry and the cutting fluid
used.

.1. Work Material. The cutting temperature is strogly affected by the

mechanical properties of the work material, more resistance it will offer in
chip formation So, more work will have to be done for metal cutting. This
will resu1t in more heat generation and consequently higher cutting
temperature. The higher the thermal the thermal conductivity of the work
material, the lower is the developed temperature. Similarly, tool materials
with higher thermal conductivity will result in lower cutting temperatures
than the toolmaterials with lower thermal conductivity ..
2. Cutting Variables. Even thought, the cutting forces decrease with an
......increase in cutting speed, but it is substantially smaller than the increase in
speed. Therefore, more heat will be generated with an increase in cutting
. .. speed, since Heat generated &cutting force &cutting speed
Thus, the cutting temperature (maximum temperature on\the tool surface)
increases with the cutting speed. The cutting forces increase with the
increase in the rate of feed; resulting in increased heat generation. But the
amount of heat generated and hence the rise in cutting temperature will be
slower than the increase in feed. So, the effect of feed on cutting
temperature is lesser than of the cutting speed. The effect of depth of cut on
the cutting temperature is even less than that of the feed.
3. Tool Geometry. The cutting temperature is affected mainly by the rake
angle, plan approach angleand the nose radius.
The rake angle has a complex influence on the cutting tempel' tore. As
discussed earlier, as the rake angle is reduced (thereby incre sing the

cutting angle), the work done gets increased, leading to incre ed heat
. generation. But as the cutting angle increases, the material behind
the
I
: cutting point increases. This results in better heat conduction into the tool
.... -shank, thereby, lowering the temperature at its contact surfaces. Al negative
.: --".;i;;;:Z.u ; 'rake angle causes greater deformation than a positive one and lead~ to more
~.:'\l{i~~'.r~';:
'heat generation during metal cutting.
.
I

':t_.::~<-~:>.i:~
..,~,:~

'?:_"

The larger the plan approach angle, the higher the cutting temperature will
be and more the tool is heated by cutting. .
- The larger the nose
..~. force, and more heat
. . --increased nose radius
cutting edge and the

radius, the greater. the deformation and the cutting

will by generated in chip formation. However, the
results in increased length of the active part of the
mass of the tool point. This promotes better heat

.,.

removal both into the toll shank and into the workpiece. Thisheat removal
intensity is more predominant,
leading to reduction in the cutting
temperature. So, the cutting temperature decreases with an increase in iiv::;~

radius of the tool.

The larger the cross-sectional: area of the tool shank. will help in increased
.removal of heat by conduction resulting in lower cutting temperature.
4. Cutting Fluids. The cutting fluids help in reducing. the cutting temperature
by: reducing facilitating chip formation, absorbing and carrying away a part
of the generated heat. The cooling effect of the cutting fluids gets increased
with their higher specific heat and thermal conductivity.

Measurement of Temperature' in the cutting Zone:.The various techniques used for the measurement of.temperature in the cutting
zone (work-tool interface) are:.
1. Tool-work thermo-couple
2. Thermo-couples embedded in the tool and/or the workpiece.
3. Radiation pyrometers
4. Temperature sensitive paints.
5. Indirect calorimetric techniques, etc.
1. Tool-work thermo-couple: - This is the most common and simpler
technique for measuring temperature in the cutting zone.
Here, the e.m.f. generated between the tool-work interface (hot
junction) and their cold ends (cold junction) is taken as the measure
of average temperature in the cutting zone. The e.m.f. generated is
measured with a millivoltmeter. (Fig. 12.5 . ) shows schematically
2 'typical layout of tool-work thermocouple. Both the work 3~d the
tool should be insulated from the machine tool. There should be a
good contact between the two junctions and the measuring
instrument. For this, a copper disk is mounted at the free end of the
lathe spindle. The edge of the disk dips in a cup of mercury. The
circuit is completed with mercury and the tailend of the tool through
a millivoltmeter. The magnitude of e.m.f.generated will depend upon
the temperature difference between hot and cold junctions, and the
nature of tool and workpiece. The measured e.m.f is converted into .
temperature with the help of a calibration curve.

"-'131
Cu-disk
Spindle

Hg Contact

--------Tool
insultated
firm MachinE:! Toe

Milli-Voltmeter

.Fig. 12.5.Tool- Work The~o-comple

.....

Milli
voltmeter

~.
Electric heater

Fig.

1.% :roo I-Work thermo-couPle

calibration

The calibration is done with the help of a standard thermo-couple,

. (Fig ~f. 2-G ) a chip and a piece of tool material are heated in an
oven or lead bath at known temperatures. The resulting thermal
e.m.f. E], is measured. If the plot of E versus is the same while
increases at it while decreases (that is there is no hysteresis), the
calibration is satisfactory.

2. Embedded thermo-coupler - This technique has been successfully used

for determining the temperature distribution on.the rake face of a cutting
tool. But, the method involves considerable effort.

3. Radiation Pyrometersr - Here, the "infrared"radiation from the cutting zone

is monitored with a" 'radiation _pyrometer and interpreted in terms of"
temperature., the method involves taking photography of the side face <?f-".
the cutting zone and also of strips of known temperatures, The intensities of "
radiation at different points in the cutting zone (tool, chip, workpiece) are
compared with strips "of "known temperatures. This will give temperature
"distribution on the tooi, chip and"workpiece, (Fig. 1~2
q.. ) The technique
has been extensively used by Boothryod. The drawback is that it indicates
only the surface temperature. Also, the accuracy of the results depends
upon the emissivity of the surfaces, which is very difficult to determine
accurately

Tool

Temperature C
Workpiece

----~~~i~--------

Fig. 1.2'1.Temperature distribation in Cutting zor:e

4. Temperature sensitive paints: - These paints change colour at rather

critical temperatures. The technique is useful for determining overall
temperatilre distribution. .
.
~

5. Indirect Calorimetric techniques: - Here, the heatdistribution between

too], work and chip can be measured for comparison with analysis.

t--ohe.n

~~

~c'{_

o-J

=\R.j,c:,1OC..'-X-)O\)

ezico

,\'1.)

~~\

~,

-\-\-.-e.

~O

~e_y~<C-L\

vlt 'Mt ~ feo\>..\-;

-TN'\J.

pQJa.c:::e..

~~

~+;O

~()'~
l<:)

~"\Q.{;Q~'"
Qx

h~~'f~\--Q

Jhl~

~-_.

t-o i~t-h

~ ~rroc.Lt-iQ\t

)'~

rT{~\'(:_y

(toe ~

be

tte...n

~U~1Q.~
CJS.'-\ ~~\

O~\).

9-5 +tut~zyr.le .
c0.~C.t;b~\

%\n~u'-\ ~ -j-lio u0Qr-%

~<:'CEJ~"'-

~g',::~~

l"""fYY'~'

[ ~ 1 1.ie~~ lhe

-l-hexQ-)c)'(.Q

~CHU'-'

\-Q()'C~,

'3

;-t

3b h0JJ !Jr:> e.

~u~

QI..

~e

\J,'0'n.i~

~~

,'r::,tc -+he

l'r.n- ...C c:.\)J.(.eL-l

\\Q.

bQ_ ~~ \_~'~

e 0cU_\0.\ \t;\,.,_"s "~Uu>e) ; 0<5--<" hen\ a.dc ='-'J ~

e.

I~
Chip

Cutting
tool

....;

f.!ovqment
of tool
Shear planq
Work piece

.-,.

TOOl

0(

= Tool

rakq anghz

~ = Shear angle
Shear zone

(C.)

Work piece

Fig-i.2$' (a) ,Action of cutting 1001on metal (b) Direction of elongation

of crystals 10 metal cutting (c) Shear zone (chip formation process)

?I"

Fig.1.2~.
Shear

~ '?' -j-h\

_'?

In
i0,

..

plane, shear angle (~) and rake angle of the tool (a)

15Q,U1 0 .

~O<2J~~

O<th()<>'lc:>-\ ~~.,

=Q"~ 'o~

0.

~illPQ~

roo v "-",,,Q.hl

~'<E

"3- ~~

-\-\-it_"'lDOj

w>",~

':l -\:h. -\-0<>.... ~

.~:;~;~~:~::o~~
h~~b::::\~~~~'~
~.
l*.2) ~ ..
~Q.'f*h
.~\ P
fhe

'f"~O

~_j

-Ji->e

O'f~'('Q~

oJ.~f:>es--'

QJ..!'

~'e.~.~ Jp:>.

~)Qj)_~~e.~~

-t \ tb t2-

t'J.

~j 8J..\~

~'r~~~

lJ~~,

Ih E' t"-A..n "'''

CD

CJv.n

b <e o~\ex; v e...\ a-L....

f> 'LIS> ~

.
;;'

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:;-.

t~~>

,~

~$

~,_

~()

\q,n..\)v,s:n"")

C>---\.

c__'\..\...\\,). ~

'Cs,'--'-t>l;:
t

it

.:

tl

Y ''.13
;; xy ~~ lg-o<)

:::1--

.t_,2-

-t2-

:= ~~\_~.-~

-t,\,

e)oj.
-::- ~

_9 - C__o\9,. ~

-\- ~ ~ f\

~ .

SlT)oZ. .

CD'~ 5'.
,

;,

.-.

.. -

( ...

}- -.-

. 0'('

1- ()

I
t

,;

t
f

G\:'~'

~:9..o(

c.a\ 5 ~

-::::

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0

f)

o(_ -:::.. \ -

\-"D

~i()D\.

"f. C_c~ . C>(_.'

<Q ~

;ocz_.

"

".Chip

a.

Fig.

-30

b.!

(a) Velocity relationships in orthogonal cuuins

(b) Velocity diagram
0

J8

,.
;.-

.-

..l~,.,;~
..

"

.:

g~eI...tv...fI_~
I .- ": <::. tf(>~'cb:-Q.t-f~. \g.f' ..tM-'

.. 1

\.SO"0"~ tQ.ee. '<> o

exe"

rC, ~

c."..,P1)..!,-\IVQ.

t~e

F'0 -

&,h<Wl

+..

0'0 ~

bet

!he Jon,,e %=.er-t~

N - 1'-..\ IlHTl}\ +r"-<o

\;Oe.

the ~h='-X

or.>

t<>o~

rc "'1 toot

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o~

u.r1C.t\ ~,

- A1-

Q, ~,

..

i-!>

1=0,

,'I),.
~

\,Q'J \ . 'OtW, e. ~

&\,e.UJ ~~

~ I'~.\-t.n

e_cf~~

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c>J.i.?-,,' QJ,.re:

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Ft "- -\:;T'''J. III ~~"5

e_~t '

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~sJ\. ~
q

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..

N
Tool

lb)
F'(j'!''61.

(g\) FDf~

lb) NQ.f~'0:>

n~Q.\

p'J.

13\

Clh~r'

6~'-C{e.ro ~

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t b)

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-=-

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D HI-

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::: Ri' (J:)~C:C

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-

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V

'\

Fj~\,,<c -

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.
The

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~o.

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th.

$irJC-

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33
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It

Merchant found that the above theory agreed weJIwith experimental results
obtained when cutting synthetic :plastics but agreed poorly with
experimental results obtained for steel machined with a sintered cadibe
~l.
'~
- It should be noted t~t in differentiating equation (22. ) with respect to t' it
was assumed that
OC and 1: should be independent of ~ . On
reconsidering these assumptions; merchant decided to include in a new
theory the relationship.
~
~S :: 'C5

t rsOS - ~

Which indicates that the shear strength of the material increases linearly
with increase in normal stress,OS ' on the shear plane (Fig ..J -32.
) at
zero normal stress13is equal to 1SoThisassumption agreed with the work of
Bridgman, where, in experiments on poJycrystalline metals, the shear
strength was shown to be dependent on the norma) stress on the plane of
shear.

Normal stress on plane of shear

Fig!-31Dcpenden-:e

IJ,

of r on a assumed in Merchant's second theory

-@
.. 8)'~
g~~.

vs
Q'

2.1-

g,'ng .. ~ S,'O l31 fl-~

tAl

L$ ~ liS'
N.ow

2.2- ~.

~tf6)

<:ot
~\)N-

'1:$

@ ..

\_tj> t~-:D0 -

e= [

@ ~ @, a;~ ~
't~ ~ ~"
.em l1i ~-"0.

, OT

'Cg

z:

~g,

en," C.9 t Jd

-.0 -. c-~ c.,... (_~o' ?>:-.g .

1:~I> <:n'r (_ ~ t ~.:0<0 ::-: ~

L$

&t-

(5' t 'f -csJ':_ IS

[c.,tC5>i'f!>-'9 -\0= '-s,; (tt(~T~-_:9

...52

ts

- It is now assumed that k and

are constants fOI the particular work
material and that Ai and 0(, are co~stants for the cutting operation. Thus
Eq. (a.t) .may be differentiated to giye the new value of ~. The resulting
expressIOn IS:
~
_
~

21tp-D\ -G ~

3r

Where C is (given by arccot k and is) a constant for t work material.

- In other words. Merchant denoted cot\ by the symbol C which he called

the machining constant of the material cut althoughhe had.nevetclaimed
...........that C is.a constant to more than a fi~tapproxiJllation. ..
.
.
- For a steel upon which he was working at that time, merchant obtained a
value of C == 800 for the Eq. (32. ) above.
- ~ore recen~experimen?] werk illdicate~ that~e~ains constant for a
gIVenmatenal over a wide range of cuttJhg condltiuns and there fore k
would be expected to be zero.
.

...

2
Cutting tool material
Characteristics of cutting tool materials
, The material used for the manufacture .of cutting tools should possess the
following characteristics:
1. Ability to retain its hardness at elevated temperatures, caned hot hardness.
2. Ability to resist shock, called toughness.
3. High resistance to wear, to ensure longer tool life.
4. Low coefficient of friction, at the chip - tool interface, so that surface finish
is good and wear is minimum.
S ... Should be cheap.
6. Should be able to be fabricated and shape easily .
......7. If it is to be used in the form of brazed tips, its other physical properties like
tensile strength; thermal conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion and
modulus of elasticity, etc., should be as close to ~he shank material as
possible to avoid cracking.
I

Types of cutting tool materials

The following material are commonly used for manufacturing the cutting tools.
Selection of a particular material will depend on the type of service it is expected
to perform. The various cutting tool-materials can be grouped as follows:
t. High carbon steel,
2. High speed steel,
3. Cemented carbides,
..4. Stellite,
5. Cemented oxides or ceramics, and
6. Diamond .
7. Cermets.
8. Diamond.
9. Cubic Boron NitridOe (CBN)
IO.UeON.
11. Sialon.
12. Coronite.
Pain carbon steels, medium alloy steels and High speed steels are known as "Tool
Steels". Medium alloy steels and high speed steels contain one or more alloying
elements to impart the desired properties to the cutting tools ..The function of each
alloying element is given below.
,

(i) Carbon. Carbon combines

with iron to form carbide which makes it respond to.
hardening. thus increasing the hardness, strength and wear resistance. The percentage of carbon
varies from 0.6 to 1.4%.

(ii) Manganese. It is added to steels as a deoxidizing and desulphurizing agent. It lowers

he critical range of temperature. It increases the time required for transformation, so that, oil
t llenching. becomes practicable. Its content is about 0.5 to 2%.

q (iii) Chromium. The addition of chromium results. in the formation of various carbides of
hromium which are very hard. yet the resulting steel IS more ductde than a steel of the same

~ardness produced by a simple increase in carbon content. Chromium also refines the grain

structure so that. these two combined effects result in both increased toughness and hardness.
The addition of chromium increases the critical range of temperature and raises the strength at
high temperatures. Alloy of chromium resists abrasion and wear. Its Content ranges from 0.25
to 4.5%.

f
(iv) Molybdenum. Molybdenum is a strong carbide forming element and its action is very
I much like chromium but is more powerful. It increases strength. wear resistance, hardness

I penetration and hot hardness. It is always used in conjunction with o.ther alloying elements. Its
' content ranges upto about 10%.

(,,~ Cobalt. Cobalt is .ColTirnonly usedjn high Speed steels to increase the hot ..hardriessso

. that the CUllingtools can be "sed at higher CUllingspeeds and temperat"r",! and still they retain
their hardness and a sharp cutting edge. Its content ranges from 5 to 11%.
(vi) Vanadium. It increases hot hardness and abrasion resistance. As vanadium 'has a very
strong tendency to for~ carbides. hence; it is used only in small amounts (0.2 to 0.5% in alloy
carbon tool steels and l to 5% in H.S.S).
(vii) Tungsten.

It is widely used in tool steels because the tool maintains its hardness even
at red heat. Tungsten produces a fine dense structure and adds both toughness and hardness. Its

effect is similar to mOlybdenum except that it must be added in greater quantitY(1.5 to 20%).
Note; Most of the tool-steels contain two or three alloying elements, as the.combined
acticn
several elements is more- effective than that of one element even When its Content in
. steel isofconsiderable.
I

CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

I

These

. . Plaln Carbo~ Tool "Ieels.

are the .oldest type of tool steels. The material is
inexpensive. can be easily formed and ground. The Properties of the materi~! will depend. upon
t!le percentage of carbon content.twcarbon

steels are tough and shock resistant, whereas, high

carbo,nsteels are abrasion resista t. They are basically water hardening materials (Type W tool
steels). that is, they are hardened y heating follOWedby quenching in Water to Obtain hardness
of 1:'tic 60 - 67. Their hardness 4creases rapidly above 200C and so they are .useful for low
spe,~. Operations -

drilling,

tapping, rbamirig, broaching etc. They are also used to

~~~efacture ; Woodworking tools] cold chisels, hamniers, knives and punches. These materiais
are prone to deformation and crabking when hardened.
.

'0

'.
.", AIloy Tool Steels. Tre various alloying elements (discu ssed .abo vel are added
. 1.1~.p'rbonsteel to impart the dCfired properties to the tool steel. These alloying elements slow
~Wnthe transformation rates. r>ue to this, the m.aterialsca? be hardened in oil or air, and the
.I?y steels become less suscepttble to cracks while quenchlOg. These Steels have greater Wear
""lance and hot 'iardneSs than the plain carbon-steels. These' are widery used' for drills. taps.
mers.etc. but do not.have sufficient hot hardness to be used in high.speed turning or miUing.
.e~ndtng

upon the method of quenching,

these steels are of two types.

Ca) TJpe - 0 Tool Sleds. Thesesteels are hardened by quenching in oil. Type 0 _ I
OSt_

comm.only used which has the fOllowing composition:

.

IS

C : 0.90%, Mn = 1.00%, W

0.5%, Cr

These steels find use in cold-working

aring, forming and drawing dies.

= 0.5%
applications,
.

such as punching 'and blanking, -

(b) Type - A Tool Steel. These steels are hardened by cooling in air. In .these steels- -thl"
ltent of alloying elements is higher as compared to type 0 steels. Usually, C is' 1.0% and c-.
;%. Chiefly used for cold working applications, for example thread rolling dies; coining dies'
I gauges.

The alloy tool steels can operate upto cutting temperature of about 300C.

. High Speed Steel (H.S.S.). This tool material is basically high carbon steel, to'
.ich the various alloying elements (Tungsten W, Molybdenum Mo, Chromium.Cr, Vanadiu~it
and Cobalt Co) have been added in larger amounts as compared to alloy tool steels, td~~.
prove hardness, toughness and wear resistance properties. These materials are deep hardeningo(
j can be quenched in oil, air, or salt. They are capable of retainingtheir
hardness upto 600oe"
j so can be operated at much higher cutting speeds as compared to alloy tool steels, hence:
! name "high speed steel".
This tool material was developed in 1905.
There are two basic ..!y'~s of high speed steels :
r _

I. TungstentYP~~s
%).

rr~~rie~)

whicb has tungsten as the major alloying element (12-

2. Molybdenum type steels (M Series) in whichttlngstei(is partially or completely replaced

molybdenum.
The molybdenum type of H.S.S. is cheaper than the tungsten based material and is more
idily sharpened. Also, it generally has a slightly greater toughness at the same level of
rdness.The popular 18-4-1 H.S.S. contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium and 1% vanadium.
ibalt (5 to 8%) may also be added to increase red hardness. Carbon is about 0.7.5%. This
rterial is designated as T-4. The lSI designation of this steel is (T 75'W 18 Co 5 Cr 4 V 1
o 70). The most commonly used types of_H.S .S, steels' are listed in Table 7.1, with their
signations and compositions.
.
The most common Iy used grades of high speed steels are : M "7 1, M - 2, M - 7, M - 10,
- I, and T - 2. M -2 tool steel has the .applications of : turning carbon and alloy steels' of
.rdness up to 375 BHN, turning nitridlng steels of hardness uptc 350 -ERN. turning ultra
gh-strength steels of hardness upto 300 "BHN. turning tool steels, cast steels of hardness upto
BHN. turning armour plate of hardness upto 325 8HN, and turning non-ferrous materials
ch as copper, brass, aluminum: magnesium and plastics. Broaches to cut ferrous materials of
.rdness upto260 BHN are made of M"':"2 grade.
I()

Milling cutters for cutting ferrous materials of hardness upto 350 BHN are made' of M-.
and M - 7 grades. Gear hobbing, shaping and shaving tools are also made of M - 2 and Mgrades. Drills and reamers for steels of hardness upto 325 BHN are made of M>: 1, M - 2, M
7 and M - 10 grades. Taps are mostly made from M - 1grade. Form tools are usually made
om M - 2 or T- 2 grade of H.S.S: _
High speed steels with cobalt (for example grades: M- 33, M- 36, T-4, T- 5 and Thave high hot hardness and wear resistance but lower toughness as compared to M -2 H.S.S.
)"01 bits for planing and heavy duty turning arc made from T-4, T- 5 and- T- 6 grades .'
rades M - 33 and M -.36 are used for: drilling and milling hard alloy steels, stainless steel.
anium and heat resistant materials. T- 6 grades are also called" Super I-i.S.S'. They have a
gh ,W (18 to 22%) and high Co (10'to 12%) content. They are less tough than other types arid - (
.ed 'Ii:\0 be well supported on a very rigid rnachine.jThis
type is the most expensive I-i.S,S.
f
_.
H.S.S. with high percentage of vanadium (For example M - 3, M -4, and T- 15 grades) ,
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)Ss~SSincr~ased red hardness and wear resistance. but their toughness and grind ability is
duced. Que to jncreased red hardness and wear reslsta~ce, these steels nave greater tool life.
; compared to conventio~al. H.S-.S. They are used for machi~ing conventional alloys, super
loys and refractory materials. Single point lathe tools, flat and form cutters, broaches and r!r:!:;:,
:e made of these steels. ..
. ..
.
_ H.S.S. with cobalt (grades M - 41, M - 42, M - 43; M - 44, M:- 45 and M - 46) have
igh hot hardness and wear resistance. Their grind ability is better as compared to H.S.S. with
anadium. These steels are used for machining: heat treated steels, titanium alloys and
erospace materials of high hardness (cobalt and nickel base alloys). Drills, milling cutters, form
ools, broaches. hobs, shavers. taps and tool bits are made of these steels.
.
In the conventional H.S.S., there is every possibility of large dispersion and segregation of
arbides. Due to this, there will be local variations in the chemical composition and structure
If the material, resulting in difficulty in producing the tool and also poor performance of the
001. There drawbacks are overcome by using powder metallurgy (P/M) for the manufacture of
001 steel. The powder of the steel alloy is made by atomizing the molten metal. The powder
s then compacted under pressure in dies, to produce billets. These billets are then transformed
o the desired shape and size by conventional hot forging. In this tool steel, there is better and
nore uniform distribution of carbides and the alloying elements. H.S.S_ produced by PIM
irossesses higher wear resistance greater toughness, greater impact strength, better hoi
vorkability. improved grindability, higher material removal rates and good dimensional

.tability.

j
I

Non - Ferrous Cast Alloys (Stellite). This material which was introduced in 1915
is an alloy of Cobalt, Chromium and Tungsten with compo_sition : Cobalt, 38 to 53 per cent,
Chromium. 30 to 33 per cent, Tungsten, 10 to 20 per cent and Carbon, 1 to 3 per cent. 1 per
cent Carbon content gives a relatively soft and strong tool and 3 per cent Carbon content gives
a hard and more wear resistant grade. Cast alloy tools are cast and ground to any desired shape.
Cast alloys bridge the gap between H.S.S. and Carbides (the. next tool material). They have.
properties intermediate between H.S.S. and cemented Carbides. This material maintains great
hardness at high temperatures and has good wear resistance but is not as tough as H.S.S. and
is sensitive to shock loading. The tool material is available in the form of tool bits for use _in
holders and in the form of tips brazed to a medium carbon steel shank. The material is
recommended for deep roughing operations-at relatively high speed and feed rates and-it can
machine more difficult materials such as high tensile steels, stainless steels and heat resistant
steels, la.nd C.L This m~teria' is used ~t surface speeds. above those of H.S.S. and below tho~e
of Carbides. and can Withstand a. cuttmg temperature In the range of 900C.
'.
I The introduction of Cast alloys as cutting tool materials somewhat overlapped that of the
T~ngsten carbide .and since these carbides were, in general, superior cutting tools, the cast
ntn:-ferrous a~loys never caught on to th~ extent ant.icipa~ed.
.
\ .
.
i
.
Sintered or Cemented Carbides. The first sintered carbide cutung tool (tungsten
carbide) was marketed in 1926. Since then lot of-research has been done and many types of
sjntered carbide materials -have been produced to improve their performance. This has been
achieved by. improving the methods of their manufacture and their composition. For example,
carbides of titanium, tantalum, niobium and columbium etc. can be added to straight tungsten
carbide to extend the range of their appiication. Sintered carbides are produced by PIM .
technique and have the following properties. Very high red hardness (of about lOOOC). very
high wear resistance, high modulus of elasticity, low thermal expansion and high thermal
conductivity.
There are three general groups of cemented carbides in use:
"'..!) Z
L Straight tungsten carbide with cobalt as a binder.

I11.

2. Tungsten carbide with cobalt as a binde~ and having large percentages of carbides er
~'., Ta and. Nb, which along with we form a solid solution of WC - TiC - TaC _ NbC.
;
3. Titanium carbide with nickel or molybdcilum as the binding material.
Manufacture,
ollowing steps :

The cemented

carbides are manufacture

by PIM technique

involving

the

,
I

l. Firstly. we should get the ingredients. Tungsten oxide is reduced in hydrogen to get
sten
metal powder. Similarly,
to obtain titanium
and ' tantaium,
titanium oxide, and
ung
h
I
anranlum oxide are reduced in hydrogen atrnosp ere, respective y.

2. Tungsten p~\Vder is then mixed with lamp black and the mixture is heated at about
600C to form carbide of tungsten. and so on.
3. The lump of the carbide so produced is crushed to a powder. Then, pOwdered cobalt
.t.: etai which acts as a binder to hold together the particles of carbide powder, is thoroughly
. ' ixed with the latter.
.
d

j
4. To increase the mouldability of we - eo mixture. it is mixed with a lubricant such as
/' araffin, ethylene glycol or camphor. Sometimes, only water is used.
5. After drying and refining, the mixture is compacted

in a press to set the desired blocks,

6. The strength of the green compacts so obtained is quite low. To give the necessary
, ength to the compact; it is healed ar1300C tt? 186S0C{siriteied pl'ocess) depending Upon the
mposition and the cobalt c.ontent. As a ru~e, the sinre'r.ing temperature is.9.00C to 1000C belov v
-e melting point of pure cobalt The sintering process is done for about 1.5 to 2 houTs and it
ould be done preferably in an inert atmosphere to avoid oxidation Or decarburization.
r
s,
~.::

-,

e'

./.

u.

During sintering, there is about 15 to 25% shrinkage

ount while designing the product shape.

and this factor must be taken into

7. The product is finally ground or lapped depending on the requiremems.

Properties and Uses, The properties of the carbide tool material depend Upon
(I) Chemical composition
(if) Method of manufacture

d: (iii) Micro-structure

of the tool material .

is

.~: The finer the grain size, the higher is the hardness. Out of these, the major effect
or the
i~ emical composition <the method of man;lfacture and the grain size ean be properly taken ease
III
'.'

20%:

.n
$,!!!aiEhttungsten carbide contains co1i~1t from 3 to
with increase in the percentage
s CObalt. the ~e-s-s:tfie'oflttleness
and compressive strength 'of the material decre:tses.
Wever. with increase in cob a l. content. the transverse rupture- strength of the tool material
h, eases'-1'!>ismaterial h~j!:1L abr~i ve wear resistance and high strength in_res=-L.of a gi ven
~
-'~-------------~
n~s. The main
drawback --of straight tungsten
carbide is it~ affinityJor
steel. Dup.
to this,
st~~~~nsI
t~ weld to the tool surface resulting in crater wear-:-Henc~:this-tool material
.e ot .~Uitable for tutting steel, but gives superior pei-formiulce with non-ferrous. non-metaliic
rial and cast iron. This material is called as 'C' grade cemented, carbide material.
To reduce the tendency of the metal chips to weld to the tool and to decrease the diffusion
. e tOol material to the chips:- TiC is added-to we-e, system. However, with increase in the
enrages of TiC. compressive,
trans-,:erse and impact strengths and also the thermal,
UCtiVityand the modulus of elasticity of tool material decrease; These drawbacks -of TiC;
e overcome by adding TaC, which increases the" transverse strength. and the hot hardness of
tOol material. The effect of adding NbC is similar to that of Tae These mixed carbides ace
for ,"achinin g. steel. Th is ceinen ted carbide maieri aI is kno wn by S' grade. It con tai flS :
t 16% TiC, 0 to 10% Tae. Cabalt cpntent varies from 3 to 16%.
.._

- Cr

With TiC tool material nickel and molytdenum are used as binding materials~ Molybdenum.
Ied to check the very high grain growth with TiC-N.i system. This material has -low
bility.' This improves its crat7r wear resistance and hence i_t is used .when cutting
-ratures are high. because of high cutting speeds or hard workpiece material. According to ISO (International
Standards Organization},
naterial have been grouped in three series:
1. Carbide

tools used for cutting cast iron and non-ferrous

Ko, to K40

the.

"~f!()IIS

grades of carbide

meta is are designated

2. Grades- of -carbide tools used for machining steel are designated

:;.

from:

as : P0\ to P 60'.

3. Grades of carbide tools used for general purpose applications are designated as : M.IO_,
to MJo'

In all the above three series, the harder and brittle materials have the lowest number -and _.._
.ss hard and most tough materials have the- higher numbers.For example in K-seiies, K
~ hardest and most brittle and K.co is the least hard and the most tough material. The
ides of carbides are essentially straight tungsten carbides with cobalt as the binder, and are
for machining cast iron, non-ferrous metals, plastics and similar materials. P-grade carbides
ombiued carbide tool materials (carbides of W, Ii, Ia a{ld Nb) with cobalt.as the binder.
~ materials are similar in composition to the K-grade, but have different properties due to
'ent manufacturing methods. These are used to cut heat resistant steels and stainless steets:
AI_I carbides, when finished, are extremely brittle and weak in their resistance to impact
hock loading. Due to this, vibrations ar~ very harmful for carbide t601s. The machine tools
d be rigid. faster and more powerful. Light feeds, low speeds and chatter are harmful. Due
! high cost of carbide tool materials
and other factors, cemented carbides are used in the
of inserts or tips which are brazed or clamped to a steel shank, Fig.

o, ..

i
I.
(b) Brazlnq

- (a) Clamping

I
Methods of Attaching Inserts to Tool S:hankS.
,

In the case of a- brazed tip, when it is worn- out, it is resharpened with the help of special
irig wheels
a Tool and Cutter grinder. The main drawbacks of a brazed tip are: For
rpening purposes, the tool will have to be removed from the machine involving a resetting
tion, Also, because of the difference in co-efficients of expansion of tip material and tool
: material, the brazing has to be done very carefully.

on

Mechanically clamped tips are known as "Indekable tips or insens", because these have
than one cutting edge which are used one by one by indexing the tip. These tips are also
.n as "Thro.v-away"
or "disposable',
because once all the edges of the tip have been
the tip Or insert. is removed from the tool shank seat and thrown away or disposed-off. In
r:,

~ -(

y a rectangular tool bit (tip or insert) can be used upto eight times before disposal and
l S wa no resharpening
COst. The inserts are available in a variety of shap<.s, such as square,
Ulf1es
: ang
e, diamond and round, as shown in Fig. 7.2

W900
Fig.

The various parameters

Different shapes of Inserts

depend upon the shape of the' insert. For example,

(a) Higher the cutting edge angle, higher is the cutting edge strength. That is, cutting edge
ngth increases from right to Left in Fig.
(b) Power reguirement

decreases as the cutting edge angle decreases.

(Left to Right)

(c) Tendency to vibration increases with increase in cutting edge' angle. (Right to Left).
as thecutting edge angle decreases. (Left to
'ht)(d) Versatility and accessibilitY.increases
There are certain rules of thumb to be foll6wed when selecting
(i) For strength

an insert for a particular

and economy. the largest possible cutting edge angle should-be selected.

(ii) When there is a tendency to vibration during operation.

sibility through the use of smaller cutting edge a~les

strength versus versatilny and

should always be considered.

To improve the cutting edge strength, the insert edges are usually honed and chamfered or
uced with a negative land. The radius of honing may be alx!tntO.025 nun. When using-ceramics,
hamfering is recommended to minimize the risk of burrs when the insert exits the cut. It also has
sitive effect on the insert while entering.

Laminated and Coated Carbides. We have seen above that the resistance of straight tungsten
ide to crater wear can be increased by the addition of TiC. The same result can be obtained by
inaled and coated carbides. In laminated carbides, laminatt.s consisting of a hard thin surface
r of TiC and in the form of throw-away tips, are bonded by epoxy resin to the rake face of a tip
y ofWC. Coated carbides have a win coating of TiC on all faces of the tip. The coating tlll'ckness
i
the order
of a few microns (0.0025 to 0.005 mrn). These
tools resist the diffusion wear on the

er and give a tough shock resistant too and have lower friction. Laminated and coated carbides .'
: ~~wn id Fig, . . Other common coati ng materials'are titlanium nitride, titanium Carbonitricle
InlUrn Okide and diamond,
..
>

C~atinf is d~ne by Chemica] yapou~ Deposition (eVD).

I.

.
LARG~lY

TUNGSTEN

CARBIDE & COBAl.T

LAYER

OF i'URE

ULTRA-FINE GRAIN Tl

(a) LAMINATE
Fig.

(b)

COATED

, Laminated and Coated Carbides,

Oxide Coating of ~arbide.tool~~

-:he diffusion'. of ato~s betwee~. the tool and. chip

rial (wh!~h is the major cause of carbide tools) can be retarded by coatm~_the tool surface

e carbide tools

with oxides of aluminium and zirconium. This considerably increases the

life~-Coated Carbides are used for machining super alloys.
..
These tools operate, at cutting speeds which are about.S times of that forH.S.S. Cemented
.de toot materials also include :. nitrides. borides and silicides which are compounds of
gen. boron and silicon withsuch metals as Tungsten, Titanium. Tantalum. Niobium and
tbdenum.
Ceramics and Oxides. Ceramics or sintered oxides were developed as cutting tool
.rials am-mg 1950 _ 1960. These materials are basically aluminium oxide (AI20)
aining additions like MgO, NiO. Cr20), TiD and TiC etc. to improve the grain structure.
ng properties and sintering,
-'
".
These materials are produced in the same manner as sintered carbides, that is. by PIM
nique. Th aluminium powder is ball milled to a suitable grain size. Water is added and-the
edients are thoroughly mixed to make a stiff paste. This is then pressed into pallets of
ired form in punch and die. The pallets are dried and then sintered at temperature of 15OOC
700C. The grain particles then get bonded to one another by the process of diffusion. The
............:t5 are then ctifi!nd ground to the required shape; size and surface finish, with the help of
ioid bonded. grinding w.heels: Ceramics are-always used in the form of indexable inserts of
Iard shapes and sizes. At present there is no satisfactory method of brazing the tool tips to
. shank. So. the ceramic tool tips are clamped mechanically to the steel tool shank.
Ceramic tool materials have a very high' abrasion resistance, are harder than cemented
ides and H.S.S. and have less tendency to weld to metals during machining. However, they
. impact toughness. so, vibration and chatter are fatal to these tools. Due to this, the tool
mtings should be rigid and the machine tools should be rigid. These materials are especially
ctive at very high cutting speeds (2 to 5 mls) and for uninterrupted cutting operations. These
erials are particularly successful for machining cast iron, and high tensile materials. at
ing speeds which are 2 to 3 times of that of comented carbides. These tools can retain cutting
~ hardness upto about 1400C and exhibit uniform strength upto 1200C.
Another .ceramic tool material is SiIicon nitride (Code named S- 8), which is particular! y
I for cast iron machining applications. These ceramic tools have a tooi life that was effective
t 1500 C.I: 'pieces, wherecoated tungsten carbide tools lasted only 250 pieces before dulling.
arnics are -less expensive than carbides and -the trend now is to replace the latter with the
ner whenever possible. and reasonable. Ceramics are mainly used for finishing and
er-finishing, Poor results are obtained if AI203 tool material is used to machine Al or Ti
ys, 'because strong bonds tend to form between the chip and the tool.
Cermets : The cerrnets are' combinations of ceramics and metals, bonded together
.he same manner in which P/M parts. are produced. They combine some of the high
actoriness of ceramics.and toughness and thermal shock resistance of metals. For cutting tool
erials, the usual combination is Al203 plus metal additions (W; Mo. Boron. Ti etc.) in an
runt upto 10%. These additions reduce the brittleness to some extent, but they reduce the
rr resistance of the material as well.

.,

1",".

Diamonds. Diamond is the hardest of all the 'cutting tool materials. Diamond has
following properties: extreme hardness. low thermal expansion. high heat conductivity. and . ~
er-y'low co-efficient of friction. This. is used when good surface fini.sh and dimensional '!~,.'...
uracy Fre desired. The work-materials on which diam<?ndsare successfully employed are the
i-ferrous' one. such as copper. brass, zinc, aluminium and magnesium alloys. On fe.TOUS ;
erials. diamonds are not suitable because of the diffusion of carbon atoms from diamond to ~.
Ie
work-piece material.
~

S6

-'11

Diamond tools have thefollowing applications: single point turning and boring tools,
i '. . . cutters, reamers, grinding wheels. honing tools. lapping powder and for grinding wheel
1lh~gC1 Due to their brittle nature, the diamond tools have poor resistance to shock and so, .
h es~~~ loaded lightly. For fine turning. the following values are recommended: cutting speed
oUto 500 mJmin, feed 0.01 to 0.05 mm/rev. and depth of cut 0.10 to 0.15 mm.
Diamonds are available either as naturally or as man made (synthetic). The natural
nds are. however, of low grade. For metal cutting applications, polycrystaliine diamond
n . read of single crystal diamond. has been recently introduced. This tool material known as
stea
. I IS
. rnade olamon
f di
d
' ompacts " ha~ inc.reased strength ana'. shoc~ resistance. ThiIS rnatcrra
iwderby sintenng .mto moulded shapes by high pressure and temperature technology.
), polycrystalline diamond has been successfully used for machining tough. abrasive
r n-ferrous materials, plastics, ceramics and glass. The material can be moulded into standard
. . ped inserts and used as conventional indexable inserts. Indexable inserts can also be made
brazing compacts of polycrystalline diamond to each cover of a carbide insert. This material
also be used by bonding its thin layer (about 0.5 mm thick) to a WC substrate. These blanks
' brazed on to a steel shank in position, ground and then used. \VC being tougher than
imondwill increase the shock resistance of the tool. such tools are called as "Compax" tools,
mond tools can with stand heat upio 2000C with highest tool fife (50 to 100 tithes more
that of WC).
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) : Next to diamond, CBN is the hardest material
ently available. This material, which consists of atoms of nitrogen and-boron, was produced
the early 1970's by high pressure, high temperature processing. As a cutting tool material,
N is used in the polycrystalline form. CBN has high hardness and high thermal conductivity.
as much higher tensile strength (1000 N'mrrr') as compared to diamond (300N/mm\ CBN
ng chemically inert, is used as a substitute for diamond for machining steel. Other
lications are : as a grinding wheel on H.S.S. tools, for machining high temperature alloys,
e nium, Nimonic. Stainless steel, Stellites and Chilled C.L
In dealing with iron-based alloys and hardened steels, the life of a CBN tool is 4 to 5 times
er than that of a diamond tool.
" CBN, as a cutting tool material, can be used' in different ways: In "Compax" tools. a 0_5
thick layer is bonded to a cemented carbide substrate at high temperature and pressure.
e tools combine the high hardness and wear resistance of CB* with the high shock
In stance and toughness of WC. CBN can also be made in the form ~f indexable inserts and
tho ks of standard shape and size. The blanks can be brazed on to steel shanks, form ground
~" ~: used. This material is known by the trade name "Borazon", it U,S.A.1nd 'Elbor' in
-

' UCON. This is also new cutting material developed by Uruon Carbide, U.S.A. Its
th stituents are: Columbium 50%, Titanium 30%, and Tungsten 20%. This tool material is
lig, ufactured according to the following steps:
I
to
1 a;

1. The powders of columbium, Titanium and Tungsten are thoroughly mixed and blended.
2. The mixture is compacted in a punch-and a die.

tho 3, The compact is then melted in an electric arc furnace and the alloy is cast into ingots.
,4. The ingot is rolled into sheets which are then cut into strips.
h S. The strips are then
an
',_ cut into blank' of desired shape and size.
::>n' 6.- The blanks are then can ground and honed subsequently by tumbling to produce a
. th Us of 0.05 to 0.075 mm at cutting points.
..
,
, . ,: 7. Lastly, the blanks lre nitrides in a nitrogen atmosphere at a very 1high temperature.
UeON has the following properties: High hardness, High toughness. excellent shock
lance and excellent resistance to diffusion and adhesion wear. This is a basically steel

;utting material and is not preferred for cutting cast' iron, stainless steel and super alloys
;ontcining Ni, Co and Ti as base materials. Cutting operations recommended for U~ON .are :
oughing, semi-roughing and finishing, turning, facing and boring operations. Itpermits 60%
;ncrease in cutting speed when compared with WC.
.
Sialon (SiAION) : The research on this tool material has been going on for the last
100ut 14 years. The material is produced by milling together Si3N4 Aluminum oxide, AI203 and'
vttria, The powder is dried, pressed to shape and sintered at a temperature of about 1800C. This
material has been found 1.) be considerably tougher than ceramics, and thus can be successfully
used for machining with interrupted cuts. Cutting speed can be 2 to 3 times, those with carbides.
At present, the field of.application of this tool material (in the form of tips) is for machining
aerospace alloys, .Ni-based gas turbine blades etc. at cutting speed in the range of 3.~ to 5 m/s.
Coronite : It is a new cutting tool material whose properties lie in between those
of H.S.S. and cemented carbides.
'
It combines the toughness of H.S.S. with hardness and' wearresistance of cemented
carbides. This improves tool life, reliability and surface finish. Cutting toois mace from.this- .'
material are mainly endmills used for machining grooves, pockets and for profiling in majority
of the workpiece materials.
The material consists .of fine grains of Ti N evenly dispersed in a material of heat treatable
steel. The hard grains of Ti N form about 35 to 60% of material's volume. The properties of
the material are attributed to : very small size of hard grains of Ti N (about 0.1 micron) as
compared to 1 to 10 microns in H.S.S. and Cemented carbides and the proportion of hard grains
in the material (which is higher than in H.S.S. but less than in cemented carbides). The material
is producced by particle metal technology.
.
Majority of the tools are' not produced from solid coronite but by compound and coating
technology as follows :_
1. A core 'of H.S:S or spring steel.
2. A layer of about 15% ofdiameter of core is created over the core by extrusion process
at about '540C. The bat thus. produced is the raw' material for coronite cutting tools.'
3. A thin coating (about 2 microns) or TiCN or TiN is created on the material by pvD
method.,__
o'

o..

__

_~_

hLl

IVi achi na bility

Machiability of a material gives the idea of the ease with which it can be machined
or held in a suitably designed wheel or bar. Diamond particles are used in diamond
wheels and laps.
Factors affecting Machinabilty
List J. Common machine variables affecting ease of cutting:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Cutting speed
Dimensions of the cut (feed, depth, etc)
Tool form (angle, radii, type, etc.)
Tool material
Cutting fluid (chemical and physical properties, temperature, etc,)
Rigidity and freedom from chatter of machine tool and workholding device
Nature of engagement of tool with work (continuous or intermittent,
entrance, for a exit conditions, etc.)

...

Likewise, for a.given set of machine .conditions, the ease of machining varies with
. the work-material variables (the various quantities that are used in practice to
specify the properties of the work material, are enumerated in List Il).
List II. Common work-material affecting ease of cutting

l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Hardness
Tensile properties
Chemical composition
Microstructure
Degree of cold work
Strain hardenability
Shape and dimensions of work
Rigidity of workpiece.

Further, the criteria for judging the ease of working a metal vary with the
preference of the experimenter or the requirements of the job. Some of the more
common of these criteria, used singly or jointly as measure of the ease of working
a metal, are given in List III.
List III. Common criterijl for judging ease of cutting:
A. genera} criteriar
1. Life of the cutting tool between reshapenings, expressed in various terms.

2. Magnitude of the tool force- machining work or energy, or power

consumption
3. Quality ofthe surface fini.shproduced on the work.

B. -Specific __c~teria --(generally - used as quick tests for .i-ud~ing ease of

-machining): _
~
_
- 1. Drillingtorque or thrust
_
2. Drilling time.or rate ofpenetration
_ -_
1. Energy absorbed in pendulum-type milling cut.
4. Temperature of cutting tool or chip
5. Amount that chip is hardened during removal
6. Cutting ratio of chip
7. Combined values of the mechanical variables that control forces and chip
geometry.
8. Feed rate under constant feeding pressure in turning at a constant speed
9. Ease of chip disposal.

Methods of Evaluating Machinability

Common methods of valuating the machinabiity are by using one or more of the
following criteria.
.
1. Tool life for a given surface-metre speed arid toolgeometry. .
2. Cubic em per minute of stroke removed.
3. Power required, which is also related to cutting forces.
4. Surface texture. {\ material that produces a better surface texture under
equal conditions is considered to possess a higher degree of machinability.
5. Temperature of the cutting tool' or chip.

Machinability Index
machinability

index compares the machinability

materials

M achinability index, 0/0

I

..

Machinability Index (~'c.)

SI.No

Me1als

1
2

SAE 11 12 steel
(free cutting steel)
Aluminum alloys

300-1500

Magnesium alloys

500-2000

red brass

180

Copper

70

Stainless steel

100

25

of different

66

Tests to determine Machinability

They are:
1. Long- Time tests
2. Short-Time tests

Rating

1. Long-Time wear test determines machinability based on cutting speed the

test finds out the tool life-cutting speed relationships for the test material
and for a reference material under identical conditions of testing. Though
this test is very reliable, it consumes considerable time and material.
2. Short-Time tests are not reliable but take much less time and material
they can be advantageously used for comparing different material as
regards their machinability. Short tests may be classifiedas follows;
a. Tests at elevated cutting speed, when conducted effect rspid tool
wear they are used for the rapid comparison of different materials for
their machinability rating.
,"",b. Facing tests are carried out from the center ofthe WOikpitce rapid
tool wear they. ,are used for the rapid comparison of different.
materials for their machinability rating.
c. Workpiece is machined using radio-activated cutting tool. The chips
thus produced carry some amount of ratio-activity from the cutting
too) proportional to the wear developed on the tool. Radioactivity of
a known quatity of chips is measured with a suitable counter to
assess the machinability of the workpiece material.
d. Tests with low-wear criterion have the same basic procedure as
those of long-time tests, except that low values of wear are taken as
the criterion for machinability assessment, in order to reduce the
time and material requirements for the tests.
.

.'

I
I

Cutting fluids or coolants and lubricants

Introduction
proper cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, .and even .right tool
geometry may not give excellent results in the absence of correct
cutting fluid.
Right type of cutting fluid
1. Prolongs too) life,

.
'

2. Increases metal removal rate,

3. Helps in producing a finer finish and enables
4. .Machining-within closer tolerances .:

"

Functions of CuttiIig Fluids

1. To cool the tool, preventing its being heated to high temperatures (thereby
reducing its hardness arid resistance to abrasion). Tool wears faster at high
temperatures.
2. To cool the work-thus preventing its being machined in a warped shape. If the
workpiece is machined, while keeping it cool, accurate final dimensions can be

obtained.
.
3. To form a protective chemical film on the tool surface so that~p~cks of chips
do not weld on the tool. Compounds of sulphur, chlorine etc.,.if~ added to the
cutting fluid for this antiwelding function.
4. To lubricate that:
5. The energy or power consumption in removing metals is reduced.
6. Abrasion or wear on the cutting tool is reduced thereby increasing tool life.
7. Less heat is generated at a tool work interface and the tool therefore operates
lower temperatures resulting in increased tool life
. 8~.Chips are helped out flutes of drills, tapes, broaches etc.
9. To w~I:t. the chips away from the tool and the working area. This IS
particularly desirable in deep hole drilling milling etc ."
10. To protect the tool, work andmachine from rust and corossion.
\

Properties of Cutting fluids

1.
2.
3.
4.

High beat absorption capacity so that tool and workpiece run cool.
Good lubricating qualities. .
High flash point to avoid any combustion of fire hazard
Stability so that the cutting fluid neither oxidizes or decomposes nor gives
rise to gummy deposits.
.
5. Non-corrosive to the painted or machined surfaces of the machine, work or
~~

6 .. Odorless ; should not develop unpleasant odor as the fluid ages or becomes
contaminated.
7. Harmless to the skin of the machine operator
8. Transparent, so that the machining action is visible oil back to the ~peratorJ
9. Low ciscosity to permit fee flow of the cutting iol back to the storage tank.
10. Cutting fluid should create a minimum of smoking or fogging when being
used.
11. Cutting fluid leave minimum sediment deposit on the machine.
12. Cutting fluid should resist bacterial growth
13. Low price
14.Easily available in the market.
I

Most cutting fluids commercially available today are well qualified in regard to
the above mentioned factors, SO., the user seldom has to worry about them.
Huwever, not all cutting fluids are equally well qualified in each criterion, do
these must be kept in mind.

Classifications of Cutting Fluids

Cutting fluids may be classified as follows: .
1. The straight cutting oils
2. The emulsifiable oils
3. The chemical or synthetic cutting fluids
4. Other cutting fluids
5. The straight cutting oils
The term straight when applied to lubricants and coolants means
undiluted.
Straight oils are mainly minera/ard and extreme pressure (E.P)
cutting oils designed to be used neat ..
Lard oil, drived from animal fat, is a good cutting oil .for many
machining applications at lower cutting speeds. However, it is
relatively expensive when used undiluted in large quantities. Mineral
oil is added, \ and when so diluted, it commonly is classified as
mineral-lard oil-one of the basic straight mineral cutting oils.
Fatty oils (acids) such as lard oil, sperm oil or fish oil when added to
mineral oil improve librication properties because a fatty oil is a
better lubricant than the mineral oil-especially under pressure.
A fatty oil is mixed in small quantities (5 to I0%) with the minera I
oils. This improves the wetability or oiliness of the cutting fluid, by
enabling the oil to disperse evenly and cling to the cutting tool.
Under heat and pressure developed while cutting, the -fatty oils
combine to form a mktaHic soap between the cutting fluid andchip,
thus reducing frictionj'
.'
When sulphur or chlorine or both of them are added to the mineral
cutting oils, the antwFld properties are imparted to them. This also
prevents the formation of a built-up edge on the tool.
The two basic types of cutting oils are active and inactive. The active
cutting oils usually are recommended for use with ferrous metais on
heavy duty operations requiring extreme pressures. They cause
.. _':.
discoloration of many copper alloys. The inactive cutting oils do not
. ';,
cause . any discoloration of metal and are recommended for
<,.,:;:.:;;...
machining the non-ferrous metals as copper alloys.

. J.~;Emulsifiableoils ..

.,

The emulsifiable oil solutions are the most widely used of all the
-cutting fluids. They have wide applications and many be used on
most metals for
except the most severe operations -,

all

<:

- _The -emulsifiable .oils are known widely -as water _s<:>I~9.1e

oils. In
_-reality, mineral oil does not dissolve water; hut ifaW iiliulsifier,- in
. the form a detergent.Js added; the oilwill.break
qrop\ets- .
and spread throughout the water. .The -water..oif'rarlti iii'this type of
cutting-fluids- may vary _from j o. 1 to -50-:-1_ dep~ding~upon:the
machinability
the metal and the severity of the>operation. When
oil is added to water the resulting.fluid is usually cloudy ortiiilky.
Since the oil is highly diluted with water, these 'emulsions .are very
cheap to use. The rich water content of these cutting oils reduces the
lubricating properties, but makes them excellent coolants and for.the
general machine shop they are ideal. The dilution. also helps
reduce the tendency for mineral oils to produce skin diseases. The
addition of a for disinfectan helps reduce the transmission of disease
from one operative to another, the also helps to prevent the emulsion
breaking down under bacteriological attack when it is standing.
The soluble (emulsified)oils donot stain most metals.' including
copper. They are non-flammable and 'non-toxic -, Most.soluble oils
contain inhibitors that prevent them from causing ferrous oils metals
to rust. Lubrication properties are developed through the addition of
fatty oils or fatty acids antiweld properties are provided for through
the addition of sulphur, chlorine or both.
Soluble 0;1 emulsions are) however, far less effective than many
other cutting fluids for promoting cutting action and preventing edge
buildup.

in

up:.tnto fine

of

to

2. The chemical cutting fluids

1. The chemical cutting fluids
solutions of water and .
." . are diluted
..

water soluble chemicals.

2. The chemicals employed for purpose are nitrates, phosphates,
amines, alcohol and many others.
'2
There are two principal types of chemical cutting fluids.
4. True solutions which consist of inorganic and/or organic
materials dissolved in water, mainly to inhibit rust. Such fluids
are transparent, are mainly coolants and have little lubricating
value.
S. surface- active type solutions are water solutions containing
additives for lowering the surface tension of the water, and also
for imparting lubricating qualities.
6. Chemical cutting fluids possess a good flushing action and are
non-corrosive and noon-clogging. Since they are non-colgging,
they are widely -used for grinding- and sawing.

7. The most efficient method of applying cutting fluids is to use a

pump, tray and reservoir, to give a slow continuous stream OVer
the cutting action.
8. Chemica1 cutting fluids are replacing straight and emt!lsifiable
cutting oils for many applications. If chemical concentrates are
mixed in correct proportion with demonized water, chemical
cutting fluids provide longer life at Jess cost than oil base cutting
fluids.

3. Other coolants and cutting fluids

1. Cutting wax.
2. Kerosene. In may be used oil aluminum, aluminum alloys and brass
for machining operations of 10w -severity .
..... 3.
Iimay be used as a coolant 'and for removing chips
when ~achining caS'tiron.

Compressed air.

3"
Production Lathes

The lathe and its principle of working

The lathe can be defined as a machine tool which holds the work between two
rigid and strong supports, called centers, or in a chuck OT face plate while the latter
revolves. The chuck or the face plate is mounted on the projected: end of the
machine spindle. The cutting tool is rigidly held and supported in a tool post and is
fed against the revolving work. While the work revolves about its own axis the
tool is made to move either parallel or at an inclination with this axis to cut the
desired material. In doing so it produces a cylindrical surface, if it is fed parallel to
the axis or will produce a tapered surface if it is fed at an inclination.

Types of-lathes
Such a
classify
~esign,
we can

large variety of type and sizes of lathes is available that it is difficult to

them into some defmite categories. There is a fairly large variation in their
construction and use. However, according to their construction and design
broadly classify lathes as follows:

1. Bench lathe: It is a very small lathe and is mounted on a separately

prepared bench or cabinet. It is used for small and precision work since it is
very accurate. It is usually provided with all the attachments, which a large
lathe carries, and is capable of performing almost all the operations which a
large lathe can do.
2. Speed lathes. These lathes may be of bench type or they may have the
supporting legs cast and fitted to the .bed. These lathes have most of the
I
a~achments which the other type of lathes carry but have no precision for ..
wer feed. They have no gear box; carriage and the lead screw. With the
r sult, the tool is fed and actuated by hand. Usually the tool is either
ounted on a tool post or supported on a T-shaped support. Such lathes are
~
u~ually employed for wood turning, polishing, centering and metal
srinning, etc. thus, they can be considered as merely of a theoretical value
ff.r as the m~des machine sh.ops an~ co~c~~ed. They are named so because
of the very high speed at which their spmuie rotates.
3. Tool room lathe. It is nothing but the same engine lathe but equipped
with some extra attachments to make it suitable for a relatively more
accurate and precision type of work carried out in a tool room. It carries a
much wider range of speeds and feeds. The usual attachment provided on a
.tool room lathe are taper turning attachment, follower res to collets, chucks,
I

/"

etc. this lathes is made to have a comparatively smaller bed length than the
usual engine lathe. The most commonly used lengths are 135 to 180 em.

4. Capstan and turret lathes. These lathes form a very important and
usefuI group and are vastly used in mass production. These machines are
actually of semi-automatic type and a very wide range of operations can be
performed on them. In operating these machines, a very little skill is

required of the operator. Whatever skill is needed of the operator is only in

the setting of tools in the turret Or capstan head, and once this setting has
been successfully accomplished further operation of these machines is more
or less automatic. They cany special mechanisms for indexing of their tool
heads.
5. Automatic lathes. These lathes help a long way in enhancing the quality
as well as the quantity of production. They are so designed that all the

working and job haudling movements of the complete manufacturing

....proG~ss..for a.job.are ..done.autornaticaHy.Ng Patf:!cipatiori ofthe ()perator is
. r~quired during the operation. Another .variety. of this -type "of lathes
.includes the semi-automatic lathes, in which the mounting and removal of
work is done by the operator Whereasall the operations are performed by
the machine automatically. Automatic lathes are available having single or
multispindles. They fall in the category of heavy duty, high speed, lathes
mainly employed in mass production.
6. Special-purpose lathes. A large uuniber of lathes are designed to suit a
definite class of work and to perform certain specified operations only.
They, obviously, prove to be more efficient and effective as compared to
the common engine lathe so far as this specified class of work concerned.
.. .

~-

Mai~ parts of a turret lathe

--

HEADSTOCK
BED

SQUAMe

TOOL POST

Fig.

"- CARRI~GE OR
CH"~ER SADDlE

3t. Block diagram of a Turret J~thc(Top view).

PILOT

BA~

SGUA~E_

TURRET

(FRONT

TOOL POST)

-8-

.._____;

F)~

eJ ~

'62. C::..L~G2.IC>~

<"fUJT'<;U:

~e.

TURRET

HAND

.....

TURRETE SLIDE
/
(SADDLE)

WHEEL
FOR
MOVING
SADDLE

vvAvs OF
THE BcD

BED

HEAD

SADDLE

. _

__,..-CLAPING

STAq
HAi..JD
WHEEL

Fig.

Mounting

he

turret

he

ad

LEVE;R

74

The main parts are :

a. Bed
b. Head stock, spindle, chuck etc.,
c. Carriage
d. Turret
a. Bed
- The bed is a long, box like casting fitted with rectangular ways upon which are
mounted the carriage, and turret. It also supports the headstock.
, - The bed provides strength and rigidity to other parts. In ensures proper alignment
of parts also.

b.Uead stock
- The headstock is alarge ~tiIlgl()caJed on tlleJ~ft end of tile bed. It houses the
transmission mechanism (gears etc.) which operates the spindle at various speeds.
These speeds are controlled by the built-in speed selector.
.
- A modern turret lathe uses either an electric head with a multiple-speed motor
mounted directly on the spindle or an all-geared head is used.
- The operator needs only to set the dial to the diameter of work, and the spindle
speed selector will automatically shift to the correct speed.
c. Carriage
- The carriage is fitted over the ways of me bed, Mounted on it is the tool post. '
The front of the carriage inc1udes the apron which contains the feed mechanism.
- The carriage has feversible power longitudinal-teeds ranging from 0.125 to
4.5mm and also reversible power cross-feeds ranging from 0.050 to 2.25 mm per
revolution of the spindle.

I,

- Most models hav~ longitudinal and cross-feed positive stops which act to
disengage the feed !according to the specifications of work.
i

d Turret
".;.The turret is a hexagon on square-shaped tool holder mounted on the saddle or
, carriage on the bed ways.
' - The main ram turret usually is .six-sided, and provision is made formounting
'tools on each of the sixfaces, The turret can be rotated about a vertical axis to
bring each tool into operating position, and the entire unit' can be moved,
longimdinalJ.y?'either manually or by power, to' provide feed for the -tools.
- The, cross-slide turret also can be rotated manual1y about a vertical axis to bring
, ' eacll, of the four tools into operating position.

most machines the turret can be _moved transversely, either manually or by power, by
s of the- cross slide and longitudinal!y through power or manual operation of the carriage..
-

-'

'.

nest cases, a rear-tool post also is added to the-back end of the cross slide; this often
es a partingtooL
~ tools held in the turret m~y be used to perform certain operations on a workpiece, while
e same time, other tools held in the square tool-post mounted on the carriage do other-ations.

.e workpiece having been previously chucked correctly, with these basic features of a tuh~t
e, a number of tools can be set up on the machine and then quickly be brought successively
. working position so that a complete part _canbe machined without the necessity for further
istrnent or changing tools or making measurements. Operations such as roughing; knifing,
oing, boring etc., can be performed merely by rotating the hexagon turret and presenting to
workpiece a different tool secured in the turret, .in order of sequence.

rret head indexing mechanism

'..'.'

Turret head indexing mechanism is an aIToogement that indexes the turret head
automatically when it is brought back away from the spindle nose or chuck after the
Erst operation is completed. That means, automatically the present tool in the turret
head will rotate away and the next tool will come in its place for the next operation.
(Fig.
) Explains the turret head indexing mechanism.

tg.~Sprlng
,

..-'

Pluriq e r
..
'

\._Com
Index
ol
o te ----~~

Ratchet

-,Pn\AJl
...... ..

wheel

Turret
spi-n d le
-s

As the turret head reaches the backward position that is away from the chuck holding the
workpiece, the plunger actuating cam lifts the plunger

76

from the slot S of the index plate and thus unlocks it so that, now the turret
head is free to rotate. As-the saddle is still moving, the ratchet wheel comes
in contact with projecting pin of the pawL The pin pushes and rotates the
ratchet wheel which results in the indexing of turret. When the turret head
has reached its extreme right position, ratchet wheel has also been rotated
through 60 and the plunger has again set in one of the slots of the index
plate.

Types of turret lathes

-

Different types of turret lathes are:

a. Horizontal turret lathe

h. Vertical turret lathes
c. Numerically controlled (N/C) turret lathes.
. .~(Fig.
) Shows 3 horizontal turret lathe and (Fig
) shows a
vertical turret lathe. Depending upon the turret layout, turret 1athes are
classified as machines with horizontal or vertical axis of turrit rotation.

Ram type horizontal .turret lathe

-

This machine is a Iight-to-medium-dury turret iathe and is quick and easy to

handle. The turret is -mounted on a ram which slides in ways machined on'
the saddle. The complete saddle can be positioned forward or back to bring _
the turret head close to-the work, and then it is locked in place.

Saddle type turret lathe.

-

Saddle type turret lathe is a heavy duty machine, there is no ram, rather the
turret head is mounted directly on the saddle and the saddle ~Iides on the "
ways of the machine this makes a more rigid turret, avoiding ~e overhang .
which occurs when a ram type turret is advanced to the wprk and pte
possible sagging out of line.
.
I
- Power feed is standard on turret and both axes of the cross slide, .'
Speed may be from 20 to 1500 RPM depending upon the size of the
I.
mac hime.

Vertical turret lathe

- Vertical turret lathes (Fig
) are designed for considerably larger and
heavier work than is commonly associated with either type of horizontal turret
lathes. Vertical lathes are utilized solely for complex chucking work, particularly
for boring operations, and are not adapted to bar work. ..

- Vertical turret lathe closely resembles a vertical boring mill, it commonly has a
rotating table ranging from 600 to 1200 mm in diameter, which is equipped with
both removable chuck jaws and T-slots for clamping the work.

Work holding devices

-

Turret is a mass production machine. In order to keep set up time to

minimum, the work holding devices should be accurate, easy and quick to
operate, and should ensure rigidity against heavy cuts.
Commonly used work holding devices are;
a. Collet chucks,
b. Jaw chucks,
c. Arbors, and
d. Fixtures.

Collet Chucks
Collets or collet chucks are used mainly to hold bar stock, espedally in the smaller
sizes. A collet is a circular steel shell having three or four equally spaced slits
extendingthe greater part of its length, (Fig
) These slite impart springing
action to the coUet. That is why, collet are also known as "Spring Collet". The
collet nose is made thicker to from the jaws. The inside of the collet is made
according
to the shape ).oftlIf!.\\,()rktQ.be.hold
various types of collet chucks.
. .shown in (Fig
.
. ate....
1. Drawback Collet. In drawback collet, (Fig
), the spring col1et
is pulled by the thrust tubeor collet tube, to the left into the toper bore of
the spindle nose. This action puts pressure on the tapered sections of the
collet forcing them inward and tightly clamping the bar stock. The thrust
tube is placed behind the collet in the spindle. It can be moved axially a
short distance by either a handwheel or a lever. The bar to be machined is
passed through the tube and the collet jaws.

.'

"::"~i\
(~) .COll ET

COLLET~
(b) ORA .. eACK

COLLET

---

cou ET .:>

(If) OEAO lO~Gn~

COLLET

78

2. - Push-out Collet. Inpush-out collet (Fig

) the thrust tube
pushes the spring collet to the right into the tapered seat in the spindle rose.
- This clamps thebar stock _in the same manner as before.

3. Dead length Collet. In this design (Fig

) the spring collet has

on axial movement during operation. This chuck is closed when the thrust
tube pushes a sleeve with internal taper onto the taper of the collet forcing
it inward to clamp the work. Collets are designed to take only size of work.
- Standard sizes are available for bars upto about 50mm diameter.

4. Jaw Chucks. The types of jaw chucks commonly used on capstan lathes
and" turret lathes are:
(a) Two Jaw Chucks (b) Three Jaw Chucks Four Jaw Chucks.
I

3.

Two

jaw chuckS~these chucks are ()f~e seft-<entring type and are used

for bar work. Many of these chucks may haveblank'jaws to which may be
attached specially shaped holding devices or jaws for quickly locating and
clamping irregular or odd-shaped pieces, for example, small castings and
forgings. Two jaws hold the irregular work Clore readily since the clamping
is at two points which are diametrically opposite. Two jaw chucks are
available in size form about 125 mm to 250 mm outside diameter to hold" "
bar stock diameter of about 20 mm to 45 mm diameter.
b. Three jaw Chucks. Threejaw universal chucks are used for holding
round or hexagonal bar stock CT other symmetrical work. They are of selfcentring type and are used mostly for. machining of forgings and castings.
The size of these jaw chucks ranges nomIOO rom to 750 mm diameter and
they can hold work upto about 650 mm diameter.
c. Four Jaw Chucks. Thes"e chucks are used for holding rough castings and
square or octagonal work. The jaws move independent of one another.
These chucks are available in sizes upto about 1000 nun diameter. Two jaw
chucks and three jaw chucks are generally power operated. They may be
either pneumatically or hydraulically operated. Four jaw chucks are
manually operated.

- (Fig
)shows two types of collet chuck for clamping bar stock. One shown at
(Fig
) calmps bar 3 when tube 4 together with collet 2 is inner tapered hole
of spindle 1. the drawback of this arrangement is an axial bar displacement in
clamping, which decreases the accuracy of axial bar positioning.
) illustrates a collet chuck inwhich, on clamping bar, collet I is moved

- (Fig

to the right and outer taper of collet is contracted under the action of the inner
taper of stop nut 2. Screwed on spindle 3. The conventional collet taper angle is
30.

- Collet chuck may be haud-operated or air-operated.

Arbors
Arbors may be sometimes used for holding smal1workpiece having.
accurately drilled holes in them.
.. Threaded type and e)(p~diJ.l.gtype.arbors,.
are ill use.
----

.. --_ ..- ..............-

--.-

..

-'

..

.Fixtures
.

Special fixtures may be employed to hold jobs which cannot, otherwise, be

held in collets, jaw chucks I or arbors.

Turret Tool
-On a turret, the workpiece are machined,

(a) Either from the bar stock, or

, (b) In the form.of separate castings
. plates.

Of

forgings held injaw chucks or on face

Typical tools for bar work include

L Boxtools, and
2. HolJow mills (for reducing the diameter of the bars of stock to the required
size).
..
3. special designs oftuming toolsortumers are used extensively on flat turret"
lathes,.
.
.
4. Forming tools are used when there is an irregular 'surface to be machined,
.5. Drills and reamers,
.6. Dies, when the part must be threaded,
7. Cutting off tools for severing finished parts, and
8. Many tools of special design.
In general cutting-off and forming tools are mounted on a cross-slide between the
turret and headstock, whereas box tools, hollow mills, dies, etc., are carried in the
turret.
_ For chuck work, the turret tool equipment often includes tools such as :

............

L .Drills

".
Boring bars .
Reamers
Facing cutters
Taps
6. Dies, etc.

2.
3.
4.
5.

_ A box tool held on the turret is commonly used for turning operations. As a box
tool operates on the unsupported end of the bar projecting from the chuck, it is
equipped with some form of back-rest opposite the turning tool fOT supporting the
work; it usually encloses or surrounds the turned part to some extent, and for that
reason, is .known as a box tool, (Refer Fig
)

TOOL HOLDING DEVICES

. _.
Tool holders for holdingturret tools may be mounted on turret faces or on
cross-slide tool post .. '
!- Tool-holders used to clamp various types of single point tools in the tool
holes of turret are shown in (Fig
)

R1

When mounting tool on the main turret of a conventional horizontal turret

lathe, a standard type of adapter that is fastened directly to the turret face is
used (Fig
). The adapter holds one turning tool and one boring tool,
thus enabling two operations to be performed at one position of the turret.

Special adapters are available .thathoId three or four tools for performing three or
four operations simultaneously, particularly when the turret is capable of moving
horizontally in two directions
-

The T-slot Principle of mounting, shown on the two form-tool adapters in

(Fig
) is used for most tools that operate from cross-slide, regardless
of how the adapter is designed

r------------------------------------~

Turret attachements
- . Different attachments when fitted on the turret lathe increase its usefulness
and a wide variety of works may be done on lathe and more efficiently.
A few attachernenrs commonly used"on turret lathe are:"
1. Bar stops.
2. Roller support turning attachment.
3. Box tool Holder.
4. Multiple tool holder.
5. Knee-tool holder.
6. Slide tool.
7. Screw cutting self-opening die head.
8. Collapsing Tap.
9. Taper attachment.

1. Bar Stop
-

when same component is to be produced on mass scale from the bar stock,
every time the same length of the hat is to be measured and projected out
from t..he collet chuck. This is a cumbersome and time-consuming process.
A simple solution is to make use of a bar feeding arrangement and a bar
stop, Every time, a piece is finished and cut off, the collet opens and the bar
moves forward out from the chuck and its end rests against the bar stop
fitted on the turret machine. This ensures constant length of bar projecting
from the collet chuck every time for each component to be machined.
"

2. Roller support turning attachment

This attachment is frequently used when workpiece overhsng is excessive.
Such an attachment is mounted on a cross slide opposite to the dirction of
the cutting forces, to prevent bending of the workpiece during machining.
As shown in (Fig
) the rollers can be adjusted to accommodate a range
of workpiece diameters. Supports similar to the type shown in (Fig
)
but in which the work is supported in a Vee instead of by rollers, have also
been successfully used, but supports that utilize rollers are preferred.

3. Box-toolhold"r

Roller support can be extended for use axial tur.4ing as from a turret. Tools
used for this procedure combine support with o~e or more cutting tools.
Tools that incorporate both support and cutters are often called box tools. A
box tool that incorporates two supporting rolled and one cutting edge is
shown in (Fig
).
I

In turning with this type of tool, the rotating workpiece passes between the
rollers and the cutter. The cutter is set slightly ahead of the rollers, which
allows the rollers to begin their function of providing support as turning
progresses. Both rollers and the cutter can be adjusted, permitting
considerable size variation for any given tool.

4. Knee tool bolder

A knee tool holder is used for
Combined turning and boring or combined turing and drilling operations.
- (Fig
) shows an adjustable knee tool for turning and dril1ing short
lengths at the same time.

. ....

..
'

- The knee holder is bolted direct on the turret tace.

5. Multiple tool holders

-

A multiple tool holder permits several operations to be carried out from the
same position. This tool holder may be bolted direct on the turret face
.'Fig
).

Different turning and boring tools may be held in different holes of the
multiple tool holder, for carrying out such operations simultaneously. The
pilot bar at the top of multiple tool holder lends additional support to the
tool and prevents any vibration or deflection. While the tool is carrying out
cutting action.

6. Slide tool
- As shown in (Fig
) the slide tool can hold tools for boring, drilling,
reaming, recessing, and grooving operations.
- The slide can be moved up and down by means of a hand wheel provided at
the top. The movement of slide is similar to that of the shaper tool head.

7. Screw cutting self opening die bead

It is a very useful attachment for cutting external threads. The die head
bolted on the face of the turret accommodates the die which can be adjusted
by means of the screws. When the required thread length has been attained,
. further feeding of the head IS stopped and die opens automatically to clear
. tlie threaded workpiece. The'head is then withdrawn .

...

85

8. ColI~psing

tap

It is employed for cutting internal threads. A usual solid tap, if used for
cutting threads, need be reversed to take the tap out of the threaded hole at
the end of threading operation. But in case of a collapsing tap, its cutting
edges are made to collapse into the body of the tap, when threading is
complete and the tap can be brought out of the workpiece very easily.

9. Taper attachment
- Ataper attachment for the universal carriage is a separate tool bolted to the Tslots on the near of the cross-side. The rear tool block can be used for taper
turning without affecting normal use of the square turret at the front of the
cross-slide.

TURRET LATHE OPERATONS

Operations performed on turret lathe are same as those perfonned on an
engine lathe, except tbat two or more operations may be carried out
simultaneouslyonthetuttetlathe. .
-

Various operations performed on turret lathe are:

1. Cylinddcal turning

2. Taper turning
3. Form turning
4. Facing
5. Boring
6. Drilling
7. Reaming
8. Threading
9. recessing
10. Chamfering
11.knurling
12. Parting off
I
- The above named operations are carried out using
a. Turret tools described in anicle
h. Turret tool holders described in article
c. Turret attachmentsI described in article
i
i

(Fig

) shows kriurling operation being carried out on the turret lathe.

TURRET LATHE TOOLING-LAYOUT

The following factors should be considered while deciding turret lathe
tooling layout:
I. Set up time
2. Work handling time
3. Machine controlling time,
4. Cutting time
5. Tool cost
6. Set-up labor cost
7. Lathe operator labor cost
8. Number of parts to be manufactured.
Factors (i) to (iv) affect the arrangement of the tools in the turret and tool holders.
Factors (v) to (viii) relate to the cost of producing parts on the turret lathe and thus
determine whether turret should be used forthe said purpose or not .

.
(i)

Set up time is the time required for a skilled tool setter to set the various
..........
cutting-tools. andwork.holders.in theturretlathe, adju~ttl:l~IIl.to.prodtlC:~'...
the desired dimensions on the workpiece, and set the various stops. Set
up time should be as short as possible for maximum production. ThIS
may be achieved by using standard tool holders and tools.
(ii)
Work handling time is the time required for putting work into and
removing it from the turret lathe. Power chucks and automatic bar
feeding may help Ireducing work handing time.
(iii)
Machine controlling time is that required to manipulate the controls
which reverse and rotate the turrets, change speeds and soon. Machine
controlling time may be reduced by combining operations in a single
turret position, etc,
(iv)
Cutting time is that during which chips are produced-cutting time can be
reduced by working simultaneous cuts.

..

.....

The next step is to:

I. Prepare the finished drawing of the part to be manufactured.

2. Select tool holders and.tools such drills, bering bars reamers etc., for the
necessary machining o~raiions.
3. Decide length of travel <ifthe tools and position of stops.
4. Set proper cutting speeds and feeds for each operation.
To illustrate the method of~tooling and sequence of operations for internal
cuts on a
i~fer to

. ... -_.

The various operations are:

1. The bar stock is advanced against the combination stock stop and start drill
and is clamped in the collet chuck.. The start drill is advanced and the end of
workpiece centered.
2. The turret rotates; drill at 2 takes the position earlier occupied by start, drill
1. Drill 2 drills the hole in the bar stock (workpiece) up to the required
.
length.
3. The rotates, boring bar, 3, takes the horizontal position and bores thread
diameter. The boring bar in a slide tool is used.
4: Turret rotates, reamer 4, occupies horizontal position opposite to the
workpiece and the already drilled hole is reamed to size.
5. Turret rotates, and the recessing tool comes in front of the workpiece d a
groove for thread clearance is recessed. For this operation a quick acting
slide tool is used with recessing cutter mounted in a boring bar.
i
6. Turret again rotates and the tap 6 comes in front of the workpiece and the
internal threads are cut.

After operation 6, a parting tool held in the rear tool post does the cutting _off
operation and the threaded adapter separates from the bar stock. The collet

chuck opens, bar stock is advanced again and -operational steps from] to- 6
above repeat to produce the next workpiece.
-.It can be seen from (Fig
) a~d (Fig
) that at time,
lathe can
hold six tools in the hexagonal turret, four tools in the (front tool post) and one
tool in the rear tool post: All these tools can be used while 'designing the
tooling layout.

turret

CAPSTAN LATHE
The capstan lathe is so called because of the hexagon-shaped too] carrier,
the capstan, which replaces the tailstock of the centre lathe.
The capstan (tool head) is mounted on the capstan slide (Fig
) which
in tum is mounted on a suitable rest or saddle (Fig
) which is fitted
on the lathe bed.

HEAD
STOCK

BED

LEG

\. CARRIAGE OR
CHASER SADDLE

LEG

TURRET
SAOOL E

/-TURRET
-TURRET SLIDE
WAYS OF THE BED

..

INT ERMEDltTE

SLIDE (SADDLE)

Fig. 7.3. Capstan Lathe Slide Arrangement

CAPSTAN

HEAO
SLIDE
CLAMPING
LEVER

SADDLE

BED

Comparison-among Centre Lathe, Turret Lathe and Capstan Lathe

.-"11

Feature

Centre Lathe

Turret Lathe

Capstan Lathe

!
I

ft'-lO-.-lt:--H-c-a-d-s-to-C....:k-.--r--E-i-tb-e-r-co-n-e-_--t--.-.H-e-a-v-ie-.--c""o-n-s--r--S=am--e,
as in case

. I

I ,.

I . '-,

2.

I Toolpost

.........~I'

pulley type or all

geared, but providing smaller range
of spindle speeds.
than the headstocks
used In turret and
capstan lathes.

truction, providing cf a Turret Lame.

wider' range
of
spindle speeds and
carrying a much
more
powerful
driving. motor than
that used in centre
lathes,

Usually a single
tool post, which
can hold a single
tool at a time. In
some
lathes,
however. a square
turret type tool post
is provided, which
can hold 4 tools

Its cross-slide
Same, as in case
carries a square of a Turret Lathe.
turret-type tool post
as well as a tool post
at its rear, which can
bold 1 or 2 tools at
a time. Thus, 4 tools
can be mounted on
and . indexed
III
sequence on the
from tool post and
1 or 2 tools on the
rear tool post.

...... simultaneously and

they can be indexed
"through 900 in each

indexing movement:

--~--------------r-----------~---+----------------T---------~'_____
"' i Ta ilstock
It essentially
In place of the
It also carries a
carries a tail-stock, tailstock it carries a square, round or
whicb is primarily hexagonal indexable hexagonal tu....
Tet,
meant to support the turret head, on called
Capstan
workpiece during each face of which head, in place of the
the
operation. can be mounted a tail-stock, which
Occasionally,
of tool or tool-head and also provides the
course, it is used to which
can'
be same facility of
hold and support automatically
mounting
and
some cutting tool> indexed in sequence indexing 4 tc 6 tools
also, like drills' and to bring each tool as in case of a turret
reamers, when some in proper position lathe.
operations are to be for performing the
performed on the operation on the job.
:end face of the work
piece.
'--~=----------r~~---------r-------------r-~
Turret Head
Does not exist on
Sq uare
Of
Usually carries
Or
a Centre Lathe
hexagonal in shape, a circular head, but
Capston Head
with 4 to 6 vertical may carry a square
faces respectively Of hexagonal head
carrying one central also. The axis of
bole each to receive the bead may be I
the shanks of lOO:S inclined or vertical,
or 1.001 holders. Axis but the axes of the
of the turret head is holes
on
the
always
vertical, periphery or flat
except III vertical faces are always
turret. lathes where horizontal. All the
the
axis
is boles are equispaced .
horizontal.
and on circular
beads
also
the
number of these
1holes is six. :

5.

Leadscrew

I
I,

I!

l
iI

iI
f

i
I

Always pfuvidcd
Thread cllf{ing IS "
<:'lm('"", as in case
on a Centre Lathe to generally performed of a TUlfC( Lame.
enab!e thread cutting. by taps and die
by a single point beads. Hence,
~o
tool.
lead
screw
IS'
provided for thread

.I

I 6.

L2:

I
tI .....
I 7. I Number
I.

'1

cutting.

Method of
mounting the
Turret or
Capstan Head.

Not applicable

10015

Turret

head

directly
on the saddle and for
feeding the tools to
the work the entire
saddle has to be
moved
(see
Fig. 7.2).
mounted

I I
I

. f

of
mounted

".. I

Capstan head is
mounted on a rem
or slide, which
travels
on
the
saddle. The saddle is
fixed at a proper
location and the
tools are fed one by

one on the work by

moving the slide
.... (see Fig. 7~1);

Usually
one.
: 4 tools can be
Same as in case
when a single tool mounted
on the of a Turret Lathe.
post is provided. If a front tool post. one
square turret tool or two on the rear
post is provided. tool post and 4 or 6
then 4 tools can' be on' tile turret head,
mounted.
depending . upon
whether it is a
'square or hexagonal
turret head. This

II I

number can increase

by using multiple
tool . holders
at

different positions.
Skill, required
pf the operator

9.

rrme

001

setting

Very h:gb

'. Very nominal

Same. as in case
after setting of tools. of a Turret Lathe.

A lot of time is
Whatevertime is
Same. as in case
spent in tool setting spent is in the of a Turret Lathe.
because the tool initial setting.
has to' - changed Thereafter. no time
I e v ery
time a new in lost because all
operation is to be the tools are present
done. Even during for each operation in
the same operation. sequence. Only the
the tool m~y need required tool is to he
resharper.ing or'
indexed
to
the
replacement if-it has correct position.
become blunt or
worn out.

.'

10.

Degree of
automation

11.

Application

Very nom in al

More versatile.
Capable of handling
individual jobs of
varying shapes and
sizes. Made in
various sizes and
capacities so as to
handle
from
precIsion
machining, as in tool ream
work. upt(J hea v y
duty work. Dest
Suited for johhing
work.

Semi-autoniatic
Used In mass
production
of
identical
componcuts and can handle
much larger and
heavier jobs than
capstan
lathes.
Classed as a
production
machine tool.

used
for
rebtiveJy lighter and

smaller jobs. but

for more precision
work than T UITC t
lathes. It 'is also a
production machine.

r=t=-:-:--::-::::~~~..."",=t-~------~==j:====.;;..-,=;;c.==';';;'==_=_:::':'_=':'-t-L
__ _
.....
12. Rate of
Lower
Higher.
. . J . JF~hcr
production
.
.
13.

Overhead
charges

Less than
other two

the

J
.

Higher than the

Same. as in case
centre
lathe of a Turret lathe.
because of higher
initial
investment.
more consumption

14.

of power and
higher m<lintenance
cost
Labour cost

Higher. because
Lower. because
Same. as in case
of the requirement
after
tools
and of a Turret lathe.
of .highly skilled machine: selting the
workers
.:
opcraliorrs can be
performed
hy.
unskilled or semisk il'led . operalors
only.
_J

I
--------------------------------~--------------~-------------

_ Differences between a Turret and a Capstan Lahe

sc

Capstan Lathe

Turret Lathe

No.

Its turret (head) is mounted directly

on the swl,l'

1.

Its turret (head) is mounted on an

auxiliary slide, which moves on the
guideways provided on the saddle .

In this case the saddle is fixed at a

For feeding the tools to the work the
'convenient distance from the work and
entire saddle unit is moved.
the tools are fed by moving the slide.

.2.

In this case. because of the

The above arrangement enables a
very higb rigidity because all the cutting overhung of the slide or ram. the tool
forces are transferred to the lathe. bed. support unit is subjected to bending and
deflection, resUlting in vibrations.

3.

As a consequence of No.3 above, a

turret lathe is capable of handling heavier
jobs involving heavy cutting forces and
severe cutting conditions.

4.
... ...

S.

6.

7.

It is not capable of withstanding:

heavy cutting .loads and severe cutting ..
conditions and, therefore. its use is
confmed to relatively lighter and
smalle~ jobs and precision work.

It suits for bar work only and that

Because of its high rigidity it suits
too for relatively smaller sized bars, say
very well to heavy chucking work, in
addition to the bar work. on large size upto 60 mm diameter.
bars upto 200' mm diameter.
Here, because the tool feeding is
Because the turret saddle directly
done by the traverse of the slide:which
rides over the bedways it can trsverse
is limited. the tool travel is also limited. almost full length of the bed alongwith
:
all the tools, if needed.
Here, the 1091 traverse Is faster and
However, in thiscase, the tool feeding
offers
less fati,ue to the hands of the
is relatively slower and provides more
fatigue to the operator's

8.

hands.

operator.

A capstan l~the is usually equipped

A turret lathe may carry either a
with the reachfver type! carriage only
type or side-hung type
reach-over
because it is used for relatively smaller
carriage.
jobs and, therJfore. does not require a
. larger swing ~~~.
Also, this type of
carriage pro des better rigidity.

'There is no such reqUirement in case

Heavier designs of turret lathes are
of a capstan lathe.
usually provided with pneumatic or
-hydraulic chucks to ensure a firmer grip
over heavy jobs.
onNo such provision is made
Some designs of turret lathes may
10.
carry provision for cross feeding of the. capstan lathes.
9.

hexagonal turret to enable~ cross feeding

of turret head tools.

4Drilling Machines

"r-..

Introduction
Drilling is an operation through which holes are produced in solid .metal by
means of a revolving tool called drill. Since it is not possible to produce a
perfe.ct1ytrue hole by drilling, it is considered as a roughing operation. Obviously,
therefore, where a very close dimensional accuracy is to be maintained, this forms
only the basic operation. For such holes, drilling is followed by another operation
called reaming, in which the required dimensional accuracy and fine surface
finish is obtained by means of a multi-tooth revolving tool called reamer.
Elements of a d~illjllg I.J1~c.bille.
- A dril1ing machine can perform only those operations. where the tool (i.e., drill).
is rotated and fed along its axis of relation. The 'workpiece always remains
stationary during the machining process. (Fig. 1 . 1.
) shows a drilling machine
.and its varirius parts. Different parts of a drilling machine are discussed below:

Head
i,

Spindle

'

Column

Table

Base

95

...

1. The head containing electric motor, V-pulleys and V-belt which transmit
rotary motion to the dril1 spindle at a number of speeds.
2. Spindle is made up of alloy steel. It rotates as wen as moves up and down
in a sleeve. A pinion engages a rake fixed onto the sleeve (Fig
) to
provide vertical up and down motion of the spindle and hence the drill so
that the same can be fed into the workpiece or withdraw from it while
drilling. Spindle speed or the drill speed is changed with the help of V-belt
and V-step-pulleys. Larger driJ1ing machines are having gear boxes for the
said purpose.
3. Drill chuck is held at the end of the drill spindle and in tum it holds the
drill bit.
4. Adjustable table is supported on the columm of the drilling machine. It
can be moved both vertically and horizontally. Tables are generally having
slots so that the vise or the workpiece can be securely' held on it.
5-: Base is a heavy casting and it supports the drill press structure. The base
supports the columm which, in turn, supports the table, head etc.
6. Columm is a vertical round or box section which rests on the base and
supports the head and the table. The round columm may have rack teeth
cut on it so that the table can be raised or lowered depending upon the
workpiece requirements.

Types of drilling machines

Drilling machines are.classified on the basis of
a. Their constructional features, or
h. The type of work they are required to do.
Various types of drilling machines are
..-1. Portable' drilling machine
.2. Bench type drillingmachine
3. Sensitive drilling machine
4. Upright drilling machine
5. Radial drilling machine
6. Multiple spindle drilling machine
7. Deep hole drilling machine
8. Gang drilling machine
9. Automatic drilling machine

1. Portable drilling machine

-

A portable drilling machine is a compact unit and is used for drilling

'operations on big jobs which cannot be brought under a regular drilling
machine. a portable drilling machine -may be. used for drilling small
diameter doles in .large castings or weldments at that place itself where
they are lying.

The simplest of portable drilling machines is a hand-operated drill.

Most portable drilling machines are fitted with small electric motors,:
operate at fairly high speeds and accommodate drills' up to 12 mm in
diameter.
Where sparking of electric motor of the portable, drill machine may
constitute a fire hazard, compressed air is used 'as a means of power,
Fig.}. 2.. shows some portable drilling machines.

f:';3 1.2.

Hand dri II

.....

T
A

8
,_
t:
])

R
J

tlI

"I

Bre u s t d r j J ;

G.
M
4

Q.

}.}.
I

N
~

8.

E~ectric

?neumoti

c d ri f I

drill

2. Bench-type Drilling Machine

- Bench-type drilling machine (Fig. 1. "3.
) is the simp1est type of drilling
machine. the machine can hold drills up to 12.5 mm diameter either in a chuck
or directly mounted in the taper nose of the spindle.Dirll speed variation is
achieved by altering the belt position on the stepped pulleys under the belt
housing. Mechanism can be seen in (Fig 13. ). For normal drilling, the drill
spindle axis are at right angle to the working surface of the tab1e. If a hole is to
be drilled at an angle the drilling table can be provided with a mechanism to tilt
the same. The drill is fed into workpiece by band-operating lever through a
rack and pinion mechanism.
V.Belt
Cone Pulley

Hand"Wheel ....

Body ~

l. .
I

Sleeve

Lol ftVlng
..
" ..
IViotor

Drill Spindie
Chuck

Pillar
Clamp

Work (able

8ase

;..

. ri~.l.3. BD% ~ pe D15;Uio\.c:)~c:v.~;l)e.

3. Sensitive Drilling

tr:

Sensitive drilling machine is basically the same _as bench drilling

machine described above except that it.is smaller, is provided with more
accurate spindles and bearings and operates at higher speeds-up to
30,000 rpm.
_';
_
_
Very sensitive hand-operated feeding mechanisms are provided for use
in drilling small holes.

- .- Sensitive drilling-machines are used for tool and die work and for
drilling very small holes often only a few thousandths ofan inch in
-diameter. -

;
I

, .
r---_-__

~ :Yb' :.;'

PGi:ev

Drive

I'"

;1

r eec

Hand

........ Spind;" ..

.-

..

__=_~

I~

r -.

Drive

Motor

.. J>'illo'

I
I

---_- ..--~--.
I

3cse

FieJ t-Lt e,~~~~.~

+j p e

.D~\ w (')It

~~;~ve.
nJa.~;f::>e. .

..
'

.
4. Upright Drilling Machine .
Upright drill presses are very similar to the sensttrve type drilling
machines, except they are equipped with a power feed. Thus machine is
usually of heavier construction and is suited to a range of work. Upright
drilling machine may by equipped with a universal table that allows the
table to be accurately positioned both longitudinally and laterally.
Machines of this type often have a gear driven mechanism for changing
speeds and feeds and thus a large number of drill spindle speeds and
feeds are avai1ableto drill different kinds of jobs.
Upright drilling machines are available in various sizes and with various
drilling capacities (ranging up to 75 mm diameter drills) on the largest
machines.
The upright drilling machine may have
a. Box Columm section (columm drilIing machine)
b. Round columm section (pillar drillin g machine)

99

Box column machines possess more machine strength and rigidity as

compared to those having round section column.
(Fig 15.
) shows the block diagram of upright drilling machines
and their Parts.

Column and
upright
drilling
machine

Drill head hand

or power feed

Column

Table

Base
:
i

FI~'1.5. BlP~~,

CU 'p~~

ol.i~'6QlJt)

o:f-

oft c .

o\~;u,"

CT> \

FS. Radial Drilling Machine

.~{'.-.

The radial drilling machine is a heavy duty machine and is used

,.
primarily to drill parts tool large or heavy to move under a stationary
" .
drill spiridle. ..
.
. -.- - A radial drilling machine can drill holes up to 75 mm diameter from the
.
.
+'. solid.
(Fig .1. G.
) shows radial drilling machine and its parts.

<~~

..

Motor for
efevating
the arm

Spindle feed
.handwheel

~Uide ways

.Radial arm
ele~ating
screw

..........
-~Spindle
Drill

r~

r-~-'-----L_----_JUL_UJUlJlJI
Base

Table

]
..
'

a. Drill spindle head

b. Radial arm
c. Column
d. Work-table
Radial drilling machine consists of a vertical column supporting a
horizontal ann that carries the drill head. AmI can be raised or lowered
on the column and also be swung around to any position over the work
and can be locked in any position, Drill head can be moved to left on
right side on the arm. These adjustments of aim drilling head permit the
operator to locate the drill quickly over any point on the work.
Powerful drive motors are motors are geared directly into the head of
the machine and a wide range of power feeds are available as well as

sensitive and geared manua] feeds. The spindle motor is reversible so

that power tapping attachments can be used.
--A plain radial drilling machine will drill only in the vertical plane.
On semi-universal machine the head may be swiveled on the arm to drill
holes at various angles in a vertical plane.
Universal machine has as additional swiveling adjustment in either the
head or the am and can drill holes at any angle.

6. MUltiple Spindle Drilling Machine

A multiple spindle drilling machine will drill a number of parallel holes
simultaneously in a workpiece.
Multi-drilling machine are employed for work of a light character,
especially repetition work, such as drilling small components for the
automobile or aircraft industries. Usually, a 'plate provided with
hardened bushings (a drill jig is essential to guide the drills accurately
into the work.
. (Fig.1,':}.
)showsa multiple spindle drilling machine
A multiple spindle machine has a number of drill spindles driven by a
single motor.' All ihe spindles holding the drills are fed into workpiece
at the same time. For this purpose, either the drill heads can be lowered
onto the workpiece or the work table is raised. The table feed
mechanism is frequently is frequently used,. thereby eliminating the
movement of the heavy geared-head mechanism which rotates the drills.
Thismay be done in several ways
1. by rack and pinion drive,
~'~1.;Multiple
2. by lead screw,
spindle
3. by-a rotating plate cam.
drilling
machine

.'.

--.# .'

Drill head

B~~.~~~.1ro .
'~l

Work piece

. 7"- Deep Hole Drilling M-achine

For drilling long holes -inrifle barrels connecting reds, and long
.spindles, special high speed m-achines are used.
..Most .machines 'are of horizontal construction using a center-cut gun
drill which has' a single cutting edge with a straight flute running
throughout its length. Oil 'under high pressure, is brought to the cutting
edge through a hole in -the drill. Normally, the drill is stationary and the
work is made to rotate, but where it is difficult to rotate the work, the
situation is reversed. In deep hole drilling, the feed must be light to
avoid defecting the drill. The long job should be supported at several
places to prevent its deflection.
Vertical machines are also available for the work that is not very long.

F(91. 8.De~p Hole Drilling Machine.

8. Gang Drilling Machine

The gang drilling machine basically is a series of single-spindle drilling
heads on a long table. There may be 2 to 10 or more spindles.
Gang drilling machine is designed for mass-production purposes where
a number of drilling operations must be per-formed in a certain
sequence. Each drilling head may be equipped with a different tool as
center drill, drill, reamer countersink, tap etc., and the component being
machined moves from one 'drilling head to the next.
"

Drill heads

_-.f

Work table

. ......

9. Automatic Drilling Machine

Transfer-type production drilling machines or automated machines

complete a series of machining operations at successive stations and
transfer the work from one station to the next.
Such machines are, in effect, a production line of connected machines
which are synchronized in their operation so that the. workpiece, after
being.loaded at the first station, pro-grasses automatically through the
various stations to its completion.
.
The automatic machines are of the indexing table or the in-line transfer
types.

Operations performed on drilling machine

A number of operations can be performed on the. drilling machines.
However, sound judgment and trial and error are important in each drill
press operation because composition and hardness of workpiece
material, type of machine, condition of machine and 111atof cutting tool,
depth of hole, lubricant etc., influence the speed and feed at which
different operations have to be performed on different materials.
Some of the operations which can be performed on drilling machine arc:
4

I. DrjlJing

2..
3.
4.
5.
6.

Reaming
Boring
Count~rboring
Countersinking
Spot facing
7. Tapping
8. Grinding
9.: Trepanning.

r~

1H~pRllllNG

1.. Drilling operation

Drilling removes solid metal from the job to produce a circular hole.
Before drilling, the hole is located by drawing two lines at right angle
and a center punch (Fig 110. ) is used to make an indentation for the
drill point (at the center) to help the drill getting started.
A suitable drill is held in the driI1 machine and the drill machine is
adjusted to operate at the correct cutting speed.
The drill machine is started and the drill starts rotating cutting fluid is
made to flow liberally and the cut is started (Fig
).
The rotating drill is made to feed into the job.
The. hole, depending upon its length, may be drilled in one or more.
steps .
.';After the drilling operation is complete, the drill is removed from the
hole and the power is turned off.

The chips are cleared both form the drill flutes and the job with the help
of a brush. The job is undamped from the drill vise and is cleared off a11
burrs with the help of a file,

(-i~.1.1.f.REAIo4ING

2. Reaming Operation
Drilling operation always results in oversized holes, in other words, the
size (diameter) of the hole is always some-what large than the size of
the drill employed to make the hole. Moreover the surface of the drilled
hole is rough.
Reaming operation is carried edge tool.
A reamer is a multiple cutting edge tool.
It may be made up of high speed steel or fitted with carbide cuttin g
edges on its ~ha~k.
. . '.:
A reaming cannot produce a hole in a solid job. It can accurately size
and fmish
already drilled holes.
.
Therefore, r~aming i~the operation that produces holes that are
extremely accurate and have an exceptionally fme finish.
.
If reaming operation is to be carried out on a job, the hole drilled in it is
kept slightly undersize. The drill is then sub-stituted by a suitable
reamer without changing the mounting position of the job. The speed of
the spindle is made half that of drilling and automatic feed is employed
for reaming the hole (Fig. '.11.)

thf

3. Boring
boring enlarge a hole, sizes it and finishes it.
Boring operation on a drilling machine is carried out: when a drill of a
particular dimension is not available, when a very straight, accrate hole
is desired, or when holes in castings need to be enlarged.

The boring tool is help in the boring bar which in turn is fetted into ftle
drill spindle socket. (Fig. 1:'2. )'shows boring operation.
-.
Adjustable boring, heads eliminate the need for a complete inventory of
expensive, large-size drills. When used with care- on- sturdy machines "
with power feed 'and 'rigid setups, extrem'ely accurate holes may be
machined with adjust-table boring heads.
.',

- 11~
.
F'3'

COV~!'ER
;'}.SORING

COUNTERSINKING

4. Counterboring
counterboring operation differs from boring operation in the sense that
whereas boring enlarges a hole for its full length counterboring does so
only for a small length in order to accomm~date the heads of bolts,
studs,

etc.

..'

U~ljke a boring tool, the counterboring tool has.a point or guide

(extending edge) that goes into the already exiting hole 'and thus
maintains the alignment of the counterboring tooL
(Fig, 1.13. ) shows a counterboring tooL The counterboring tool (i. e.,
the counterbore) is held in the drill spindle socket.
Counderboring tools are made in different sizes. They are available in
high speed steel and with carbide insert teeth. The former type is
designed for counter boring steel, while the latter is recommended for
use with cast iron. Counterbore should run at lower cutting speeds than
a drill of corresponding diameter. A cutting fluid should be used freely.

s.

Countersinking
-

't

The countersinking operation bevels the mouth of a hole with a rotary

tool called a countersink. Cone shaped end of the hole accommodates' a
flat head screw or countersunk river fitted into the hole.

_,. J

14

. ......
(Fig .114-. ) shows acollntersink and (Fig 115. \) Counter.Sinking

operation.

Countersinks are made in many styles and size, and with point angles of
600 for lathe centers, 820 for flat-headed machine screws and 100. 110
and 1200

fOT

some types of rivets.

6. Spot facing
Spot facing operation provides a locally.mach.ined,flat seating around a
hol~ for nuts o~ bolt-heads being puUo:ddown onto oth+se,. rough
castmgs or forgings. The surface machmed

hola
A counterbore may be used for spot facing.

FJ:'.1.11.

TAPPlhG

should be squru;e

I
I

With

the

7. Tapping
-

Tapping operation may be carried out 01] the drill press in order-to cut
threads in drilled hole.
When large number of holes have to be tapped, hand tapping is a slow
process, and the work is expedited by driving the tap with the drilling
machine, running on slow speed. Some means are to be provided
whereby the tap drive from the machine is not solid, but incorporates a
'slipping device whichwill come into operation when the tap sticks in
hole, or reaches the bottom, and so avoid breaking the tap.
(Fig.1~"",
) shows the tapping operation. As the tap is screwed into
the hole, it cuts metal and produces internal threads. The size of the tap
is selected in such a manner that the drilled hole is smaller than the tap
by twice the depth of the thread.

8. Grinding
-

A hardened hole may be sized and fmished with the help of grinding
operation carried on a drill press.
_
.
Grinding wheel may oe attached with the drill spindle and the rotating
grinding wheel is fed into the hardened hole with the up and down
movement of the drill spindle.

9. Trepanning
-

Trepanning operation becomes essential when a fairly large hole has to

be cut in thin materiaL Not only it is dangerous to try to cut large
diameter holes in sheet metal with a twist drill, also the resulting hole
will not be satis-factory. There will be insufficient thickness of metal to
guide the- dril1 point and to resist the cutting forces. The hole will be
jagged and out of round.
':
__
.
The trepanning cutter (Fig.j- 1<6.) instead of. cutting away all the metal
in the hole as swarf, removes a thin annulus of metal. This leaves a

clean cut hole in the stock and a disc of metal slightly smaller than the
hole. The disc can be used for some other purpose.

10. Hole Cutting (Fig 1.19. )

- Hole cutters are mainly used for cutting large diameter holes in sheet metal. The
cutting tool is removable for sharpening .

.1

. ..

..

TYPES OF DRILLS
-

Drills are fluted cutting tools which are employed to make or enlarge
holes in a job. A drill is a rotary-end cutting tool having one or more
cutting edges and corresponding flutes that continue the length of the
drill body. The flutes, which can be either straight or helical, serve to
provide passage~ .for the chips and cutting fluid. Drills having two flutes
are used for starting and making a hole whereas those with three or four
flutes are used for enlarging or finishing drilled and cored holes. Drills
are manufactured in a umber of types in order to meet different job
requirements.
- The following types of drills are in use:
(A) Flat drill or spade drill
]obbex'~ ol...
;U.
(8) Straight flute drill
pauaUe' ~hem\q o\li\l
(C) Twist drills------I

(~ Center drill
~)Multi-flute core drills
. (F) Oil hole drills
(Gj) Step drill
(H)Subland drill

():)D-bits .

1~-?et ~"'-~~ Q.\f"IU

g'b~b a\,iU4s'

CA) Flat drill or Spade drill

- Fig .120 ) shows a flat drill.
- Flat drills ate seldom used now.
"
- A flat dri1Jcan be-easily an~fquickly made from tool steel should a certain size of- .
twist drill be unavailable. The blade-has a scraping.the hole drilled is wider than the I
shank. Each time the dril1 is. ground its -ground its size (diametr] is reduced. The - J
drill point waders whenever hard sports are encountered in the metal, as a result-it
is difficult to obtain accurate straight holes. There is no provision for the removal . I
of the cuttings/chips from the point. Helice a-flat drill 'is not suitable for deep hole
-drilling. Earlier, flat drills were used mainly for brass or cast iron jobs.

I
.~.

:/

Cl eorcnce

0,

Cutting
edge angle:

..

:\

, \

~ Ci ecrcnce
Fig.$.. 2.0.

A fiat

drill.

(13) Straight flute drill

_ Fig1''s'hows'a straight flute drill
._A straight flute drill is designed for cutting brass and other soft metals. It has zero
rake angle. It is also known as gun drilL Whereas a twist drill may dig into the soft
metal a straight flute drill does not do so. Since in a straight flute drill, flutes run
parallel to drill axis chips do not come out from the hole automatically.

c-- ::~::: ~::~;;=5;_

F''[j.t2.t. S-hQl.l~

(GJ

i~~

~Tl'Uo

~J

Twist Drill

_ Twist drills are made by forging or milling rough flutes, and then twisting to a
spiral shape. After twisting, the drills are milled to the approximate size, heat
treated and ground to exact size. Twist dri11sare most commonly used in practice
and are of fo11owingtypes (Fig -1.2.2.. ).

r---- __

OVERALL

LENGTH

(ll) Taper shank drill

- The drill is made up of high speed steel and is used at high speed in an
electric drilling machine. The drill has two helical flutes. It is available in most
diameters (form 3 to 100 mm) and is used to give a more positive drive, and
where quick changing is necessary. ,Large twist drills are usually provided with
a taper shank (having Morse taper). -The shank is designed to be inserted in a
.. CQrrespondingtaper hole in the-end of the drillmachineislnSerted in it slotat
the bottom of the hole in the spindle .and prevents rotation of the drill relative
to the spindle during machining.

tl'(j. 12-3*

Taper ehank twist dri!1

(bl P~ralJeJ shank drill

.' .

- The drill has two helical flutes. Unlike the drill type (a) above, this type of
drinlhas a parallel shank (Fig. 19-lt. ) of approximately same diameter as the
curting portion of the drill. Parallel shank drills are made up to 12 mm in
diameter, whereas taper shank drills are made up to much large sizes. In other
words, small twist drills have a parallel shank. A parallel shank drill is held in
an adjustable drill chuck

Recess optional

tf'-12.lt-,:

D~~~
bog

Pllr~llef shank

60riml

fwl~t drili-

(cJ Jobber's drill (Fig: l:25.")

- A jobber's drill has .two helical flutes. The drill has a parallel shank. Jobber'
.drill is shorter than the. other types and is used for fmer work. The drill is
confined to sizes up to about 12 mm diameter. This type of drill is in common
.use and can be. used in drilling machines, hand-held drilling machines and
machine tools.

FiO1. :25Paral1dshaak jobber series twist deill.

(d) Stub drill (Fig.t. 26. )

..

A stub drill as compared to jobbers or long series drills, is of sink:' is used for
providing a starting hole for drills and for drilling center holes in stock to be
held in a lathe or a cylindrical grinder (Fig
)

F'8"1.U;. Stub drill

(~)Mnlti-flute core drill (Fig.1.2!f.

)
This type of drill is used for enlarfing holes that hare previously been punched
or drilled. Because of their wide use in drilling cored holes in castings they are
known as core drills. Such drills because of their construction cannot originate
a hole in the solid material. They do not have cutting edges extending to the
center of the drill. Core drills may have three or four flutes. The advantages of
a multiflute dril1include increased rate of metal removal, increased accuracy in
hoJe size and location, and improved finish.

1. 2~. ~ ent.cr e c.hn!lr. 0 r Colb') br:>o.,h Of) cJ 'If ;'.tt

(F) Oil hole drill
Oil hole drills are used for making deep holes or for metals difficult to
machine. Forcing the oil down to the actual cutting point, cools the drill,
lubricates and forces the chip out. A special connection.is needed to allow the
drill to rotate while the oil line stays fixed. The oil can be fed from the end or
the side of the shank.
J'~.

.......

~-

......
s---.__

tiO129. 2Step

o..\'15,'J.1.

(<it) Step drill (Fig .1.2.'3 )

Both step drills and subland drills' are multi-diameter drills. Such drills can
often save considerable amount of time. They have two ot:more diameters and
.. the top (larger) diameter may be shaped to countersink, qonunterbore etc. the
saving in setup and handling may frequently save much Imore than the extra
drill cost. A setup drill is a multi-diameter drill which both! the diameters are on
the same land.

(D)

.A

Cenb e

Q1.nol

at..,'u

~t.I?-t.!!.1

a.t" 0

o \9,

~Y)O 10()

,. LI, <w,=.l

""-I,-

("..()JlO

b'=.i;OI") =l..i.It

lc Jnrov.Q.U,,[ =Y

.!l.-\<!\Jtiir

ht>~ey,r 0\....u <.\ ,==l -fo~ 0.1 Tj Lt.!1r c..o2r)t ,"02 1,<>\ et 1'1) .tit>~
-to .6~ hQ.lc\ \ 0 0. ~e.
0' o\. CCJljC)o\r:~
Zt'lr-lo~er.
(Rce..j ri(j' 12.~:) ~,
t

- - "Ll

(H) Subland drill (Fig.i.5O.).

. _

..

A subland drill is a rnultidiameter drill which can drill several diameters in-one
operation. Unlike setup drill, the subland drill ;has two separate lands each
continuous along the flute: This is a more expensive drill, but: it might be
cheaper in the long run.

E'

~~~

(I; D-bits (Fig -"01" )

-D-bits are employed when drilling more accurate holes, such as in a steam

engine cylinder, than can be obtained by normal drills. In (Fig

Size of the required hole.

.~

- .

Fia- 1'31.

.'

I~!'~ 0~I
6 ( -1I~

D- 6)\:~.

) D is the

.....

--~

S hank

------

..

t~-

---.-

Body

I;

Flute Icnath---~---.I-I

Flute

_~

__

-- -.-- --_...
_-1-

<,

)'"

I
------r-ii-r----l.~H::::e,..:._:1
i.;_;_x...:::.:.ang
Ie __"___.. _
Drill axis

Body clearance
Lead of helix

.1

J
Body

/1

__

Point __ '

--- Land

.......diameter.
.._

'to

, '"

--'

+oJ

Q)

Web or core _~
thickness
0 /\

Outer corner
"""

""

Lip
length '---~

Y)\
Outer corner \

Chisel edge
Nominal

relief
angle

corner
~"""'-L-1

'

p~ 1-32.Nomerjcla~ure and geomeffy of conventiona twist

d '11

TWIST DRILL GEOMETRY

A twist drill has three principal parts:
1. The drill point or dead center,
2. The body,
3. The shank.
.(Fig.,.32.. ) shows-different drill parts,
Drill axis is the longitudinal center line, Drill point is the sharpened end of
the drill body consisting of all that part which is shaped to produce lips,
faces and chisel edge.
Lip or cutting edge is the edge formed by the intersection of the flank
and face.

nn.

Lip length is _the rmmmum

chisel-edge comer of the Iip ,

Face is that -portion of the flute surface adjacent to the lip on which the
chip impinges as it is cut from the work.
-Chisel edge is the formed by the intersection of the flanks.
Flank is that surface .on a- drill point which extends behind the lip to the
following flute.
.
_.

distance between the outer comer and.ithe

Flutes are the grooves in the body of the drill which provide lips, allow the
removal of chips, and pennit cutting fluid to reach the lips.
Flute Jength is the axial length from the extreme end of the point to the
termination for the flutes at the shank end o~fthe body.
Body is that potion of the drill which extends from the extreme cutting end
to the beginning of the shank.
Shank is that portion of the drill by which it is held and driven.
Heel is the edge formed by the intersection of the flutes surface and the
body clearance .

Body clearance is that portion of the body surface reduced m.xliameter to

provide (Jiametral clearance.

,. " Car.e or web is the central portion of the drill situated between the roots of

the flutes and extending from the point end towards the shan.1c;the point
end of the core forms the chisel edge.
\
Lands are the cylindrically ground surfaces on the lekding edges of the
dril1 flutes. The width of the land 1S measured at right angles to the flute.
Recess is the portion of the drill body between the flutes and the shank
provided so as to facilitate the grinding of the body. Parallel shank drill of
small diameter are not usually provided with a recess.
Outer comer is the comer formed by the intersection of the lip and the
leading edge of the land.

Chisel edge corner is the corner formed by the intersection of a lip and the
chisel edge.

Drill diameter is the measurement acrossthe cylindrical lands at the outer

comers of the drill.

Lead of helix is the distance measured parallel to the drill

is between '
corresponding points on the leading edge of a flute in one comp ete turn, of
the flute.
i
J-Jelix angle is the between the Ieadirig edge oftbe land and the drill axis.
Rank angle is the angle between the face and line parallel to th!edrill axis.
It is big~er at the face edges and decreases towards the center of/the drill on
nearly 0 - The result is that the formation of chips grows more ~favourable
towards the center.
.
!

at

Lip clearance
angle is the angle formed by the flank. and a plane
rio-ht
angles to the drill axis; the angle is normalJy measured at the periphery Po.f
the drilL
To make sur-e that the main cutting edges can enter into the material, the
clearance .faces slope bac1..-.vards.in a curve. The clearance angle measured
at the .face edge, must amount to SO up to 80_
'i,

Point angle is the included angie of' the cone .formed by the lips.

sShaping and planningmachine

Introduction

Shaper is a versatile-machine which is primarily intended for pro.ducing flat

surfaces. These surfaces may be horizontal, vertical o.rinclined. This machine

involves the use of a single point tool held in a properly designed tool box
mounted on a reciprocating ram.

Working principle of a sbaper

The working principle of a shaper in illustrated in (Fig. 5. 1. ) In case o.f shaper,
the job is rigidly held in a suitable device like a vice or clamped directly on the
machine table. The tool is held in the to.0.1 post mounted o.n the ram of jhe
---.machine. This ram reciprocates toand fro. and, in doing sormakes the toolto cut
the material in the forward stroke. No. cutting of material takes place during the
return stroke Df the ram. Hence, it is termed as 'Idle' stroke, However, in case of a
draw-cut shaper, the cutting takes place in the return stroke and the forward stroke
in an idle stroke. The job is given an indexed feed (equal amount after coach cut)
in a direction normal to. the line of action of the cutting tool.

CUTTING

IDLE

STROKE

STROK

TOOL

Types of sha pers

Shapers may be classified on the basis of
(a) Design of work tables as
);> Standard shaper
> Universal shaper

E'

(b) Driving mechanism as

~ Crank shape
~ Geared shaper
~ Hydraulic shaper
(c) Direction of travel of ram as
~ Horizontal shaper

Vertical shaper
Travelling shaper

(d) Nature of cutting stroke as

~ Push-cut shaper
Draw-cut shaper

Standard shaper
-

Ina standard shaper the work table has only vertical and horizontal
Ill()Y~IIlt!llts~
.....

The work table may not .have vertical support at....its front.
. ..

Universal shaper
-

Universal shaper has a work table which may be swiveled around two
horizontal axes and also adjusted horizontally and vertically.
As compared to standard shaper, the universal shaper can be used to
machine a wide variety of jobs.

Crank shaper

A crank shaper is the most common type of shaper,

Such shapers have a crank and slotted link mechanism to constitute the
quick return motiori'~ the driving mechanism.
.
The crank changes the circular motion of the power source (i.e.ithe electric
motor) to the reciprocating motion of the ram or cutting tool.

Geared sbaper
-

A geared shaper is not commonly used.

A geared shaper has got a rack under its ram. The rack (and hence the ram)
is driven by a spur gear.

Hydraulic sbaper
-

The drive in hydraulic shaper in neither a crank nor gear, rather it is a

hydraulic circuit

Though expensive, a hydraulic shaper is very efficient.

In a hydn, .:,.silaper, the reciprocating movements of the ram are obtained

by the applieatien of oil pressureon the piston in a cylinder in a cylinder.'
The end of the piston rod is connected to the ram of the (hydraulic) shaper,

Horizontalshaper
-

A horizontal shaper has a ram which reciprocates in the horizontal plane.

only.
.
_
Horizontal shapers are very commonly used to produce flat surfaces .

.I

Vertical shaper

A vertical shaper (also known as slotter) has the ram which reciprocates in
vertical plane. It possesses a rotary work table.
Vertical shapers are used to generate internal surfaces, keyways, grooves,
slots etc.

Travelling head sbaper

-

A traveling head shaper has a reciprocating ram mounted on a saddle which

travels sideways along the b~d. The ram carries the tool slide.
- .Heavy duty jobs which cannot be held on the standard shaper table, are kept
stationary on the base of the traveling head shaper and machined as the ram
reciprocates.

Push-cut sbaper
- Most shapers are of the horizontal push-cut type.
- Inthis type, cutting occurs as the ram pushes the tool across jhe workpiece
I

Draw-cut shaper
-

11

Draw cut shapers are used primarily in tool and die shops.
. .
Cutting is done during the return str ke as the tool is set in a reversed .
direction to that of the standard shaPfr,
.
.
Because of its heavier construction, fl draw-cut sbaper can take heavy cuts
with less vibration and strain on the Fork table.

Parts of a sbaper
- (Fig.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

5.2.. ) shows

a horizontal shaper and its principal parts are

Base
Columm or pillar
Cross rail.
Saddle.
Table.
Ram.

o;_;.

/(6

7. Tool head.
8. Drive mechanism.
TOOL HEAD

RAM
VICE
COLUMN

RAIL

B:ASE

F itj5.2.

4DD.AMP

Main parts ~f a shaper.

COlllMIt ~
'IUAR

QO'iSRAI~

TAIll

salTOC YQIII"

Parts of a shaper,

171

a. Base

_ The base of the shaper supports the column or pillar which supports all the
working parts such as ram, work table, drive mechanism etc.
Base is a heavy cast iron body.

b. Column, pillar or body

_ The shaper has a column which is a ribbed casting of cellular construction.
The top of the column carries the ram slideways, whilst the table slideways
are machined on the front of the casting.
_
The crank and slotted link mechanism that drives the ram is contained
within the column.
The driving motor, the variable speed gearbox, levers, is contained within
the column.
The driving motor, the variable speed gearbox, levers, handles and other
-c<?ri1i61~ofshaper are also contained in column.
. .. '. .

c. Cross rail
_ The cross rail carries the horizontal table slideways and is mounted on the
vertical slideways of the column.
The cross rail can be raised or lowered by means of an elevating screw in
order to compensate for different thicknesses of.work.
_ The cross rail is a heavy casting and it also carries the table cross feed
screw together with the pawl and ratchet inter mitten drive mechanism.

d. Saddle

_ Saddle is gibbed to the cross rail and supports the table. Ifthe table is
.' removed, the work can be bolted or clamped to the T-slots in front of the
saddle.
_~ Crosswise movement of the saddle causes the work table to move sideways.

e. Table

The work table is a box shaped casting with T-flots in its upper surface and
down one side (Fig .5'3. ).It also has a vee machined in the vertical
side-to carry cylindrical work.
_ The upper surface of the work table is machined in situ after assembly to
en_surethat the working surface of the table is a true datum for work setting.
_ The work table is bolted to the saddle and can be moved vertically and
crosswise with the help of saddle aile cross rail.

--------1--

"

F;~5.~"

f. Ram
-

WOlt~ tet.h\e ~
~~~Qr.

Ram is a rigidly braced casting and is located on.the top of column.

The ram is driven back and forth in its slides by the slotted link mechanism.
The ram contains a stroke positioning mechanism and the downfeed
mechanism

g. Tool head
The tool head slides in a dovetail at the front of the ram by means of Tbolts. It can swivel from 0 to 9 in a vertical plane. The tool head can be
raised or lowered by hand feed for vertical
on the workpiece.
The tool head holds the tooL The tool headj imparts the tool, the necessary
vertical and angular feed movements.
I
(Fig ~5.4- ~ ) shows tool head and its details,
I
The tool slide (Fig. 5It ) controls the in/feed of the cutting tool into the
workpiece. In other words, it controls the depth of cut and is adjusted by a
lead screw..
!
The dapper box allows the cutting tool to lift on the return or idle stroke so
that tool is not is not dragged back through the uncut workpiece and gets
damaged.
The tool post carries the cutting tool.

cfts

~I
1001 post

'ToeI ~Iid$-

Protractor ~I~
Otrectionof mov~ment

Cfapper

TOOl Clamping

screw

Clapper box,
pivot pin

TOOL BOX AND HEADSLIDE

f'(j.5.1t-. Tool head and its details.

ShapeI' drive mechanisms

-

A shaper drive mechanism changes the rotary motion of the power source.
(electric motor) into the reciprocating motion of the ram.
Metal cutting is carried out during the forward stroke of the ram only; the
return stroke of the ram does no cutting and hence is called idle stroke.
Since return stroke does no cutting, the drive system incorporates a quick
return mechanism so that the ram moves faster during return stroke in order
to minimize the idle time.
Some of the shaper drive mechanism are:
1. Slotted link quick return mechanism.
2. Whitworth quick return mechanism.
3. Hydraulic mechanism.
0

1. Slotted link quick return mechanism

- The slotted link quick return mechanism has been shown in (Fig

0 ..

5 -5.

ength of stroke

)~

. .J

'Cf'ankpin

Jull

"heel

(h)

(OJ

r:

I~

55 (q) cY5fD t-} eJ .K.' 0 t; rn e eJ..wr'..&nD.

,(6) p?f)'f)e;f~e 0; O)e~i~rQ).

- Slotted link mechanism is very common in mechanical shapers.

- The mechanism is simple and compact. It converts the rotary motion of the
electric motor and gearbox into the reciprocating motion of the ram.
- The slotted link mechanism gives the ram a higher velocity during the
return non-cutting stroke than during its forward cutting stroke thereby
reducing the time wasted during the return stroke.

5-J.

The bull gear (fig 5. 9_ . ) is driven by a pinion which is connected to the

motor shaft through gearbox with four, eight or more speeds available.
The bull wheel has a slot (Fig- 55. ): The crank rotates and side by side
slides through the slot in the slotted crank B. this makes.the slotted__
crank to
oscillate about its one end. C. this oscillating motion of slotted Crank
(through the link D) makes the ram to reciprocate. The intermediate link D
is necessary to accommodate the rise and fall of the crank.
_
The position of the crank pin A in the slot in the bullwheel decides the
length of the stroke of the shaper. The further it-is away from the center of
bull wheel, the longer is the stroke (fig .S.5Cb)J
The cutting stroke of the ram is completed while the crank pin moves from
A to A, and the slotted link goes from left to-right. Similarly, during return
stroke crank pin moves from Al to A and the link changes its position from
right to left. The time taken by cutting and idle stroke of the ram is
proportional to the angles AZAI and AtZA respectively.
>

~UJiti:1j
~~le

-hrne _=
-hcne --

_LA

~~l

LA,~A

Since the crank pin A rotates with uniform velocity andLAIZA is smaller,
it is obvious 1\hatthe idle return stroke is quicker than the forward cutting
stroke and hence the slotted link mechanism is known as quick return
mechanism.

2. The whitworth quick return mechanism

- (Fig56.) shows whitworth quick return mechanism.
U

(~

Crank Be revolves at a uniform speed. During cutting stroke the point C

travels from Y to X through Z. The ram is return at high speed as the crank .
rotates from X to Y through T. then: J;me. ~'r'
~-t-i~~-t~\"';'C'
=- 3Gtl~.

T ,.n::>Q..for

~ e5(u11')

<g~

t9::>.

Since is smaller than 360-~the time for cutting is more than the idle (stroke)
time and thus the name-quick return motion.

The stroke length (in mechanism) can be changed by varying the radius
AE.
Since the change in stroke length alters the cutting speed, it necessitates a
change of gear to get desired cutting speed.

Comparison of the whitworth and slotted link mechanisms

In the case of whitworth quick return mechanism,
a. On entering the cut, the highest pressure on the tool and the slowest
speed is available.
b...QIl.~9t~IiIIg.tbe.c;ut.the.lIlaximum. pressure is holding the ram down ..
in its slides and so steadying the ram when most necessary. .
.
c. The minimum pressure is in the Correct place 'on' the whitworth
motion, constructional difficulties make it more suitable, so that the
crank motion, despite its limitations, finds genera] adaptation for the
pillar type of shaping machines.

3. Hydraulic sbaper mechanism

(Fig51 ) show the mechanism of a hydraulic shaper.

CONTROL
VALVE
. THROTTLE
. VALVE

DOUBLE GEAR

HYDRAULIC
RELIEF

PUMP-

VALVE

. Jd.{1
RESERVOIR

..

.....

- - A hydraulic shaper. has the same major paps as the mechanical one.
However, the ram is drivenby a hydraulic cylinder.
The speeds of the shaper ram aridthe feeds of the work tables.are controlled
by hydraulic mechanism. A lever operates a valve'that varies the quantity of
oil delivered to the ram cylinder and thereby governs the ram speed. The
amount of cross or verticalfeed of the table is regulated by a handwheel
which affects the table feed cylinder. The return or idle stroke is faster than _thecutting stroke because ofthe
smaller area in return side of the cylinder (due to the presence of piston rod)
if a constant volume pump is used.
Comparison of hydraulic and mechanical shapers
A hydraulic shaper has constant cutting speeds and-fast returns, so that it
can make more strokes per minute at the same surface speed. The feeds are
controlled independently of the ram drive and are unlimited in number. A
...............
hydraulic shaper, though more expensive thari a mechanical shaper, IS
preferred-for faster speed and finer finish.
A mechanical shaper costs less. The flywheel effect of the bull gear
provides reserve power for heavy cuts.

Shaper feed mechanism

The feeds of a shaper are usually obtained by means of a pawl and ratchet
actuating the feed (lead) screw, (Fig. 58'- )

01fset 01driving pin determ;netl

the feed pot stroke
' J
Driving pin ~djustable in tee
slot to vary feed per strolte

..

Connecting 'ink

Rocker erm
(for diltllils cee /
fig
(b))

Ofiving disc

,-otat.a81 um.
lJpHd

Reversible paw'
~--R~tchet

w~,

~,.,,-..-

~r--

Square for hand

fNdh~

(delllchablo;

l.:vl-t

a.lho

tttrt'k. (bull)
wheel

roetent

pin

Cross teed
lead screw'

,-- __

f-'(j'5,8, g~"Q{".

t.-oD(~

El&va1iRD sbatt

~~e.:feesJ

T1QC2~'~ro.

The (slotted) driving disc is driven by a gear connected to the bullwheel

shaft, the gearing being such that the disc rotates at the same speed as the
bullwheel (or bull gear). The driVinildisc is linked by connecting rod tc the
rocker ann which carries a spring spring loaded reversible pawl. As the
disc rotates it causes paw to osci11a about the centre of the feed screw. By
off-setting the driving pin on the slotted disc, the rocker arm is made to
oscillate sufficient to move the pawl over one or, more teeth of ratchet and
so transmit intermittent motion to the cross-feed lead screw which moves
the work table,
To reverse the direction of table traverse, the pawl is lifted bythe knurled
knob and turned round so that it moves the ratched wheel in the opposite
direction.
When no feed is required the paw] is lifted and turned through 90 so that.
the pin is out of the grove and the .pawl is held clear of the ratchet.
The amount of ~~ed to use on a given job will depend to large extent on the
class of fmish required, and whether a roughing or finishing cut is being
taken, Feed on the shaper is measured in terms. of the distance moved 'by
the work for each cutting stroke made by the ram.

Shaper work holding devices

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Shaper work holding devices include

Vices Parallel strips
Clamps.
Ja.ck
Angle plate
Vee blocks
Stop pins and toe dogs
Centres

1. Vices (Fig. 59'

As compared to an ordinary machine vice, the shaper vice has a robust

construction of the slides and moving jaw. The jaws of a shaper vice are
long and ...deep and sufficient adjustment of the moving jaw must be
provided for large workpieces t.Q be accommodated: This jaws are usually
hardened to prevent them from being distorted or marked by the work. .
llOlO-DOWN
SOliS

flXlUlAW

STOP

ClAMP ~CRfW

..
GRADUATIONS

..

F iO5~.

A shaper vice.

2. Parallel strips (Fig.5.) D.}

Parallel strips provide a solid support and clearance for parts with.
projections or steps and they raise the surface to be shaped tothe proper
height above the vice jaws.
'I
Parallel strips in a variety of sizes, shapes and lengths are standard
equipment used on the shaper.

PARALLEL STRIPS

....

'T' BOLT

t:' teo 5 J 0 . Shaper

work hOlding devices.

3. Clamps (Fig. 5./0.)

For large size workpieces, which cannot be held in the shaper vice, damps
.. arc used to hold them on the work table directly.
Complete clamping unit consists of bolt assembly. clamp and the packing
or fulcrum block. '
._ In a clamping arrangement. the lever principle should also be considered
for proper fastening of the job.
-

4. Jack (Fig .5.10.)

- Machinist's jacks are used to support overhanging sections of castings or
.assemblies when they are strapped to the shaper table.

5. Angle .plate
- The angle plate is made up of cast iron.
=- Angle plate is a fixture; one side of the plate is bolted to the table and the other.
side is bolted to the workpiece (Fig. 5.1 0.)
.
)~

6. Vee blocks
- Vee blocks are made up ofcast iron or steel.

"/

- Round work that is too small in diameter to be machined while resting on the
ways of the vise can be held in horizontal alignment(paraHe] with the vise table)
.by means_of V'-Qlocks(Fig. 5 11.)
.

~-----.

V ....blD~~

---'(-~.

~----~----~-----~~
.R_tiUJ-)ctFOo~'~fre.c. .._

r:;{j' 5 11.
\

Vee

b Lt>~ t.5ls-. .

The shaper tool reciprocates between the two vee blocks and thus cuts
keyway or groove on the round workpiece.

7. Stop pins and toe dogs

- Stop pins and toe dogs are used to hold thin work (Fig. 5.1 c;_ .)

DOGS--_
WORK"

..
TABLE

A stop pin can be inserted in the slots in the table on each side of the work,
and the dogs forced against the work by tightening the stop pin screws.

Shaper operations
- Various operations which can be performed 011 a shaper are
a. Horizontal shaping (facing top job surface).
b. Vertical shaping (facing side).
c &d. Shaping of grooves, slots, steps and keyways.
e. Angular shaping (Dovetail cutting).
f. Cutting of splines and gear teeth.
g. Irregular cutting

..

Slotting

Steps
(dJ

Dovetail - female
fel

OQ\iata.u - ~I.

in
Fig. 5 J 5. Shaper operations.

3.

Horizontal shaping
Horizonta1 cutting is most commonly carried out on a shaper to obtain: flat
surfaces. (i=-iv-, 5 ~:::.)
The job is held in the vise and an appropriate tools is held in the tool head
of the shaper. The 1ength and position of the stroke are adjusted to machine
the whole length of the shaper, The length and position of the stroke are .
adjusted to machine the whole length of the job. Cutting speed and feed are
then adjusted, depending upon whether it is a roughing or finishing cut. The
proper inclination of the tool and the depth of cut is also set cross feed to
the table is given initially by hand till the cut starts and then the power feed
is employed. After the tool has cut the full width of the job, shaper is
stopped an the job is inspected. For further removing of the material,
another depth of cut is set and the above said procedure is repeated.
1

..J..

....

j
Work

feed

Work

SHAPING A HORIZONTAL SURFACE

fe~

WOrk

>=

F \.'Ct'5 13

Toe

----~--

SHAPING A VERTICAL

SURFACE

Horizontal ehapinz,

h. Vertical shaping (Fig. 51 Jj. )

-

The clapper box is swivelled away from the face of~e work to be cut.
The tool is fed downwards by rotating the down feed screw by hand at the
end of return stroke. The feed is about 0.25 mID.
On the return stroke the too] swings away from the work and gives
clearance, which prevents the work from being scored.
Vertical cutting is carried out in order to make groves, keyways, parting off
and squaring up the ends and shoulders.

I~.

c & d. Shaping of grooves, slots, steps and keyways (Fig. 5. r G-)

_._
- For shaping grooves:> slots and keyways, a nose tool similar to a lathe
parting tool is used. Rigidity of the tool is very important. Avoid excessive
overhang and ensure that the too) clearances are not so great as to weaken
the tool.

TOOl
feed

............. WOrk ..

~'.'

..

SHAPING GROOVES

r- tACt- 5 .f6Shaping grooves.

-

Keyway~ slots and recesses may be shorter than the full length of the job.
In such cases, a hole is drilled at the closed end. This is necessary to
prevent chips piling up and possibly breaking the tool. A flat nosed tool is
employed for cutting keyways.

e. Angles shaping (Fig. 5 1t::f. )

- For shaping angular faces, the swivel head is set to the required angle.
I

. Head ~et to
reqUIred Clngle

"

hoot
"

r'eed

'.
Work
.

- In (Fig. 5~.'+-. ) note the position of the clapper box, this is swung away from
the face to be machined. The tool feed is applied by the slide hand wheel.
. The angular shaping is carried out in order to machine inclined'surfaces, beveled
Surfaces,.dovetails etc.

[ Cutting of slpines and gear teeth (Fig. 5 t'tj. ).

For eutting splines and gear teeth, the. workpiece
centers .
. (Fig. 5 1<3". ):

IS

held between the

The index plates is used for cutting equally spaced splines and gear teeth.
The index plate has a number of holes that is evenly divisible by the
required number of angular positions that are necessary to machine the
sp Iines or gear teeth.
The first spline or gear tooth is cut on the workpiece held between centers
exactly in the way, a.keyway is cut. After this, the workpiece is rotated by
the required amount using the index plate. The index plate is then locked by
engaging the index pin with the corresponding hole in the circumference of
the index plate. Now the second' spline is cut. This procedure is repeated till
splines or gear teeth. have been cut on the whole. circumference of the
workpiece.
Separate tools are used for cutting splines and gear teeth on the worpiece.

v. Irregular cutting (Fig.

'" -

>

19. )

Before cutting an irregular shape, the same is scribed on the surface of the workpiece.
After the workpiece has been secured in position on the shaper, the operat.Qr,"byskilful
manipulation of the vertical and horizontal feeds, guides the cutting too! so that it will
follow the layout lines.
Contour shaping is also carried out this way.

Sbapercutting t~Ols

. .

,> >:. ~haper cutting tools are single point tools similar to lathe tools and ar~ frequently held!
<; in the same type of holders. Shaper tools can be ground off-hand when It IS necessary to .

., . change their shape to suit a particular job or to resharpen them.

Ii
The little difference which a shaper tool has from a lathe tool is because of the: fact that
.whereas a lathe tool has a constant, fairly uniform cutting pressure exerted! on it, a
..shaper tool is subjected hammering into the work. To withstand these shocks, it is
necessary that the shaper tools have a larger nose radius than the lathe shaper tools have
a large nose radius than the lathe tools have. In many cases the back rake angle of the
shaper tool is negatively ground so that the shock of each successive cut is taken on the
- solid part of-the tool "rather than on its point, Moreover, a shaper tool is more rigid and
Iieavier than a lathe tool. Lathe tool has sufficient side clearage angle as it is to be
"continually fed sideways, whereas in a shaper tool, since the feed is necessary to give
- relief to the side cutting edge
'
" (Fia

5.20' t~) "\~hnU!<;:<;:h~nprtnnl

~\_b)

apnmptrv

~ntl tliffprpnt

<;:h~npr tnnk

A - CUTllNG

ANGl E

B-LiPANGLE
C - END RELI EF

0- BACK RAKE ANGle

E -SI DE RAK E ANGL E

F- TOP RAKE ANGLE

. (0)

Fi~' 5- 20.. $~'pet. tvol.. {t~e-\-U

("'

.'

.-

t-'a52.olb) SkpQ.J

.. . ......
~1)~.

Shaper tools are of two basic kinds: forged tools:and tool bits. Tool bits are
more widely used than forged tools because of their economy~cutting life
and the case with which'they are-sharpened,
.'
Shaper tool bits may:.be made up
high speed steel, cast alloys or
cemented carbide. Since high-speed steel has greater impact toughness than
cast alloy or cemented carbide, tool bits made of high-speed steel are used
most often.
Shaper tools may be further classified as:
1. Roughing tools and finishing tools.
2. Straight and cranked neck tools.
3. Left hand and right hand tools.
4. Round nose, straight nose and flat nose tools.
5. Slot cutting (parting oft) and side recessing tools

of

For rough cuts, a roughing tool is used which is without back rake angle.
Side rake .anglevaries from 1.0to .~Oo(smaller angle being for hard metals
-~

and larger angle for. soft metals). Side clearance varies from 5 to 6 and
end clearance .angle is from 3 to 8. ..
. .:
.
The finishing tool .is normally given the -front and side clearance between 20
to 4. a back rake.of about 2 is provided. ....
A right hand tool is fed towards the operator and a left hand tool away from
the operator. .
_
.
'A round nose tool is used for roughing and finishing the sides and bottoms
of grooves, keyways etc. .
A swan necked tool is used for finishing cast iron as it avoids any
possibility of chatter etc.
.
Shaper tools for cutting steel have. a side rake angle of 10-200 and a back
rake angle of 2-8 for cutting cast iron, a side rake angle of 3-10 and a
back rake angle of 0-3 is employed.

Shaper cutting speed, feed and depth ofcut

1.
2.
3.
4.

The cutting speed at which metal may be removed with a shaper depends
principally on :
The type of material being cut,
The amount of material being removed at each cut,
The kind of tool material e.g. high speed steel or cast alloy, and
The rigidity of the machine.
Given below are the values of cutting speed
metals/alloys using high speed steel cutting tool.
Material
Aluminum
Brass
Mild steel
Cast iron, soft
Tool steel

for shaping

different

Cutting sped, m1min

61
61

24.4 - 30.5
18.3 - 21.3
15.2-18.3

Cutting speed on shaper may be defined as the average speed of tool during
the cutting stroke and depends primarily onthe number of ram strokes per
minute and the length of the stroke.
Let
L = Length of stroke in metres
N = Number of strokes per minute
Thus the distance moved by the shaper tool per minute
. == LN metres
.
. ... ,. (a)
Since shaper works only during the cutting stroke and does no cutting du~ng
the return or idle stroke, the ratio of cutting speed to return speed ente!s mto

the calculation, as it is necessary to determine what proportion of time the

cutting tool is working. Thus with the rat.io
~~

~t}"'D~e.

Q....t.UJf)

tY1> \9.> <2..

_-.

2-

t\;e

nroe

~t\~

lE)tcM

.;:;.
me

ffi

:d- - '\BI

-n

From (a) and (b) we fmd that the time actually spent in cutting LN-m is only
3/5 min and not I min because no cutting is done during the return or idle
stroke. Thus in 3/5 minutes the tool cuts LN metes length and therefore in 1
minute the tool will cut 5LN

............

(c)

From (c), the number of strokes/minute for a desired cutting speed is then

N
-

-=.

c;l~~~~

L-"

=.."

~bLC.C5.

~.

The total number of strokes required to complete a job, $1:. -::::.

W
Where W is the width of the workpiece in mm
F is the feed in mm
- The total time required to complete a job

T -:::

(~J
_ _ _

:3,t
"-I

Problem. Calculate the cutting speed of the shaper when it makes strokes/minute,
each 30 em long. Assume cutting stroke return stroke ratio of 3/2.
Solution.
N = 60 stroke/min.

==-EQ_

-::....0-.3401.

'0'0

Cutting Sr!eed, C.S. = 1.67 LN

1,.67+ 0:3 +60

=-30.06 m1min.

o
00

Problem,L A piece of steel 254 mm in length is to be machined with as.s. tool.

Cutting peed is 27.43 m min and length of stroke is 254 mm. calculate the
number of stroke/minute.

(Ans.

10.42 mlmin)

Shaperfeed
.. Feed per stroke on a shaper is comparable to the feed per revolution on a
lathe.
-

Feed in shaper is the movement of workpiece in the direction at right to the

axis of ram per double stroke.
.
- . Feed is given at t]le end of idle or return stroke.

e.

Coarse feeds for roughing range up to 25 mm per stroke and for finish _cuts
to 0.125 to 0.37? mm per stroke .

..Depth of cut.
Depth of cut may be defined as the thickness of metal removed in one cut.
Depth of cut is the distance through which the shaper tool digs into the
meta] during the- cutting stroke.
Depth of cut can be quite heavy: roughing cuts up to 6.35 mm deep are not
unusual.
.
..

Machining time for shaper

Let

L be the length of stroke (m) of shaper (including too] clearance at each end
of stroke).
Vc Be the cutting speed in m/min
V,)3e the return speed in m1min
jBe the feed per cycle in m.

J) ;JllencetroOfQU~

Machining'time
.
.

l L)

e.h.. __
\

. ~I~~

Therefore, time for cutting stroke,

.L

~c ~-

V4

- -lD

Similarly, time for return stroke,

.
.. Thus, total time

-t ~~

fOT

Vf2>

- -

one cycle,

-@
.
Now, shaping width W = width of the workpiece + distance
.-thetool moves on either side of
-fhe workpiece ensure that the
full width of the workpiece has
been machined.
The number of cycles* required to machine the workpiece

~:~~.'(o~et

I .RQ)-u.lf)<S\~1
i

Thus the machining time TM

= No. of cycles)( time per Cycle

~T

Example. Calculate the time to machine 25.0 rnm long plate ]00 mm wide. Too!
clearance at each end of stroke is 30 mm and 20 mm respectively. Cutting speed is
10 m1minute and return speed is 20 rn/min. feed is I mm per cycle and the distance

the tool moves on either side of the work in width direction is 10 mm each.

..

v~ ~1 o
V~ :::.2-0

fn) ) to.)

iI).

riD ~CDIf).

Substituting the values in equation (a), we get

1M::'
:~.

2.~
(DOD

= 5.4

mins (ANS.)

IbDt>

(b

G0

tOQOX\O

if _3_D,()~.~
':LV
i \ OOt) '"

. Housing

.,

Housing

T661head
--

_,_

Feed
Motion

(a)

Block diagrarn
showing the basic components
of a double-housing planer.

Tool heads -----

Crossrail

Tool head
-

_,_

Feed

Motion
Block diag ram
of an open-side planer.

. ......

Cutting tool Unfinished surface

la} Basic geometry for shaping .and planing

....

(b) Shaper speed and feed relationship

Tool holder
Workpiece

'"

Depthof cut
, (t)

Shapertool holder, clapper box and workpiece

(d) Planer machine tool

URE26- 30 Basicsof shaping and planing.

I lJl

. Work principle of a planer

The principle involved in machining a job on a planer .is illustrated in (Fig _5- 2 J )
Here, it is almost a rever~e case to that of a shaper, The work is rigidly held on the
work table or platen of the machine. The tool is held vertically in the tool-head
mountedon the cross-rail. The work table, together with thejob,

1HOXO

TOOL FEED

Difference between shaper and planer

1. In shaper the work is held stat~onaryand
cutting tool on the ram is moved .
I

back and forth across the work, whereas it is reverse in a planer: In a planer,
the tool is stationary
and the W.orkpiec{f
travels back and forth under the
.
tooL
:I!
2. A planer is meant for much large jobs than can be undertaken on a shaper.
Jobs as large as 6 metro wide and twice as long can be machined on a
planer.
I

3. A shaper is a light machine whereas a planer is heavy duty machine.

4. A planer can employ heavier cuts and coarse feed, whereas this is not so
with a shaper.
5- A shaper uses one cutting tool at a time, whereas several tools can cut
simultaneously ona planer .
6. The drive on the planer tables is either by gears or by hydraulic means. The
shaper ram can also be driven in this manner, but many times a quick-return
link mechanism is used.

7. Most planers differ from shapers in that they approach more constant
velocity cutting speeds.
8. Because of better rigidity of planer, as compared to that of a shaper, planer
can give more accuracy on machined surfaces.

Types of planers
Planers may be classified in a number of ways, but according to general
construction, there are the following types:
l, Double housing planer
2. Open side planer
3. Pit type planer
4. Edge or plate type planer
5. Divided table planes

1. Double housing planer (Fig. 5 .22. )

- It is the most common or conventional type of planer.
It consists of a massive bed Qn"which the worktable slides back and forth.
The length of the bed must be slightly more than twice the length of the
table
Twin vertical housing are mounted near the center of the bed. These
support the horizontal cross rail. Both the cross rail and each of the housing
are equipped with ways so that sliding motion may be obtained in both the
vertical and horizontal directions.
In most cases, two tool heads are mounted on the horizontal cross rail and
one on each of the vertical housings. Tool heads may be swiveled so that
angular cuts can be made.
The tools can be fed into the work manually or operated with power.
Double housing planers have been built to accept work up to a maximum .
size of 3 m square by 18 m long.
..
Crown

I
,-

-..,

Housin

ejSS-raiI

-~

I-~

_1

Jt
.

~
Cross-rail" ~.
Tool Heads

11

-i

I:

Table
Bed

~ 'D' oSit.: DoubleHouse

+-t

I
Planer.

Side
Tool
Head

,..---

HOU5INGS---..

OVER. AR~
SUPPORl

lABlE

bED

1. Bed

.' .

- The bed of a planer must be a weldment or casting twice as long as the

table.
- The bed acts as the foundation of the machine. The other parts are attached
.to, or.supported by the bed .
The bed has accurately finished ways on which the work table slides.
The gearing or hydraulic cylinder for driving the table is housed under the
bed.

2. Worktable
I

- The table is a heavy rectangular casting which carries the work past the
cutting heads. It travels on vee or flat ways of the bed.
The.tablesis driven either by a very long hydraulic cyclinder or by a pinion
gear driving a rack which is fastened under the center of the table. The
motor driving the pinion gear is of riverside type with variable speed.
- The upper surface of the table bas T slots in it to facilitate the clamping of
. the work or vises and special fixtures with T-bolts. The top surface of the
table also has accurate holes for supporting the stop pins etc.'
- The side of the table has a groove for clamping planer reversing dogs at
different positions.

In some planers, hydraulic bumpers are fitted at the end of the bed to avoid
the table from over-running.

3. Column or housing
-

The frame of the planer is the same hollow-box type used on large milling
machines. The frame is basically two heavy columns fastened at the bottom
to the machine bed. This creates a very strong, rigid Structure which will
handle heavy loads without deflection.
On a double housing planer, two housings or columns rise vertically at the
sides of the machine. They support the cross-rail and house the elevating
screws and controls for the machine.

4. Cross-rail
The cross-rail is a heavy box or similar construction. It is mounted 'in a
horizontal position on the vertical ways of the housing, If slides up and
down on vee or flat ways, controlled by hand or by power~perated screws:
. These cross-rails are so heavy that they are counter-weighted, with either
cast-iron weights or hydraulic fyclinders, in order that they may be moved
easily and positioned accurately. After being positioned., they are clamped
in place,
The purpose of the cross-rail, 'is to carry the vertical tool-heads which by
means of feed screws may be moved from left to right.
It is very essential that the cross-rail, when clamped, be parallel to the table
for obtaining accurate machined surfaces.

5. Saddle
I

The sat:lcfle is fitted to the ways of the cross-rail. On its front surface are '.:
ways to which the tool-head is fitted together with avertical movement of

the toolhead. There are two saddles one for the left toolhead, the other for ..'
the right toolhead. Each one may be operated independently of the other.
!

6. Tool head

The tooIhead of a planer is similar to thkt of a shaper both in cons1ruction

and in operation.
I

". -

The tool head is attached to the saddle which contains the tool post which,
in Iturn, holds the cutting tool. The tool post is hinged to the head so that on
the return movement of the table the cutting tool will be raised and ride on
the top of work. This saves the cutting edge of the tool from being damaged
and permits the automatic traverse feed to operate without interference,
A feed screw is provided to move the toolhead with respect to work. The
toolhead can be swiveled for taking angular cuts.

There are four toolheads, two in vertical, position on the cross-rail, and the

other two known as side toolheads mounted one each on the two columns
below the cross-rail (Fig 52tr )

Planer driving and feed meehanisms

Introduction:
A planer driving mechanism provides the longitudinal to and fro motion of
the planer worktable. The following methods are employed for the said
purpose.
1. Open and cross belt drive.
2. Hydraulic drive.
-' . A planer feed mechanism .provides downfeed and crossfeed to 'the'planer
tool. The downfeed is applied when machining an angular or vertical
surface and crossfeed is applied when machining horizontal surface. The
feed is provided intermittently and at the end of the return stroke as in a
shaper, The feed may be given by hand or by power. The methods
employed for power feed are:
1. Friction disc mechanism
2. Electrical drive
3. Hydraulic drive.
.

.a. Driving mechanisms

.' .

- . The worktable of the planer can be driven by one of the three methods...
I. Rack and spur gears
2. Spiral rack and worm
3. Crank.

1. Open and crossbelt drive mechanism with rack and spur gears
- (Fig. 5 2-5.) shows this mechanism.

- In this mechanism of planer-table drive, the open and crossbelts transfer

motion from the countershaft (or electric
motor) to the bun gear, which in
~
tum moves the rack fitted under the worktable of the planer (Fig
).
- Two belts, one open and one crossed. Operate on lose and tight pulleys.
-

"

OOIV Plil1~

...1.1SHIFTIR

.'.

TIGHT

P(}'un 5 --

lOOSEPUUfY".-!lAl. GEA:t

2ND INTIR~OIAT
1ST .tc1"[J(MEOJAl' .

~ '(j'P,25. 0 pen 0.nJ CXO~tl be-it: ~ r; v e

.
h9-,'th ~~
carJ ~~.~~.

1Jf1

~{~fr)

Crossed belt is used for forward or cutting stroke and the open belt for return
motion. "The open and crossed belt drive ~echanism permits operation of the
gear train in such a mennerthat the. table will travel slowly on the cutting
stroke and travel faster on the return stroke.
.
For obtaining continuous forward and return motion of the planer table,
both the open and crossed blets run continually, and are shifted back and
forth by the belt shifter which is linked to the reverse lever.
During cutting stroke the crossed belt is on the tight pulley the open belts

is on the loose pulley and the position is reverse during the return stroke.
Belt shifter, reverse lever and the trip dogs are responsible for relative
shifting of belt automatically at the end of each stroke, without stopping the
machine. Trip dogs are provided, each at both ends of the planer table. At
the end of each stroke, trip dog meets against the reverse lever, actuates the
belt shifter and thus the table movement is reversed.
2. Hydraulic drive
A hydraulic drive system of planer provides a wide range of cutting speeds.
The hydraulic drive system of a planer is similar or that used in a shaper
(Refer Fig . .5. "f.
) but with certain modifications because of the
follo_'ing reasons:
1. Stroke length of a planer is much longer than that of the shaper.
2. Higher cutting and return speeds very much stress the oil pipe lines
during the time of reversal. More than one cylinder may be
employed in some cases to eliminate this difficulty.
(Fig. 5 2. ) shows a hydraulic system to accurate the worktable and tool
travel of a planer.
CUT

a.

WORK HOLDING

DEVICES

Since heavy cuts (as much as 25 mm) are taken at 18 to 30 m!rnin on a

planer, the workpiece must be solidly fastened to the table.
Since the workpiece is unusuaI1y heavy and must be reciprocated, it must
be fastened to not only resist the cutting forces but also the high inertia
forces that result from the rapid acceleration changes at the ends of the
strokes.
- 'k2ltrious devices used for holding workpiece on the plane table are
1. Planer rise
2. Planer screw jack
3. Step block
4. V-block
5. End stops
6. Angle plate
7. Clamps
......................
8; Parallel strips
9: . Holding down dogs
10. T-bolts, nuts, washers, packing, wedges etc .

..

Planer vise

. BlOCk

Step block
Offsef Clomp

',r-

F)(j5-)_!f

~~~

ht)~'~~~'Q?-i-

f}

. ....

_ Planer vise may be employed for holding small jobs, but it is not much
used, since if a job is small enough to be held. in this way, it is of a
convenient size for the shaping machine and should not be wastefully
taking up capacity greaterthan is necessary. Sometimes, for planning the
edge of a long strip, two vises may be used in line for holding the work,
_ The most common way of holding work is to clamp it directly to the table
of the planer. The table has T-slots cut on its surface to accommodate Tbolts. Many styles of clamps are-available to suit particular situations. The
clamp transmits the clamping force to the workpiece. It must be situated
parallel to the clamping surface. Thus the bearing surface is made large
enough. The T-bolts should be iocated close to the workpiece so that a large
clamping for is effected by the lever. Clamp shown at 'D' is offset or
cranked clamp. This is advantageous at the end of a workpiece.
_ Planer screw jack is used to support the overhanging position of the
. workpiece so that it does Dotbend or distort.
Step blockhelp in supporting workpieces of different heights.
- .Angle 'plates can support L-shaped workpieces.
Stops stop the workpiece from changing its position under the thrust of cut.
- Vee blocks can be used for holding circular jobs.
\

PLANER OPERATIONS
The following operations can ~e carried out on a planer:
1. Planing of flat horizontal surfaces
2. Planing vertical surfaces. .:
3. Planing at an angle
4. Planing curved surfaces:
5. Planing a helix.
6. Planing slots and grooves.
7. Gang or multiple planning.

\
!

These operations are almost similar to those performed on a shader, with

the only difference that the workpieces on which these operations are I
performed on. a planer are much larger in size as compared to those
operated on a shaper.
.
,

For doing above planer operations one has to adjust the cutting tool in a
proper position regard to that of the workpiece and then the necessary
motion is to be imparted to the tool so as to cut either in the horizontal
direction or vertical direction or along a curved path.
(Fig. f5 '00. ).shows how a circular surface is cut~planer.
Gang or multiple planning ensures a uniform product and greatly reduces
the rime required for machining.

"tt530.Planing

a curvedsurface.

When a number of duplicate parts have to be planed, much time can often
be saved by arranging the castings in a straight row along the platen of the
planer, so that they can be planed at the same time.

PLANER MACHINING TIME

The following values are required for calculating-planer machining time:
1. Cutting speed
2. Feed.
3. Depth of cut.
I
4. Cutting stroke length]
'
5. Number of double stroke.per minute.
6. Width ofthe workpi~ce.
I
7. Ratio of cutting time to return time which varies from 2 : 1 to 4 : 1.
The following example win explain the procedure to calculate planer
machining time.
Exmple. A .workpiece 144 am 68 em requires one cut. The cutting speed is 1050
em per min and return speed in the radio of2 : L the feed.is 1.5 mm per cutting
stork~. How long will the workpiece take to get planed
'

Solution.

Number of cutting strokes required =. Width of io~

Feed per stroke

Time taken in one stroke _:_Length of workpiece

Speed
..

Hencetotalcuttingtime=(a)(b}==453 OJ37
= 62 min. .

.....

Since the return speed is double the cutting speed, the return time will be half of
the cutting time.
Hence total time required for planning the job will be 62 min + 31 min == 93
minutes. (Ans).

Example. A piece of work ~.6~.76em l06.68 em require three cuts. The cutting
speed of the machine is 121~.2 em/min and the return stroke 182&.8em/min. The
first and second cut have a feed of 6.35 nun per cutting stroke and the last 12.70
mm per cutting stroke. Find how long the job will take to complete, allowing 15
minutes for adjusting tools and neglecting overrun of the table.
(ADs. Cutting time 126 min, Return time 84 min, Total time for planning job 225

minutes).

6
Milling Machines
1

Introduction
"Milling" is the name given to the machining process in which the removal of
metal takes place due to the cutting action of a revolving cutter when the work is
metal fed past it. The revolving cutter is held on a spindle or arbor and the work,
damped on the machine table, fed past the same. In doing so, the teeth of the
cutter remove the metal, in the from of chips, from the surface of the work to
produce the desired shape.
Working principle in milling
..The working principle, employed in the metal removing operation on a milling
machine,' is thatthework is rigidly clamped on the table of the machine. or held
between centers, and revolving multiteeth cutter mounted either on a spindle or an
arbor. The cutter revolves at a fairly high speed and the work fed slowly past the
cutter, as shown in (Fig. G -1). The work can be fed in a vertical, longitudinal
or cross direction. As the work advances, the cutter-teeth remove the metal from
the work surface to produce the desired shape:

.-

ARBOR

CUTTER
.. I

..

F',~.b.1. Working principle on a milling machine.

Types of milling machines" '

A large variety of different type of milling machines is available and it is really

difficult to account for all these types in this small chapter. The broad
'cI"assificationofthese machines call be done as follo~s: -,
1~ Column and knee type milling machines. "
" "2. Fixed bed type or manufacturing type milling machines.
3. Planer type milling machines.
4. Production milling machines.
5. Special purpose machines.
,
Further detailed classification and descriptions of these machines will follow in
the forthcoming articles.

Column and knee type milling machines.

These machines are all general purpose machines and have a single spindle only.
They derive their name 'Column and knee' type from the fact that the work table
is supported on a kee like" casting." Which" can slide in verticaldirection along a
svertical column. These machines, depending upon the spindle position and table
movements, are further classified as follows.
(a) Hand milling machine.
(b) Plain or horizontal milling machine,
(c) Vertical milling machine, '
(d) Universal miI1ing machine, and
(e) OmniversaJ mi11ingmachine.

"

Fixed bed type or manufacturing type milling machines.

These machines, in comparison to the column and knee type, are more sturdy and
rigid, heavier in weight and larger in size, They are not suitable for tool room ...
work. Most of the of these machines are either automatic or semi-automatic in .
operatton. They may carry a single' or multiple spindles. The common operations".
perfor~ed on these machines are slot cutting grooving, gang milling and facing ..
Also, they facilitate machining of many jobs together, called multi-piece milling.
Their further dassification is as follows:
(a)iPlain type (having single horizontal spindle).
(b) Duplex head (having double horizontal spindles).
(c), Triplex head (having two horizontal and one vertical spindle).
(d) Rise and fall type (for profile mil1ing).
!

Planer type mining machines.

They are used for heavy work. Upto a maximum of four toolheads can be mounted
over it which can be adjusted vertically' and transverse directions. It has a robust
and massive construction like planer. Its detailed description 'will follow
latter
articles.
,~

in

Production

milling machines

They are also manufacturing machines but differ from the above described
machines in that they do not have a fixed bed. They include the fonowing
machines:
(a) Rotary table or continuous type.
(b) Drum type, and
(c) Tracer controlled.

Special purpose milling machines.

These machines are designed perform a specific type of op~ration only. They
include the following machines:
(a) Thread milling machine,
(b) Profile milling machine
". (c) Gear milling or gear hobbing machine
. (d}Cam milling machine, .
.(e) Planetary type miIJing machine,
.....
ef)" Double end milling machine,
(g) Skin milling machine, and
(h) Spar milling machine.

In the coming articles you will find a brief description of all the above types of
milling machines. Detailed description will, however, confine to the column and
knee typ~ milling machines only as they are the most commonly used machines in
tool rooms and machine shops,

(a) Hand milling machine

It is simplest of all the milling machines and simal1est in size. AU the operations,
except the rotation of arbor, are performed by 'hand. Thetable, canying the work

oyer. it. is moved by hand to feed the work.: This machine is specially usefu1 in
pr()~ticing small components like hexagonal Sf square heads on bolts, -cutting slots

on-screw heads, cutting key ways etc,

(b) Plain or horixontal miUing machine

Its principle parts are shown by means of a block diagram in (Fig. g ;.~ oJ
The vertical column severs as a housing for electricals, the main drive, spindle
bearings, etc. the knee acts as a support for the saddle, worktable and other
accessories like indexing head, etc. overarm provides support for the yoke which,
in tum, supports the free end of the arbor. The arbor carrying the cutter rotates
about a horizontal axis. The table can be given strnight motions in three directions;

longitudinal, cross and vertical (up and down) but cannot be swiveled, FOr giving
vertical movement to the table the knee itself, together. with the whole unit above
it, slides up and down along the ways provided il; front of the column. For giving
cross movement to the table, the saddle is moved towards or away from the
column along. with the whole unit .above it. A brace is employed to provide

additional support and rigidity to the arbor when a long arbor- is used. Both hand and
power feeds can be employed for the work.
.

BRACE
. ...

COLUMN

......

KNEE

SCREW
J.A. CK

~.ASE

Fig.~\

2,

Main parts of a plain milling

(e) Vertical milling machine

'

In derives its name from the vertical position of the spindle. This nkchine is available in
both types; the fixed bed type as well as column and knee type. Principle parts of the
latter type are illustrated by means of block diagram in{Fig. 6.3.) and (Fig. 6.4.). It carries
a vertical column on a heavy base. The overarm in this machine is made integral with the
column and carries a l~ousing atits front This housing, called head, can be of fixed type
(Fig. 6.3.) or swiveling type (Fig. ), In fixed type, the spindle always remains vertical
and can be adjusted up and down. In' swiveling type, the head can be swiveled to 'any
desired angle to machine the inclined surfaces.

FiXED

HEAD

....._...-SPINDLE
~..HIt---

CUTTER

COLUMN

JACK

Fig.

b'OJ

Vcrticalmi!ling

machine

with fixed head.

SWIVELLING

HEAD

..
",""-A-A.--,rh::=-_ SPIN 0 L E
!

~~=CUTTER
.::;.
WORK

..-. .......
,-....__.-1' AM. E

COlUWN

I -

SADDLE

Fig. 6.+,- 'Vertical.miUing machine "'itli-s.wivelling head..

--

{/

The knee carries an enclosed screw jack, by means of which it is moved up and
down along the parallel vertical guideways provided on the front side of the
column .. The- saddle is mounted on the knee and can' be moved, along the
horizontal guideways provided on the knee towards or away from the column .
.This enables the table to move in cross direction. The table is mounted on

. guidewyas, provided on saddle, which are in a direction normal to the direction of

the guidewyas on the knee. By means of a lead screw, provided under the table,
the table can be moved in the longitudinal direction. Thus, the work gets up and
down movement by the knee, cross movement by saddle arid longitudinal
movement by the table. Power feeds can be employed to both the saddle and the
table. Mostly face milling cutters and shell-end type cutters are used on these
machines.

Universal milling machine

It is the most versatile {)fallth~ milling .lllachines, and after lathe it is the most
useful machine tool as: it is- capable of performing most of the machining
operations. With its application; the use of -a .large number of other machine tools
can be avoided. It differs from the plain milling machine only in that the table can
be given one more additional movement. Its table can be swiveled on the saddle in
a horizontal plane. For this, circular guideways are provided on the saddle along
which it can be swiveled. A graduated circular base is incorporated under the
table, with a datum on the saddle, to read directly the angle through which the
table has been swiveled. This special feature enbies the work be set
an angle
with the cutter for milling helical and spiral flutes and grooves. Its overarn can be
pushed back or removed and a vertical milling head can be fitted in place of the
arbor to use it as a vertical milling machine.
.

at

Omniversal milling machine

This is, in fact, a modified form,of plain milling machine and is provided with two
spindles, of which one is horizontai, as in plain milling, and the other is carried by
a universal swiveling head. The latter can be fixed in vertical position or can be set
at any desired angle up to 90 on the both sides of the vertical, i. e., in a plane
parallel to the front face of the column, and up to 450 in a plane perpendicular to
the former direction, i. e., towards or away from the column. Another special
feature of this machine is that it carries, in addition to all the possible adjustments
provided in a universal machine, two more adjustments. These adjustments are of
the knee, which can be swiveled about a horizontal axis to tilt the table and can be
moved horizontally also. These special features make it a very useful machine tool
for tool room work as it facilitablevarious operations to be carried out in different
planes and at different angles in a single setting of the work.

SCREW

ARM
SPINDL E

HEAD
(ADJUSTABLE)

I
FI XED

BED
I

C01.UMN

~_-----~_-_ll
1

----Fig.

-,---:8~.:..A~S::_-~Eo

c .s.

Fixed bed type pl ain omilling

4 ADJU,STA~BlE
5 PIN D L t;

HEAD

L
r~~

S'P! N D l ~ 5

feu!

TfR\

lo;::;--]JI
I, ~
~

0\
\

W,) R K

L T.A.BLE

.I!
I
-

<:)

..\.\

I~~

nl;!c{:illl..

'=qAOJUSTA_BL_I=

_L_,

,S

PIN 0 i

r.

HE.l\O

"

-T~it
,
--1
~ I

FI X F.: 0

BED

COLUMN

t~-~----~--~----~--------

Fixed bed type plain milling machine

Main parts of this type of machine are -shown by means of a block-diagram in
(Fig. G .5
). It differs from the column and knee type -plain milling machine'
in that the tables is mounted on a fixed bed instead of the saddle and knee and has
a longitudinal travel only. It can neither move up and down nor crosswise. A rigid
vertical column carries parallel vertical. ways on which is-mounted the adjustable
spindle head or spindle carrier. This spindle head carriers the spindle to which the
arbor can be fitted to carry the cutter. The carrier_ can. be moved up and down
along the column ways to adjust the tool to the work.

Duplex-head fixed bed type milling machine

.
It is another form of fixed bed type milling machines. In construction, it similar to
the fixed bed type plain milling machine, except that it carries two vertical
-columns instead of one. The columns are one each on both sides of the fixed bed,
as shown in (Fig. b . b'
').Both the columns carry vertical ways, on which
--------are-mountedthe two adjustable spindle heads or spindle heads orspindle carriers,
as shown. Both these carriers carry. a horizontal spindle each .on which cutter can
be mounted. The spindle carriers' can be adjusted vertically up down to adjust the
cutters to the work. The table has a longitudinal movement only and cannot be
moved in any other direction. This machine enables machining of two surfaces
simulation.

Triplex-head

fixed bed type milling machine

It is similar in construction and operation to the duplex head mil1ing machine

described above. The only difference lies in the number of spindle also. Thus.
three surfaces can be simultaneously machined on this type of machine.

Rise and fan type milling machine

..

This particular type of fixed bed milling machine enb!es machining of surfaces
lying in different planes. As usual,' it consists of a fixed bed carrying the, table
which has a longitudinal movement only. The spindle carrier carries a horizontal
spindle. An automatic cycle; operated either hydraulically or electrically,
synchrpnises the vertical movement of the spindle carrier and longitudinal
movement of the table, such that it enahles machining of surfaces which lie in
different places, blind or hidden portions and curved profiles, etc. in all other
respects it resembles the fixed bed type plain milling machine .

Planer type milling machine

It derives its name from its appearance, construction and, up to (l certain extent,
the working also. It is very much similar to a double housing planning machine,
the only difference being in the tool heROS in the tool heads. In this case, the
spindle .carriers arc mounted, in place of the planer toolposts, which are operated
by indiv idual motors. This type of milling machine represents the largest size of

fixed bed type milling machines. Because of their planer type construction, they
are frequently known as plano-miHs. A typical type of plano-mill is shown by 8
block diagram in (Fig. 6 <::J-. ). It consists of a fixed bed, carrying the table, which
has a longitudinal movement only. Two vertical columns, one each on the two
sides of the bed, carry a milling head each. A bridge or cross-radii is fitted, as
shown across the column or housing, as they are better known in this cross-rail can
be raised or lowered to suit the height- of the work. Two vertical milling are fitted
on the cross-rail, which can travel along it. The two side miJIing heads can move
up and down along the respective housings.
the four cutters can be operated
simultaneously to machine four surfaces on the work at a time.

An

/
.........

"

.....,._

CROSS RAIL

..l_

VERTICAL

HEAD

HEAD

.::rr

.J::r'

I-

o
rt-~ ..,

MOTOR

MILLING
HEAD
j

po,

.....
g
~

MIL LING

fIillllJj

SIDE OR
HORIZONl'AL

.....

VERTICAL
MILLING

~MOTOR..

jor""
..l_

tI1L11 111
."

MIll_lNG CUTTE~.

.
TA8lf

. ... .'
~

CROSS

RAil.

. $lor
~
.-t::::::

OR

HORIZOHTAl
Mllqt'f(;
. HEAD
1 .1

0
"".

COlVNN

"'XED lED

t=H

..

......

....

"

MOTOR

"

COlUlIafH

F~. 6..7. Planer type milling mochine. or plan mill

t
~

I. ~

MOTO R

The main difference between ~ planer and this machine is in table movement. The'
table in this machine moves 'slow.and provides feed only while that in a planer'
moves faster and provides the cutting speed to the operation.
_
The work can be machined in four different ways, according to requirements, .as. "
follows:"
"
1. By moving the table, the cutters rotating in position.
2. By keeping the table stationary and feeding the cutters by moving th_e,;:', "
milling heads.
, ,,::j, .. _,';
3. By moving the table and the mi11ingheads simultaneously.
',_"
flf{ji,{(Lf
4. By keeping the table stationary, moving the cross-rail downwards and illgFf:i~
side cutters up and down.
,:f, .
These milling machines are constructed for very heavy-duty work where general,IY.:",
flat surfaces are to be machined. The milling heads mounted on these machines "'.
can be of fixed type or swiveling type, the latter type facilitating machining' ~'(:<;,:_::'l.
inclined surfaced also. Number of these heads depends upon the number 'of'" -:.,.
, surfaces to be machined at a time. Sometimes a single hotiiontalarbo.r is mounted
on these machines to carry several cutters for gang mil1ing.
z

... .

Rotary table or continuous mining machi\ne

1t is largely used in mass production' of machined components through milling. Its
construction is quite heavy and roust. Specialty of the machine lies in the fact that
the process of machining is continuous ana there is no idle machine time. It is
practicalJy observed that this machine gives three times more production than the
planomill and acquires Jess floor area.
A simple design of this machine is shown in (Fig.b.@:.
). It consists of a
heavy and a sturdy vertical column. A spindle carrier mounted on the column
carriers two vertical spindles. Each spindle carries a cutter et its bottom. One of
these is a roughing cutter and the other a finishing cutter. These cutters can be
adjusted on the work by moving the spindle carrier up ~nd down. A heavy rotating
circular table is mounted on the base. The table rotates about a vertical axis. A
number of fixtures are mounted on the tah.le to carry the components to be
machined. These fixtures, as the table revolves, reach before the'operator one after
the other. He loads the fixtures with the components, Iwhich pass under the two
cutters. The roughing cutter is the first to operate, followed by the fmishing cutter.
I
When the finished components reach before the operator he unJoads new
unfillished jobs in their place. Thus, the prOCi~SS
continues without stopping the,
machine. In absence of this, a vertical milling machine, mounted with a circular
milling attachment, can be used for this purpose ; of course, not with the same
advantages and efficiency. One defect wi1lalways be there that only a single cutter
will be mounted on the vertical spindle of the machine.

1 I

MOTORS
SPINDLE
CARRIER\
RF:VOLViNG
CUTTE:RS

REVOLVING
CIRCULAR -.
TABLE

Fig_ b '8- ~illglc station Rotary table milling machine.

A more useful and relatively heavier design of rotary table milling machine is the
double station type in which two double spindle milling heads perform the
roughing operation and the other two similar heads perform the finishing
operation. It carries a bridge type overhead constructions are similar to the single
station type, described above.

Drum type !milling machine

'.
. .
It is another I heavy duty production machine in which the two end faces of the
work pieces are machined simultaneously. It consists of two vertical columns
mounted onl a sturdy base. Heavy drum is mounted centrally, between the
columns, which rotates about a horizontal axis. The milling heads are mounted on
the two columns. These heads carry horizontal spindles and can be adjusted in a
vertical direJtion along the column. Typical design carrying 4 spindle is shewn in
(Fig. 6 .9.;
).Cutters mounted on these spindles are face mills. The upper
two spindles carry roughing cutters and. the lower two finishing cutters. Well
designed fixtures m-emounted along the periphery of the drum to carty the jobs to
be machined. The drum rotates continuously and the work pieces are mounted OJ!
the fixtures on the rear side of the machine. They cO!Dein contact with the upper
cutters, first which rough machine the faces, and then with the lower cutters which
.provide the finishing cuts. They are unloaded replaced new jobs again on the rear
I

side of the machine. It is reckoned that this machine gives a production double that
of a rotary table machine.

r- -- MOTORS-----~
z;:L======-'

- I

...........

. .

ROUGHING CUTTERS
~....
jl'ORUM
""

SPINDLE..-g
HEAD
~
~~

~~~n
~--~

,_

..._____,

t-s...._P,......
NO-..JUL_:~
HEAD

r::
II-

SPINDLE
HEAD

COL UMNS

___,.j
_ji_Lj_LrC~~~J
___

BASE

Fig.

. FINISHING J
CUTTERS

. r~~
r __~~~_L~

~JU'_

!--

l~ .. _"""""""-

SPINDLE.
~ HEAD
I-

Ge

A Drum type milling machine.

Tracer controlled milling machine

It is also known by various other names viz., duplicator, diesinker, contour
milling or keller machine, etc. it is, in fact an improved design of a vertical
milling machine and its specific use is in the production of dies used in presswork, die casting, forging, etc. its table can be given the longitudinal and cross
feeds simultaneously or independently, as desired. The simultaneous feeding
enables the diagonal motion. The vertical spindle, carrying the cutter, can be
adjusted in a vertical direction at a desired height. A template, which is an exact
three dimensional replica of the shape to be produced, is fitted to the machine. The
contact finger of hydraulic tracer unit head makes a light contact with the contours
of the template and guides the cutter movement, synchronizing with the table
movement, to produce a similar machined surface as on the template. A block
diagram of this machine is shown in (Fig , 6 . ro.
).

. ... ...

CROSS
TRt.LER

PAIL

HEAD

COLUMN-.......
CONTACT FINGER
.._.;.._

CUTT~R

WOk~PIECE.
'1,---

. TABLE

Flg.~ 6'10 BI oc k dOiagram o.f a Tracer controlled milling machine. -

..

Thread milling machine .

The thread milling machine is used _to cut threads worms, etc., by mean') of the
milling cutters. This operation is known as tread milling- and ensures greater
'accuracy and better finish than the other common methods of thread cutting e. g.,
on lathe or by taps and dies, etc. two types of cutters are generally used in thread
milling. One of these consists of single row of teeth mounted on the periphery of acylinder (Fig. b' I J
) and the other consists .of a number of such rows, spaced
at a distance equal to pitch from one another, as shown in (Fig 6 12 . ). The
single cutter, shown in (Fig. ~. U .
), is generally used for cutting tlu:eads
of coarse pitches and on long screwed parts, such as lead-screws and worms. etc.';~'
The other form, shown in (Fig. b' f 2. .
) is used for comparatively sh'orte/'
lengths.

>

CUTTER

.+,,"
.

...........
-+f=~;=.~l
\,;

I~:+<'
-+(-i- -) ..

)'f_/'
WORK _./

Fig. blJ,

Thread milling by a single cutter.

l'

.1

('---_.

Fig. b 12... Thread milling by a multi-teeth cutter.

Profile milling machine

This machine is made in both vertical and horizontal types, i.e., carrying vertical
or horizontal spindle. Machining is done in two dimensions only. The machine
may have one to four spindles, carrying the revolving cutters, as usual.
The cutter movement is guided by the path of a tracer which travels along the
outside surface of a template, thus acquiring the same path as the shape of this
template. End-mill cutters are used on this machine. The tracer mechanism can be
operated by hand or hydraulically. A device is usually incorporated which enables
an automatic disengagement of the tracer mechanism from the operation when it
loses contact with the surface of the template. (See Fig. b\0. ).

Gear milling machines

Gear can be cut on all plain and universal types of milling machines. This specific
classification 'Gear milling' actually includes gear hobbing machines which are
.regarded as mining machines for the reason that the hobbing tools or 'hobs' are in
the shape of inserted teeth milling cutters and are while revolving exactly in the
same manner as the milling cutters.

Planetary milling machine .

. ". . ....."

It derives its name from the planetary (circular) Path that is cutter or cutters
adopt during the operation. These machines are available in both horizontal and
vertical spindle types. A special feature of these machines is that, contrary to the
normal method, the work is held stationary while the revolving cutters move in. a
circular path to machine the surface either separately or simultaneously, as
desired, Special use of these machines is in machining heavy or delicate type of
work, which cannot be rotated and fed against the cutter. The operation is also
called. Plana-milling.
_
Another specific use of this type of machine is in simultaneously milling external
and internal threads of different pitches or milling threads in different holes.
Whose centres lie on a circle; in a single setting without disturbing the work piece.
This operation is usually termed as p}aaa:.tlirearling.
.

..

..

~ F: PT.!"i OF CVT

..

r-

OF- CUT
Fi?t._s_13. Pll~te, ~

, DEPTH

plwle:t1

>7 G"6)jUi1f~

The principle of planetary milling is illustratedin ~ig . b.J.3 (q) ~

At (a) is
shown this principle applied to external machining .and .at (b) -to internal
machining. In both the diagrams the cutters are shown in the starting position of -The cut. The small dotted. circles indicate the paths of the centers ofthe respectivecutters.

OVER ARM.

- ~YOKE

,,11'
,,-

BRACE

./
\

ARBOR

..

~.

CUTTER

.#

WORK

COLUMN

0 1
.SADDLE
___.

ITABlE

L--";:';'~----__"

1I
'I

I
I

KNEE
J

J~ .

,I
\

SCREW ......
. JA CK

BASE
_" ..

.Fig.

6'Ir. Main

parts of a plain milling

machine.

Principal parts of column and knee type milling machines

Main parts of all the column and knee type milling machines are similar, although
the movements of the moving parts differ in them, tic described earlier. AIJ these

machines essentially consist of the following main parts {See Fig. (;-1 't-).
1. Base. It is a heavy casting provided at the bottom of the machine. It is
accurately machined on both the top and bottom surfaces. It actually acts as
load bearing member for an other parts of the machine. Column of the
machine is secured to it. Also, it carries the screw jack which supports and
moves the knee. In addition to this, it also serves as a reservoir for the
coolant.
2. Column. It is a very prominent part of a milling machine and is produced
with enough care. To this, are fitted all the various parts and controls, On
the front face of the column are made the vertical parallel ways in which
the knee slides up and down. At Its rear side, it carries the enclosed motor
drive. A cover
. is provided on this side, which can be
..opened to enable accessibility to thedrive~
Topofthe column carries
dovetail horizontal ways for the over 8011.

3. Knee. It is a rigid casting which is capable of sliding up and down along

the vertical ways on the front face of the column. This enables the
adjustment of the height 0:, in other words, we can say the distance
between the cutter and the job mounted on the table. The adjustment is
provided by operating the elevating jack, provided below the knee, by
means of hand wheel or application of power feed. Machined horizontal
ways are provided on the top surface of the knee tor the cross traverse of
the saddle, and hence the table. For efficient operation of the machine,
rigidity of the knee and accuracy of its ways play an important role. On the
front face of the knee two bolts are usually provided for securing the braces
to it to ensure greater rigidity under heavy loads.
44 Saddle. It is the intermediate part between the knee and the table and acts
as a support for the latter, It can be. adjusted crosswise, along the ways
provided on, the top of the knee, to.provide cross feed to the table. At its
top, it carries horizontal ways, along which moves the table during the
longitudinal
traverse.
I
5.! Table. It acts as a support for the work. The latter is mounted on it either
iron, which its top
" directly or held in the dividing head. It is made, Q{
surface accurately machined. Its top carries longitudinal T-slots .to
accommodate the clamping bolts for fixing the work or securing the
fixtures, Also, the cutting fluid, after it is used, drains back to the reservoir
through these solts and then the pipe fitted for this purpose. Longitudinal
feed is provided to it by means of a hand wheel fitted on one side of the
feed screw. Sometimes the-band wheels are provided on b~th sides oraltennativ.ely a detachable handle is provided which can be engaged on
II

cast

..
'

either side. Cross feed is provided by moving the saddle and "verticalfee<f
by rasing or lowering the knee. Both hanJ feed and power feed can be
employed for all these movements, When power feeds are employed the .

adjustable stops should be used to.trip out the same at the correct moment..
In addition to the above feeds, most of the moern milling machines carry
mechanisms to provide rapid traverse in all the three directions to effect
saving in time. In universal milling machines the table is made to have a
graduated circular base resting on the saddle. Such a table can be swiveled
in a horizontal plane around the centre of its base and the graduations_on' the latter help in adjusting the required swivel.
..," ,
6. Overarm. It is the heavy support provided on the top of both plain and ".
universal milling machines. It can slide horizontally, along the ways,.
provided on the top of the column, and adjusted to a desired position order "
to provide support to the projecting arbor by accommodating its free end in
the yoke. Iffurther support is needed, to have additional rigidity, braces can
be employed to connect the overarm and the knee. Such a requirement is
always tllere whenmanycutters are employed simultaneously.

. .....
Up or Conventional Milling. In this method of milling the cutter rotates in a
direction opposite to that in which the work is fed (see Fig. J; 15.
)
Down or Clim b Milling. In this method the direction of rotation of the cutter
coincides with the direction of work feed, as shown in (Fig. 6-16 _
)
_.,

-_/',,~" -

_"

/'

j/

//

~CU11

- --......_~

""'.//, '

\\

--

. : ~_ ~_
~

<,

"

ERS ~
/

,
........_

_ ',,-

/:

"

;' I\..

: !

I I,

_- -

Ij

./

WORK

WORK

TA8LE

Fig. b' {5 _ Conventional milling.

-r ABL

...

Fig. (;.16 - Climb milling.

The ~.bove relative directions of movements of the cutter and work should be
noted at the point of contact between the two. On comparing (Fig
)
you win find that the shape of chip (shaded area between points A and B) removed

by the cutter in both the cases is the same, but an important difference is that in
conventional milling., as the cut proceeds, the chip thickness increases graduaUy ;
as from A to B Against this, the chip this thikness decreases in case of climb
milling. In other words we can say that chip thickness in con ventional milling, is
minimum (zero) at the start of the cut and maximum at the end of the cut, whereas
in climb or downmiJIing, it is a reverse case, i.e., maximum in the beginning ad
zero at the end.
The selection of a particular method, of the above two, depends upon the nature of
work. The fonner method i.e., conventional milling is commonly used for
machining castings and forgings since this method enables the cutter to dig-in and
start the cut below the hard upper surface. The second method i.e., climb mining is
particularly useful for finishing operations and small work, such as slot cutting,
milJing grooves, slitting, etc. it gies a better surface finish but it should be ensured,
be before employing this method, that there is DO backlash in the feeding
mechanism of the table and the work is rigidly held.

Milling operations
. . ..

A large variety of components are machined on milling machine involving

various types of operations. These operations are broadly c1assified as foHows:
J. Plain or slab milling
\
2. Face milling
3. angular milling
4. Form milJing
5. Straddle milling
6. Gang milJing
I. Plain or SI,.b Milling. It is the process which is etpployed for machining
a flat surface, para1!e] to the axis of the cutter, by using a plain oLsIab
milling cutter, as shown in (Fig. G . J !J. ). When a vel)' wide surface is to
be machined. It is advisable to use the interloclci~g teeth plain milling
cutters instead of simple s1ab mills. In using the~, they should be so
arranged that the axial forces are directed towards
h other 5.0 as to force
the cutters closer as the operation proceeds.
i

ear.

SLAB MILL

. Fig. G f

'J.

Pbin or sl:ib milling.

.Fig. b' lB. Face. mlll.ing.

..

2. Face Milling. This milling process is employed for machining a flat surface which is at right angles to the axis of the rotating cutteT- The cutter
used in this operation is the face milling cutter (See Fig - G. lB
) .

CUTTER

....
F!g.

,.19 Angular milling.

3. Angular

Milling. It is the milling process which is used for machining a

flat surface at an angle. Other than a right angle to the axis of the revolving
cutter. The cutter used may be a single or double angle cutter, depending
upon whether a single surface is to be machined or two mutually inclined
surfaces simultaneously. (See Fig. b' I 9
).

4.

FOIfTTl

Milling. This milling process is employed for machining those

.surfaces which are of irregular shapes. The cutter used, called a form
milling. cutter, will have the shape of its cutting teeth. conforming to. the
profile,. of,..the surface to be produced. {See Fig. G 2D
)."
. .
.CONVEX
CUTTER

(76
Fig. 6'.:2. i Straddle milling.

s.

Straddle Milling. It is a milling operation in which a pair of side milling

cutters is used for machining two parallel vertical surfaces of a work-piece
simu!taneously. ( r>j ,6, 21.)

Fig. G22. Gang milling.

6. Gang Milling. It is the name given to a milling operation which involves

the use of a combination of more than two cutters, mounted on a common
arbor, for milling a number of flat horizontal and vertical surfaces of a
work-piece plain and side milling cutter both. (Fig. 6 22.
) shows the
gang milling operarion.
.
A part from this, a number of oth~j: operations are named either after the name of
the cutter used for used .for them orsome other factors like the shape or use of the
surface produced. These operations are, however, the variations of these standard
operations only and may involve one or a combination of more than one of the
above operations. These operations are:
1. Slot and groove milling
2. Keyway mining
3. Slitting OT saw milling
4. Side milling
5. End miUing
6. Profile milling
7. Gear milling
8. Cam milling
9. Thread milling
10.Helical milling
Some of these operations have already been described earlier.

Slot and Groove Milling

Slot milling.is the operation of producingslots in solid workpieces on a milling
machine. These slots can be of varied shapes, such .as plain slots, T-slots,
Dovetails slots, etc. similarly, groove mil1ing is the operation of producino
grooves of different shapes, such as plain grooves, curved grooves, V-grooves, etc..
the cutterto be used is chosen according to the shape of the groove or slot to be
produced. Milling of a V-groove, using a double angle cutter, is shown in (Fig .)
the same result can be obtained with two single cutters of opposite angles.'used .'
one after other. Similarly, plain grooves or slots can be milled by means of plain
milling cutter, an end mill, a slitting saw or a side milling cutter (See Fig
)
Milling of l-slot and Dovetail slot is carried out in two or three stages. In the first
stage an open slot, form one end of the solid workpiece to its other end. Is first
milled with the help of a suitable cutter, say a plain milling cutteror an
.

"

fl)

Mill

CurttR_
",,'lAIN SlOT~

_----I

..

WOHK
I

WORK

I
1

FI:~tSHEDJ
''T- SLOT

"\

iT-SLOT

CUTTER

"

fig

C 51 ARTlN G MILLING

(b)

OF T - SLOT)

Fig. 6 ;2.3. Milling aT-slot, using a T-slot milling cutter

(a)

Work having milled plain slots. (b) Milling T-.<;lots with T-slot milling cutter.

ROUGH MACHINED
RECTANGULAR
SLOT

I
(0)
ROUGH

MACHINED

DOVETAIL

SLOT

Fig 6.-'--'T.
C) t.. MOll"
L mg a Do
. vetail. slot
(a) Rough

( b)

machin.cd rcctcmgular .~10l,

(b) Rough machined dovetail slot (c) Finish
machining the dovel1iI slot with the help of
a dovetail milling cutter.

00

(c)

En1 mill. Then the slot is milled to the required shape by using a special cutter a
T-srot cutter for T-slot and a Dovetail milling cutter for dovetail slots. The
operation of finish mi1ling aT-slot is shown in (Fig
). Production of
a Dovetail slot in three stage is shown in (Fig
)~At(a) is shown a
rectangular slot produced through rough machining means of a plain milling
cutter. The required angles of the dovetail are then rough machined by means of a
from angle cutter and a rough machined dovetail slot obtained, as shown at
(Fig:
'
). The slot is sinally finished by machining the base and sides of
. the slot with the.help of dovetail milling cutter.
~
l'

Keyway Milling
Milling of a keyway is a commonly performed operation on a milling machine in
which a groove is milled, usually on shafts and spindles. This groove is known as
key seat. The groove can be open or closed, depending upon the type of key to be
used and the position in which. it is to be used (Fig
). Shows the
three common forms of key seats the three common forms of key seats. At (a} is
shown a woodruff key seat milled with a woodruff keysear cutter. It is a closed groove with a rounded bottom. At (b) is shown a plain.keyseat milled with a single.
plain or side .milling cutter. It is an open groove. At (c) is shown the operation of
milling a keyseat for a sunk key with the help of an endmill cutter. It is a closed.
groove with rouned ends. This type of key seat can be produced anywhere along
the length of the workpiece. Same is the case with woodruff key seat.
WOODRUFF
KEY SEAT

KEYWAY
(CLOSED)

Fig. 625. Keyway milling

(a) A woodruff key seat (I;) A plain (open) key seat (c) A sunk (closed) key seat.

Slitting or Saw Milling

A slitting saw or slitting cutter is used for many purposes on a milling machine,
such as parting off a solid workpiece into two, cutting of narrow 510tsand grooves,
etc. an important factor in any slitting operation is the rigidity of the workpiece. If
the component has such a cross-section that no deflection is likely to be produced
during cutting, it can be safely gripped in a vice such that the portion to be cut-off
''I-

extends beyond the jaws of the vice. In other cases, the workpiece may be clamped
directly on the machine table using suitable job holding devices. An important
precaution in this case is to keep the line of cutting in the centre of aT-slot and
running along its length. This will allow the slitting saw to project safely into the
free space in the slot to prevent its teeth from being damaged. A parting off
operation, being performed by means of a slitting saw, is shown in (Fig
)
SlITT ING
SAW

COLLAR

Fig.

6.26_< A sJitting saw being used for parting off operation.

Side Milling
In this operation, a side milling cutter is used to machine a flat vertical surface on
a side of the workpiece. When two paral1eJ vertical flat surfaces are required to be
machined, the usual time saving prefaces simultaneously, The space between the
two cutters can be easily adjusted as per requirement by using the spacers. This'
operation is then known as 'straddle milling' and is already explained.

.End Milling
In.this' operation, an end mill cutter is used to machine and produce a flat surface
or apair of parallel flat surfaces. When the operation is -performed at the -end of a
workpiece, as shown in (Fig
ja single flat surface is' produced. If
however, the operation in sucha way that cutting of metal takes placeon both
sides of the cutter, two parallel flat surfaces are produces; as happens in milling a
plain slot, as described in .
the surfaces produced may be horizontal,
vertical or inclined with respect to the top of the machine table. For producing a
horizontal surface, the axis of rotation of the cutter has to be horizontal, for
vertical surface it remains vertical and for inclined surface it is to be set at proper
inclination with the table top.

Profile Milling

It is the operation in which the profile of a template or the shape of the cavity of a
rnaste.r~dieisduplicated onthe work surface. The movement of the cutter is guided
by a tracer control unit which carries a contact finger. This finger runs in contact
with the 'outline to be duplicated and the trace} mechanism
. guides. the .tool
.
movement accordingly.

Gear Milling

This operation often referred to as gear ctting,cutting of different types of gears

on a milling machine. For this, either an end-mill cutter 0: a form relieved cutter is
used, which carries the profile on its cutting teeth corresponding to the required
profi!e of the gap between gear teeth. For dividing the periphery of the gear blank
into required number of equispaced parts an indexing mechanism or dividing head
is used, which is described later in this chapter. Description of gear cutting will
follow in.

Indexing or dividing heads

1"

.:

These heads, as already described, help in changing the angular position of the
component in relation to the cutter. With their use, it is possible to divide the
periphery of the workpiece into any number of equal parts. These heads are
generally of the following three types:
1. Plain dividing head.
2. Universal diving head.
3. Optical dividing head.
Out of these, the last one i.e., the optical dividing head is the most precision
attachment and is therefore, used for very precision indexing work for checking
the indexing accuracy of t-heother 1ypes of dividing heads. 11sdetailed description

I
I
1

1
i

i
,
!

iI
1

is beyond the scope of this small chapter. The other two types of the dividing
heads will now be discussed in detail.

Plain dividing heads

These dividing heads are mainly of two types. The first type carries the indexing
plate directly mounted on its spindle and has no use of the worm and worm wheel.
It is the simplest of all the dividing heads and is used in direct indexing. The index
plate carries 12 to 24 equispaced slots on its periphery. (Fig, b' 2.:{.) shows such
a dividing head. The job is held between two centres, one on
:::iLOTS ON
INDEX PLATE

INDEX
PLATE

CARRIER
t

CENTRE

HANDLEVER FOR
',-LOCKINf. THE C PINOLE

FiB'

~~2- %.

)<w't

,~tc~ ,

The dividing head spindle and the other on the tailstock (Fig, b'2.%.
). The
hand lever is used for locking the spindle in position. In operation, a lug engages
the desired slot of the indexing plate. By means of this dividing head 2,3,4,6,8,12
and 24 divisions can be obtained when 24 slots plate is used and 2,3,4,6, and 12
divisions when a 12 slots plate is used. The plate, together with the spindle, can be
rotated hy means of the handle provided on the left side of the dividing head.
Another useful from of the plain dividing iread . is the one used in simple
indexing (Fig. G. 29.
). It consists of'a cast body, carrying the spindle. On the
front .end of the spindle are _mounted ,the carrier and the centre. On its rearside is
mounted the index plate, which is having-different hole circle on its face and teeth
on its periphery; The plate gets movement through a worm by rotating the handle.

The crank, carrying the pin, is mounted on a bolt .about which it can be swing to
any desition to bring the pin in front of the desired hole. Usually, plates having 3
circles .16, 42 and 60 or 24, 30 and 36 holes are provided on these heads. Other
plates of different hole circles may also be available in the market. The job is held
between centres are usual:
SPINDLE
LOCK LEVER
INDEX
PLATE

CARRIER

CRANK
PIN

CRANK

Fig.

6:~

Plain indexing head.

Universal dividing head

This type of dividing head is a very useful device for the purpose of indexing
work. It essentially consists of a fairly robust body (Fig. ~30 ).Enclosed in
it

_.

, BRACKE'T

..

.'

CENTRE

ARM

INDEXING

FIg.

b,.60 Universal

PLATE

dividing head.
, ~ L.

Is the worm drive, which consists of a worm and worm wheel. Details of this
internal mechanism are shown in (Fig t G 31.
). The dividing head

.......

spindle carries a worm wheel, as shown.

The spindle carrying the worm. Which meshes with the worm wheel, carries a
crank at its outer end. The index pin works inside the spring loaded plunger. This
plunger can side radially along a slot provided in the crank in order to adjust the
pin position along a desired hole circle on the index plate. The index plate is also
mounted on the same spindle as the crank, but on a sleeve such that the worm
spindle, and hence the crank, can move independent on the index plate. The sector
arms provided on the index plate are usually of detachable type and can be set at a
desired angle with one another in order to set a definite distance along a desired
hole circle. The index plates are available in a set of two or three, with a number
of hole circle usually on both sides on them. The spindle, carrying the worm wheel
is provided with a job carrier (driving device) and acentIe at its front end. On the
back side of the dividing head is provided a bracket which carries a slot along its
length. One or two studs, according to requirement, can be fitted in this slot and
preclelermined set Qfcbauge gears Can be mounted on them.
The Universal dividing head performs the following operations:
I. It sets the work piece in a desired position in relation to the machine table
2. After each cut, it rotates the job through a desired angle and, thus, indexes
the periphery of the work
3. It provides a continuous rotary motion to the job during milling of heHeal
grooves.
4. It, in conjuction with a tailstock (Fig. b'"3 r J, acts both as a holding as
wen as supporting device for the work during the operation.

WORM
WHEEL

CRANK
PIN

WORM
.SHAFT

Side

View

<,

CARRIER

Using the dividing- head

As: described. above, the dividing head provides support to the job, holds it in
position and. rotates -it.through a desired augle after each cut is over. The index
crank is rotated to provide the rotary motion to the job and the index plate enables
this rotation to take place always through a desired angle. When the crank is
.rotates which, in tum, rotates the, worm wheel. Since this wheel is mounted
directly on the spindle the latter rotates alongwith the tormer. The job, being
secured to the spindle by means of a suitable holding device, also rotates as the
spindle rotates. The angle through which the job will rotate, for each revolution of
the crank, depends upon the velocity ratio between the worm and worm-wheel. This ratio is usually 40 to I, i.e., for 40 revolution of the worm, or of the crank, the
job will make one revolution. Obviously, if the worm is single start the wheel will
have 40 teeth along its periphery. However some dividing heads carry a different
velocity ratio of these two and the same should be known before performing the.
actual indexing operation.
A set change gears can be incorporates to connect the worm shaft and the spindle; -These g~~rs-are mounted on the left hand side of the dividing head, as shown in
(Fig. G. 00.
).The index plates, which are normally two or three in number,
are p:ovided with a number of circles on each face. Each of thes~ circles carries a
definite number of holes on them. The standard brown and sharp index plates have
the following circles:
No.1. 15,16,17,18,19,20.
No.2. 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33.
No. 3. 37~ 39, 41, 43, 47, 49.

Some German made dividing heads, which are now quite commonly supplied with
. a large number of milling machines manufactured in our country, are supplied
with a set of 3 index plates carrying hole circles as follows:
I

jane side.' 13, 16, 18, 20. 23.

19ther side. 15,17,19,21,24.

f)n".L

<1'" JJL.Ve

T~

lone side. 27,28,31,37,41,47

~ther side. 29, 33, 39,43,44,

49.

N(). L

"-\1\)3

lone side. 18, 19,20,. 23, 29, 33, 39.43, 49.

'

. LOther side. 15,17,1.9,21,27,31,37"

41, 47.

This obviously, provides a much wider range for indexing as compared tv the
brown and sharp type.
!

Some dividing heads, used for simple indexing, are provided with a single plate
only, It carries holes on its both sides as follows:

Front. 24, 2~, 28,30,34,37,38,39,41,42,43.

Back. 46,47,49, 51,53,54,57,58,59,62,66.
There is, however, on standard practice internationally for this purpose. The
number of plates supplied may other with different manufacturers. As such, you
may come across several other combinations of hole circles. The only thing to
remember is that whatever may be the number of p1ates, or that of the hole circies
on them, the principles of indexing remain the same. Also higher the number of
plates and more the number of the different hole circle on them, wider will be the
range of indexing obtained through that dividing head.
For using the dividing head. First it is calculated as to how many full turns the
crank has to rotate through and how many holes on which circle it has to cross
further in order to give the required rotation to the work. After ffiaftfie sectorarms
are opened out to accommodate as many holes on that circle, between them, as the
crank bas to move through for the part of its revolution. Before rotating the crank,
the crank pin is withdrawn by pulting the plunger. It.rotates, as described above,
independent of the index plate. In differential indexing, where the plate has also to
rotate, the same is unlocked.

IDoe-xing l\iethods
By indexing we mean division of the job periphery into a desired number of equal
divisions. It is accomplished by a controlled movement of the crank such that the
job rotates through a definite angle each cut is over. The following methods of
indexing are commonly used:
I

1. Direct-indexing
2. Plain carsimple indexing
3. Compound indexing.
4. Differential indexing
5. Angular indexing.
i
Now we will discuss these methods of indexing in detail in the fourthcoming
articles.
!

Direct indexing
It is the simplest case of indexing in which a plain dividing head dividing head,
shown in (Fig. (b. -2-t::J-. ) is used. As indicated there, the index plate is directly
mounted on the spindle and rotated by hand. It can used only when the number of
divisions to be obtained is suchtharthe number of slots on the periphery of the
index plate is a multiple of the former, The indexing ratio is obtained by;

Required ratio =

"-\
'1

Where,
N = No. of slots on the periphery of the index plate.
And
n = No. of divisions required to be obtained.
.
For example, if the circumference of a job has to be divided into 6 equal divisions
and the index plate has 24 slots, then the required ratio will be:
=

~=}i_

If>

i.e., the index plate will be required to move through 4 slots after each cut is over.
Alternatively; the plain indexing head, shown in (Fig
) can also be used
for direct indexing. For this, the worm will have to be kept out of mesh with the
worm wheel and the ratio obtained in the same way as above. For example,
suppose we have to divide the circumference of a job into 10 equal divisions. We
select the 60 holes circles and calculate the movement of crank pin as follows:
..The required movement ~

Plain or sim pie indexing

I~ ~ 6 division on 60 holes circle.

o. ....

This method if indexing is used when the direct method of indexing cannot be
employed for obtaining the required of division on the work. For example, if the
work is required to be divided into 22 equal divisions the direct indexing cannot be
used, because 22 is not divisible into any of the hole circles on jhe .direct indexing
plate. For such cases, simple indexing can easily be used.
For this, either a plain indexing head (Fig
) or a-universal dividing head
can be used. This method of indexing involves the use of the crank, worm, worm
wheel and indexing plate. As already described, the worm wheel carries 40 teeth
an~ the worm is single start. The worm wheel is directly mounted on the spindle .
.'

R~fer to (Fig. b' 3 1. ). You will find thatwhen the crank pin is pulled putwards
-and the crank is rotated, the worm will rotate which
turn, will rotate the worm
wheel, and hence the spindle and the work. Since the worm has single start thread
and the worm wheel 40 teeth, with one turn of the crank (i.e., of the worm) the
worm wheel will rotate through one pitch distance, i.e., equal to 1/40 of a
revolution. Similarly 2 turns of crank will make the work to rotate through 1120
and 3 turns through 3/40 of a revoiution. Thus, the crank will have to be rotated
through 40 turns in order to rotate the work through one complete tum. The holes
in the index plate serve to subJivide the rotation of the index crank.
N ow suppose we want to divide the work into a number of divisions, the
corresponding crank movements will be as given below:

L:

For two divisions on the work, the crank will make .

= 20 turns

.:t.3?2-

for each division

For 4 divisions on the work, the crank will make

!I!!_ = 10 turns

'r

For !O divisions on the work, the crank will make ~~

= 4 turns

Similarly for n division on the work, the crank will make ~

Let us consider that the work has to be division into 23 eq~
corresponding crank movement will be given by:

Crank movement

40

turns
divisions, then the

, ':/-

.i3;::: J E3 turns.

Now, in the obtained results, the whole number indicates the number of full turns
the turns the crank has to move through, and the fraction represents the part of the
tum that the crank has to make; in addition to the above, in order to make the work
to rotate through one required division, I. e., 17/23 of a revolution. In the fraction,
......'the numerator.denotes
the numberof'holes to be moved and the denominator the
.
number"of holes on the circleto be used. Thus, for the above indexing, for each
division on the job, the crank will make' one complete revolution and will move
further through 17 holes on 23 holes circle.
"

To set the

spacing on the index plate, and avoid error and confusion in counting
the hole every time, the sector arms should by used. These arms can by set such
that they will contain between them only as' many holes on a particular circle as
are required. This spacing can be maintained for as many operation as desired. For
giving full tum to the crank, the pin can be withdrawn from the hole and the crank
turned. For the remainder, the pin should be moved from one arm to the other and
then "engaged: "After engaging the pin the arms can. he moved further to set the
spacing for the next-operation,
Now, let us solve a few examplesto.make the method more clear. Take into
account the brown and sharp plates for all these examples.
Example It is required to divide the periphery of a job into 60 equal division.
Find the crank movement
Solution.
Required movement

=~

bO

!:_
3

Selecting 18 holes circle on plate No.1, we get,

2- - ~
0

3-

Example

X ~

.e

;:'"

I 2_-

I%"

j
J \ 12- ho~~ b n I ~ rwiej C!., ~e
Required 35 divisions on a plate. Find the indexing movement.

Solution. -

-. - _.:

-It~

:3:5=- 1- =

Required movement
Now

g- -

=F

r ~

- 1.. ~

- 1.

6 -- --0

~- --:3--Tt
J(

i.e., 1 full turn and 3 holes on 21 holes circle

(.ptw-e

f}D.2)

In case of fractions, you will find from the above two examples that itis just a hit
and trial method. The endeavour should be to multiply the denominator by such a
number that the resultant will give you one number or the other on anyone of the
3 plates. Multiply the numerator also by the same number and you will get the
result.
Compound Indexing
This method of indexing is employed when the number of divisions required is
outside the range that can be obtained by simple. It involves the use of two
separate simple indexing movements and is performed in two stages:
1. By turning the crank a definite amount in one direction in the same way an
in simple indexing
2. By turning the index plate and the crank both, either in the same or reverse
direction, thus adding further movement to or subtracting from that
obtained in the first stage.
Principle of compound indexing
The principle of compound indexing can be best illustrated by taking a concrete
- example. Let us consider that the crank is turned 3 holes on a 18 holes circle and
the index plate and dank
both turned. further 5 holes on 20.' holes circle On account
I
of these two movements the worm will be turned through."

r--

:)

1" __

5
j::: --

2-0
12- I
Since 40 turns of thel worm turn the work through 1 revolution .

\%

..1

bIf a revo luti

ution.
i

Therefore, ~ tum of the worm will tum the work through -

J 2-.

i .e

36 ~5

-::.

e_

'YeJ(<>W.t>'1]

revolution

12-)('tfy

This will enable 96 divisions on the work.

Similarly let us consider another case, where in the second operation the index
plate and the crank are rotated in a reverse direction to that adopted in the first
operation. Suppose the crank is turned 5 holes on the 18 holes circle in one

direction and then index along with the crank, turned 2 holes on 20 holes circle in
a direction opposite to the former. On account of these two movements the worm

will be turned through:

6b~
Now, the corresponding movement of the work will be.
x__L
--;:=.- _L_
o t-

_ s-

- ~5

to

22-5:_j

Thus, 225 divisions can be obtained on the work.

Milling machine, and milling work

Procedure
In order to obtain the required number of divisions through compound indexing
.proceed as follows:
1. 'Factorise the number of divisions required.
2. Factorise the standard No. 40'
'..
......
3. Select for trial any rum circles on the same plate and on its same side.
Factorise their difference.
4. Factorise the number of holes of one circle.
5. Factorise the number of holes of the other circle. After obtaining these
factors place them as follows:
F3ctors of divisions required & Factors of difference of bore irdes

Factors of 40 Factors offirst circle Factors of 2-a circ!e

First Check
If suitable index circles have been selected than .all the factors in the numerator
will. be .cancelled by those in the denominator. That is, you will get unity in the
numerator. If it does not happen, select another .set of circles
make another
attempt in the same way as above. Repeat it till you get I in the numerator:

and

Now, suppose the above expression, comes to the form llX, where X may be and
number. If a and b denote the numbers of holes on the two circles, then the
required indexing movement will be given by:

:A. _ ~

c;.o

cr ~

-:x.
C\'

The positive part of the two indicates the movement of the crank in one direction
and the negative part denotes the movement of plate and crank in the opposite
direction. It is always advisable to keep the backward, motion as smaller of the
two.
"
,

2nd Cbeck .
After finding the above two expressiolis, check that the algebraic sum of the two
movements, L e., of the crank in one direction, and that of the crank and plate in
.the opposite direction, should be equal to 40/N, where N is the number of
divisions required. Or, we can say that, if the correct result is obtained, then: ..

!<
---0...

+ -'A.

!.Lt)
)~

__,

__;_--N

Example. Compound indexing for 87 divisions.

Solution:
Suppose, we select circles of29 and 33 holes.
Putting the relevant factors in the form of the above stated expression

and

applying the first check we get:

3~~9~~X2

. ..

~ ...

i.e.. we get unity in the numerator, indicating that the circles, se1e

tedare correct.

Therefore, the required indexing movement is given by

IID_

33;

2.~

or-

33

3.2-~
~

\\0

.-.~

- 3.!L

83

3..!J- - 3 ~

35

2-9.

29

Since, there are 3 common complete turns in each case they cancel out, leaving the
required movement as:

23 _ _!J_

__

."

OY

II

33

33

3
2-3.

~ 2

'I

Since we keep the forward motion of the crank as larger than the hackward motion
of the plate and crank path, we adopt the first expression for the required indexing
movement.
i.e., the movement

2:3

11

23

6~

iI

or, in more elaborate terms, we can say that the wore will be indexed through 1/87
of a revolution each time as the crank is moved forward 23 holes on 29 holes
circle and plate and crank backward 11 holes circle.
Now applying the second check.

----

e., the algebraic sum of the

t'NO

movements obtained is equal to 40/N, confirming

that. the movemcrns obtained are correct.

Example. Compound

indexing for 51 divisions.

Solution.

Ito

Required movement
5 !
Let us try circ1es of 17 and 18 holes,
The first expression
..3)\ r q..x__

fo-x.

~x_)i-

-1

24-0.

X 3, X. ~

We get unity in numerator, i.e., the circle selected are correct.

Now the required movement is gives by :

!-.~

__...2l:tD .....
DY" .:L[pn.

tg-

t:}

2lj-v

18-

1~.

142 -3._
I~

. 18

By taking out] 4 as common, the above expression wil1 be reduced as :

:::..
~
J

I 12 o r-

";:f-

/ CZ5

E _L
J

'is

1 !f-

tr-!1=
I

I f5

IfD
5)

!fa
--- ---N

Hence, the obtained resultlis correct.

Differential indexing
In principle it is Dot very much different from cpmpound indexing. It is also
carried out in two stages. First the crank is moved in a certain direction. In the
second operation that follows either some movement is added to the above crank
movement or subtracted from the same. However, it should be noted that.the said
loss or gain in the movement is accomplished by moving the plate by means of a
.train of gears, connecting the dividing head spindle to the worm spindle. The said
motion is gained .by rotating the index plate in the same direction as crank and it is
lost by rotating the plate in the opposite direction to that of the Clank. During
differen!iaI indexing the index plate locking pin should be taken out to make the
plate free to rotate.
_
.. ~.

The dividing heads are supplied with standard sets of change gears. Change gears
supplied with Brown & Sharpe dividing heads are the following:
24(2 Nos.), 28, 32,40,44,48,.56,64', 72, 86, 100.
In addition to this, some dividing heads. are provided with the following gears also:
A6, 47,52,58,68,
76, 84. .
.
The German made universal dividing heads, referred to in article 6.51, are
provided with the following set of gears.
24(2), 28, 32, 40, 44, 48(2), 56, 64, 72, 86, 96, 100.
Both simple and compound gear trains are used in differential indexing. Figs.
t;. 3Z.and~-33 show the simple and compound trains of gears respectively. In
these gear trains the first driver is always mounted on the main spindle of the
dividing head, i.e., the same spindle on which is mounted the worm wheel inside
and the job at the other end. The last driven is mounted on the worm spindle
which drives the index plate. The simple train consists of only one driver and one
driven, connected together through one or two idle gears. The compound train
consists of two driYen; and two driven whe'els. Thejirst driven and second driver
gears are mounted on a stnd, incorporated between the dividing head spindle and
the worm spindle. Idle gear may' or may not- be itseo. If it is used, it should be
incorporated between the second driver and second driven. The motion in indexing
is so transferred that when the crank is rotated the worm wheel, and hence the
spindle, is rotated in the usual way. This, in turn, rotates the first driver. The
motion is transferred to the last driven gear
the way shown in (Figss. bO'l.~
This, through the worm spindle, is ultimately transferred to the index plate. The
direction of rotation of the index plate depends upon the type of gear train
employed and the number of idle gears used therein. In the given diagrams the
directions of arrows indicate the directions of rotation of respective gears. The
index plate is required to be rotated in the same direction as the crank if motion is
to be gained and in reverse direction if the same is to be lost.
.

in

..:DIVIDfNG

.HE-AD
SPINDL E

1
I

rWORM

SPINDLE

.,'t_

DRIVEN
Fig. C;;;=S;;. Sirnnte

tr a in

.1

,.

c;,3:

/: DIVIDING
HE AD
SPINDLE

1~1139

STUD

.> FIRST

DR/YEN

FIRST
DRIYER

ExaDlple. Find the gear combination and indexing movement necessary for J 39
divisions.
Solution.
I
For this, let us select 8 number slightly greater or smaller than the given numbkr,
such' that
selected number can be easily iodelCedilirough simplp indexing. let
113 Select tnt new number as 140.

!lie

Simple indexing for 140 divisions

=:

i.e., 6 holes on 21 holes circle.

2. -... --b

,....--

::;. 2 I

Now, if the index crank is turned fOf a revolution 139 times, it wil! make:

2.1

!?. X. 1.3~::: 35 2.1

15

21

revolutions.

Whereas, for one complete tum' of the job it should make 40 complete revolutions.

Obviously, the job would not be, thus, indeXed thrciugh exaclly 139 equal

divisions. The total movement done by the crank is short of the required 40 turns
by:

This fraction is to be gained by the movement of the plate. In order to gain the
movement the plate will have to be turned .in the same direction as the crank. Also~
in order that the divisions are equal, this movement is to be gained gradually such
that a certain amount of it is added equally to the crank movement in all the 139
movements of the latter, so as to make it complete 40 turns at the end of these
movements. This will be done by employing a suitable gear train.

b:_

.2~3

Now. the geanng ratio = 2-)

o-\,;v~

.... 31-)t~~

~O"; v-e..n.

If-8 A 56.

.3)<.:}- -

First driver 32 teeth, 1st follower 48 teeth.

2nd driver 24 teeth, 2nd follower 56 teeth.
Since it is a compound train and themotion is to be gained, no idler is required.

Example 12.8. Differential indexing for 73 divisions.

Solution. We select 70 divisions.

40 --

Simple indexing

12
2\

1-0

i.e., 12 holes on 21 holes circle.

Movement of crank fOT 73 divisions.
.

!.

~ '1-0. ~_:t_,_

. ....

5
_ LLI_

:r

-<>:

---J

qe., 1-

r
r

turns of the crank are to. be lost through the plate movement.
If..
J 2. __ 4% _
~ l)' )' v QX-.
*ow the gearing Td t l O
-::..
r-r__, _, '
T

2-'8"

en 'lei)

01

Results: 1. Driver 48; Driven 28

2. Simple train with 2 idlers.
3. Motion of Crank : 12 holes on 21 circle.
I

Example. Differentia] indexing for 119 divisions.

Solution .
. Say, we select 120 divisions.
Simple indexing

~b
-_

i.e., 6 holes on 18 holes circles.

Movement

i.e., ~

of crank for 119 divisions = 119 X

1.

= 39

revolutions.

<3

less than the required 40 revolutions.

This is to be gained through plate movement

New, the gearing ratio

--

--

0-\ ir';

if

e__~

c:>'hn'v~

Results:
1. Driver 24 teeth; driven 72 teeth.
2. Simple train with one idler.
3. Crank movement: 6 holes on 18 boles circle .

. ....

. Example. Differential indexing for 241 divisions ..

Solution.
SUppose we select 240 divisions.
Simple indexing

Ltv

__,
t"'),

"

.L-l-f-u

i.e., 3 holes on 18 holes circle.

Movement of crank for 241 divisions

."

2. It f

..~

~3

. i.e.,l.turn more than the required 4~ turns.

.

!;

..

This is to be lost through plate movement.

Gearing ratio

C;

3.2-X2-4

.:Do;v~~

r;;;I-f- v: =t ~

1)0)'y e.n~

Results:
:.
2.
3.
4.

First driver 32 teeth; First follower 64 teeth.

2Ad dri~er 24 teeth; 2ad fonower 72 teeth.
Compound fraiD with one idler.
Crank movement: 3 holes on 18 holes circle.

E:xample. Differential indexing

fOT 51

divisions.

Solution,
Suppose we select 50 divisions.
Simple indexing-

=-

1r0

-5~

-=-

it

. !b

2:0

i.e., 16 holes on 20 holes circle.

Movement of crank for 51 divisions

-z;

5) X _!t_
5

This is to be lost through plate movement.

Gearing ratio

40!t_

/.e. !t -tWf)
) ~
j-ktn fU&,"O

Results:
1. Driver 32 teeth; FoUower 72 teeth.
2. Simple train with one idler.
3. 'Crank movement: 8 holes on 18 holes circle.
\

Angular indexing
We have 'seen, during our above discussions, that 40 turns of crank of crank make
the work rotate through one complete turn. That is, 40 turns of make the work
rotate through 3600. Therefore, for each one turn of the crank the work

Will rotate through

i
I

..I

3~o
4-D

__a,v.
<:

Now let us consider 18 holes circle.

\
If the crank is moved through 18 holes on 18 holes circle,
i.e., one turn, it will make the work to tum through if . I
If it is moved 9 ~oles i.e., half turn on this circ1~, the work will rotate trough half
the above angle i.e.,
I
f

Again if it is moved 2 holes on .this circle, i.e., 2/18 or 1/9 of a turn, the work will
rotate through 9/9 = 1.
.
Similarly, if the crank is moved only one space on 18 holes circle, the job will
rotate through
Thus, we conclude that:

jui'

-_ J).D'oit'~~
1J)'veo~ .

III

c_",\

"

-~

~.

;,.-b

1 turn of crank will rotate the work through 90~ 119 rum through 1.0 2/9 tum
through 2, 3/9 through 3 and so on.
..... .'"

Or, we can say that crank movement

*'(5

.'

CJ~j_It~~~
.~~

I_

e ."e.<fui~dJ,
~

,,'

.:

i.~~@
=:

..

$.~~_,'

..,.

Now! the simple indexing method can be easily used indexing when
third and two-third degrees are involved. .

,_....
';~':ii;;

111, h~ii!:'QQe-'<
. =,
.

,.-'"
l

Example. Index for 3 36.

..

~~

Solution.
Crank movement

3L
2-

--

~
~

z:

. .. ..

Ig-

Or, 7 holes on 18 holes circle.

_

Example. Index for 15 30

Solution;

e.

-)

:;}

lb-z: _ sz:

:::

Crank movement;:"::J
I' <6 .
i.e., 1 full tum and 13 holes on 18 holes circle.
"

Example. Index for 31 v 20

Solution,

".

Crank movement

'61".1-

-;::_

_, -::;:.

. CJ

94L'2:t

i.e., J full tum and 13 holes on 27 holds circle.

o

Example. Index for 14 40

~-'

Solution.
Crank movement
i.e.,

:::.

s. u.

Itt 2:::3

.~ ~

_--

~.~
.. ~-r

J full tum and )7 holes on 27 hole s circle.

Solution.

I-~~.
,

<

f<

l\

E3

.' .

1 ---... .
)~.

'

..

.....
. ..
~--:
"
"

-._.-.~

of:,

~~-:~
=.'.

~~1- '\~':.:

._~:".,A

3 -

) C)

b~ 2-

6 --)Z2

}<i- .

~~i.e~ft.@q~-Jll~emen~ = 6 full turn + 12 boles on 18 holes circle.

~,~

_'-''<..,'':',;,

&~.
"! .

In th~1e' cases, when th~ angle does not include half, one-third or two-third of a
_:~-;-;:;.,(;!egree.
it is advisable to convert it into minutes or seconds, as the case desires, and
~~~:~lhen
find the movement by dividing
by 540 or 32400 respectively as one tum of
_ ,
!)
oB:crankrotates tlre work through 9 or 9 60 = 540 minutes or 540 X.60 = 32400
seconds.

Example. Index for 340 12 J

I

Solution .

. ..

...~.:.~
...

r,

""

GIven angle = 34 12
:..._
= 123120..seconds.
-~..lr'~

'"

Crank movement

1(;

-'. I ~3.1~O
=
...-

02-Lt-oo

i.e., 3 full turns and 16 boles on 20 holes circle. _

There can be a number of other cases where even the above method will not suit.
For example, we have to index for 7 31' 49~
Now, the given angle = 27109 seconds.
Crank movement

9-!}

r~

.~

0 ~g 3b r::f-

01

Ql__

+u--rD

c?3 2.1-toQ
i
Obviously, it is not possible to perform this indexing opera11ionwith any' of the
standard index plates. For such angles, we have to reduce the fraction obtained for
crank movement to such an approximate figure that its denominator represents any
one circle on the standard index plats. For reducing the a;bove faction to the
required approximate value we have to use the 'continued fraction ~.
. 1fraction
. idex pate
I
acuon O.
0.8367 asC6367 . If an In
W e can express t he decima
jv,fjOO

Having 10000 holes-circle could be available, the required crack movement could
easily be obta-ined by moving the same 8367 spaces on the circle. But, you know
that no standard index plate has such a circle. As such we have to reduce this
expression into a common fraction having small numerator and denominator and

rI

...
f