4

DRIVERS FOR MOVING EQUIPMENT

internal combustion engines, and direct current motors are
capable of continuous speed adjustment over a wide range
Energy efficiencies vary widely with the size and type of
driver as shown in this table.

owered chemical processing equipment includes

pumps, compressors, agitators and mixers, crushers
and grinders, and conveyors. Drivers are electric
motors, steam or gas turbines, and internal
I
combustion engines. For loads under 150 HP or so electric
motors are almost invariably the choice. Several criteria are
applicable. For example, when a pump and a spare are
provided, for flexibility one of them may be driven by motor
and the other by turbine. Centrifugal and axial blowers and
compressors are advantageously driven by turbines because
the high operating speeds of 4000- 7 0,000 rpm are readily
attainable whereas electric motors must operate through a
speed increasing gear at extra expense. When fuel is
relatively cheap or accessible, as in the field, gas turbines and
internal combustion engines are preferred drivers. Turbines,

Efficiency 1%)
Driver
Gas turbine and internal
cornbustion engine
Steam turbine

Motor

Voltage

220, 440, 550

IOWkW
34

10,WOkW
38

42
92

63
96

78
97

85

increasing gears, the basic 1800 rpm model is the economical choice
as drive for centrifugal compressors at high speeds.

Although each has several subclasses, the three main classes of

motors are induction, synchronous, and direct current. Higher
voltages are more efficient, but only in the larger sizes is the housing
ample enough to accomodate the extra insulation that is necessary.
The voltages commonly used are

1-100
75-250
200-2500
Above 2500

lOOkW
28

Since the unit energy costs are correspondingly different, the

economics of the several drive modes often are more nearly
comparable.

4.1. MOTORS

Horsepower

10kW

SYNCHRONOUS

Synchronous motors are made in speeds from 1800 (two-pole) to

150 rpm (48-pole). They operate at constant speed without slip, an
important characteristic in some applications. Their efficiencies are
1-2.5% higher than that of induction motors, the higher value at
the lower speeds. They are the obvious choice to drive large low
speed reciprocating compressors requiring speeds below 600 rpm.
They are not suitable when severe fluctuations in torque are
encountered. Direct current excitation must be provided, and the
costs of control equipment are higher than for the induction types.
Consequently, synchronous motors are not used under 50 HP or so.

440
2300,4000
4000, 13,200

Direct current voltages are 115, 230, and 600.

The torque-speed characteristic of the motor must be matched
against that of the equipment, for instance, a pump. As the pump
comes up to speed, the torque exerted by the driver always should
remain 5% or so above that demanded by the pump.
The main characteristics of the three types of motors that bear
on their process applicability are summarized following.

DIRECT CURRENT

Direct current motors are used for continuous operation at constant

load when fine speed adjustment and high starting torque are
needed. A wide range of speed control is possible. They have some
process applications with centrifugal and plunger pumps, conveyors,
hoists, etc.

INDUCTION

Induction motors are the most frequent in use because of their

simple and rugged construction, and simple installation and control.
They are constant speed devices available as 3600 (two-pole), 1800,
1200, and 900rpm (eight-pole). Two speed models with special
windings with 2: 1 speed ratios are sometimes used with agitators,
centrifugal pumps and compressors and fans for air coolers and
cooling towers. Capacities up to 20,000HP are made. With speed

Enclosures. In chemical plants and refineries, motors may need

to be resistant to the weather or to corrosive and hazardous
locations. The kind of housing that must be provided in particular
situations is laid out in detail in the National Electrical Code,
Article 500. Some of the classes of protection recognized there are
in this table of differential costs.

% Cost above
Type
Drip proof
Weather protected, I and II
Totally enclosed fan cooled, TEFC,
below 250 HP
Totally enclosed, water cooled, above
500 HP
Explosion proof, below 3000 HP

Drip Proof

10-50
25-100
25-1 00
110-140

Protection Against
Dripping liquids and falling particles
Rain, dirt, snow
Explosive and nonexplosive
atmospheres
Same as TEFC
Flammable and volatile liquids

62 DRIVERS FOR MOVING EQUIPMENT

TABLE 4.1. Selection of Motors for Process Equipment

TABLE 4.2. Checklist for Selection of Motors

Motor Typea
Application

A.C.

Agitator
Ball mill
Blower
Compressor
Conveyor
Crusher
Dough mixer
Fan, centrifugal and propeller
Hammer mill
Hoist
Pulverizer
Pump, centrifugal
Pump, positive displacement
Rock crusher

la, lb, 2b
1c, 2b. 3a
la, 1b, 2b, 3a. 4
la, 1b, IC, 3a. 4
la,lc,2b,3a
Id
la, IC,
la,lb,lc,Zb
la, 1b, 2c. 3a, 4
IC

Id, 2a. 3b
I C

la.lb.Zb.3a.4
IC,
2b, 3a
3a

Motor Data

D.C.
5a
5b
5a
5b. 7
5b. 7
5a. 5b
5a. 5b
5a. 7
5a
6
5b
5b
5b
5b. 6

"Code:
1. Squirrel-cage, constant speed
a. normal torque, normal starting current
b. normal torque, low starting current
c. high torque, low starting current
d. high torque, high slip
2. Squirrel-cage, multispeed
a. constant horsepower
b. constant torque
c. variable torque
3. Wound rotor
a. general purpose
b. crane and hoist
4. Synchronous
5. Direct current, constant speed
a. shunt wound
b. compound wound
6. Direct current, variable speed series wound
7. Direct current, adjustable speed
(After Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co., Motor and Generator Reference
Book, Colorado Springs, CO).
Standard NEMA ratings for induction motors:
1, 14. 2, 3, 5, 7,; 10, 15, 20. 25, 30, 40.50, 60,
General purpose: :,
75, 100, 125, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500.
Large motors: 250,300, 350,400,450,500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000,
1250, 1500, 1750, 2000,2250, 2500,3000,3500,4000,4500,5000 and up
to 30,000.

a,

General
Type of motor (cage, wound-rotor, synchronous, or dc).
Hp
Rpm
Phw
Quantity
Cycles. ....... Voltage..
Time rating (continuoua, short-time, intermittent)
Overload (if any)
.% for
Service factor ......%
Ambient temperature.
C Temperature rise.
.C
Class of insulation: Armature.. Field.
Rotor of w-r motor..
Horizontal or vertical
Plugging duty
Full- or reduced-voltage or part-winding starting (ac)
If reduced voltage-by autotransformer or reactor. .........
Locked-rotor starting current limitations.
Special characteristics..

........

Induction Motors
Locked-rotor torque.,
.% Breakdown torque..
or for general-purpose cage motor: NEMA Design (A,

......
.............................

Applications. The kinds of motors that are being used

successfully with particular kinds of chemical process equipment are
identified in Table 4.1. As many as five kinds of AC motors are
shown in some instances. The choice may be influenced by
economic considerations or local experience or personal preference.
In this area, the process engineer is well advised to enlist help from
electrical experts. A checklist of basic data that a supplier of a
motor must know is in Table 4.2. The kind of enclosure may be
specified on the last line, operating conditions.
4.2. STEAM TURBINES AND GAS EXPANDERS

Turbines utilize the expansion of steam or a gas to deliver power to

a rotating shaft. Salient features of such equipment are

...... .%

B, %, D)

Synchronous Moton
Power factor..
Torques: Locked-rotor..
.% Pull-in..
Pull-out.
% Excitation.
.volu d c Type of exciter.
If m-g exciter set, what are motor characteriatica?.
Motor field rheostat.
Motor field &charge reairtor..

.....

....

....

..

.......

...%
.....
...........
.....

Direct-current Moton
Shunt, stabilized shunt, compound, or mrier wound..
Speed range..
Non-reversing or reversing..
Continuous or tapered-rated.

...........
...........
...............................

........

Mechanical F e a t m
Protection or enclosure..

............ Stator shift. ............

Number of bearings.. ........... Type of bearings.. ..........
Shaft extension: Flanged.. ..... Standard or special length.. ....
Press on half-coupling.. ...... Terminal box.. ................
NEMA C or D flange.. ...... Round-fnune or with feet.. ......
Vertical: External thrust load.. ... l h . Type of t h m t bearing.. ...
Base ring type.. .............. Sole p h t u . . ...............
Mechanical Fcatura (ant.)

Accessories
Clearly the cost increments beyond the basic drip-proof motor
enclosures are severe, and may need to be balanced in large sizes
against the cost of isolating the equipment in pressurized buildings
away from the hazardous locations.

.......
........
.........
.........
......
............
.....
......
.........
........
.
..
.
............
............
........
....................
...................................

...............................................
Load Data

..............................................
............

Typeof load
If compressor drive, give NEMA application number.
Direct-connected, geared, chain, V-belt, or flat-belt drive.
Wk' (inertia) for high inertia drives.. ................. .lb-ft'
Starting with full load, or unloaded..
If unloaded, by what means?.
For variableapeed or multi-speed drives, b load w i a b l e torque,
constant torque, or constant honepower?.
Operating conditions.

.........
.........................
.............................

.....................
......................................

(By permission, Allis Chalmers Motor and Generator Reference

Book, Bul. 51R7933, and E.S. Lincoln (Ed.), Electrical Reference Book,
Electrical Modernization Bureau, Colorado Springs, CO.

4. simple controls,
5. low first cost and maintenance, and
6. flexibility with regard to inlet and outlet pressures.

1. high speed rotation,

Single stage units are most commonly used as drivers, but above

2. adjustable speed operation,

3. nonsparking and consequently nonhazardous operation,

500HP or so multistage units become preferable. Inlet steam

pressures may be any value up to the critical and with several

4.2. STEAM TURBINES AND GAS EXPANDERS

60OPSI,1,800RPM
GEARED TURBINE
(INCL GEAR LOSS1
150 PSI, 3,600RPM
NOPSI, 3.600RPM
WOPSI, 3,600RPM

20

40 50 607080 100
200
300 400500
RATED BHP
Average efficienry of \ingle-ctage turbinr\ (nonconden\ing, dry, and saturated steam)

30

(a)

Avt.l.;tge rfhcieircy of niultistagr turl)inu\ (grar lo\\ nut includrd).

(b)

Figure 4.1. Efficiencies of (a) single-stage and (b) multistage turbines (Gartmann, De Lava1 Engineering Handbook, McCraw-Hill,

New York, 1970, p p . 5.8-5.9,Figs. 5.2 and 5.3).

63

64 DRIVERS FOR MOVING EQUIPMENT

hundred degrees of superheat. In larger sues turbines may be
convenient sources of low pressure exhaust steam in the plant.
From multistage units, steam may be bled at several reduced
pressures. When the expansion is to subatmospheric conditions, the
operation is called condensing because the exhaust steam must be
condensed before removal from the equipment. Although the
efficiency of condensing turbines is less, there is an overall reduction
of energy consumption because of the wider expansion range.
Several parameters affect the efficiency of steam turbines, as
shown partially on Figure 4.1. Closer examination will need to take
into account specific mechanical details which usually are left to the
manufacturer. Geared turbines [the dashed line of Fig. 4.l(b)] have
higher efficiencies, even with reduction gear losses, because they
operate with especially high bucket speeds. For example, for a
service of 500HP with 300psig steam, a geared turbine has an
efficiency of 49.5% and one with a direct drive at 1800rpm has an
efficiency of 24%.
The flow rate of steam per unit of power produced is
represented by
m==-

with the enthalpies in Btu/lb. The efficiency is 1, off Figure 4.1, for
example. The enthalpy change is that of an isentropic process. It
may be calculated with the aid of the steam tables or a Mollier
diagram for steam. For convenience, however, special tables have
been derived which give the theoretical steam rates for typical
combinations of inlet and outlet conditions. Table 4.3 is an
abbreviated version.
Example 4.1 illustrates this kind of calculation and compares
the result with that obtained by taking the steam to behave as an
ideal gas. For nonideal gases with known PVT equations of state
and low pressure heat capacities, the method of calculation is the
same as for compressors which is described in that section of the
book.
On a Mollier diagram like that with Example 4.1, it is clear that
expansion to a low pressure may lead to partial condensation if
insufficient preheat is supplied to the inlet steam. The final
condition after application of the efficiency correction is the
pertinent one, even though the isentropic point may be in the
two-phase region. Condensation on the blades is harmful to them
and must be avoided. Similarly, when carbon dioxide is expanded,
possible formation of solid must be guarded against.
When gases other than steam are employed as motive fluids,
the equipment is called a gas expander. The name gas turbine
usually is restricted to equipment that recovers power from hot

2545
lb/HPhr
tl (H2 - 4 )

3412

t l W 2 - HI)

Ib/kWh

TABLE 4.3. Theoretical Steam Rates for Typical Steam Conditions (Ib/kWh)a

IC0

250

i00

60O

600

X50

X50

365.1)

iflo

650

750

X25

X25

YO0

Y4.0

201.Y

261.2

336.2

2Y7.X

372.X

000

YO0

1,200

1,250

1,250

1.450

l,45(1

I,XOO

2,400

X2.i

YO0

950

X25

Y50

IO00

IOOII

256.3

326.1

376.1

232.0

357.0

377.9

337.0

1,43X.4

l,46X.l

1.3X2.7

1.461.2

I,4XO.I

1,460.4

6.iox

6.536
6.648

5.YW
6.014
6.1 I2

5.6fii
5.773
5.X62

6.X35

6.277

6.013

Y.2IX
Y.5Y3

X.351
X.673
0 . 2 27
Y. 704

i.X74
X. l 5 X

I n i t i d temp, "E'
X25

OM)

Iiiiri.il \iipcrlic,it. '1

E\h.iri\t

prc\wre

in1 lg

2Y1.1

366.1

Initi;il enthalpv. Htuill)

I , i ? l . i l , i l O . 6 1 , i j l . i l,4OX.i

1,105.5

1.261.~1,33i.O

l.37Y.6

10.52
IO.XX
11.20
11.76

7.X3l

7.I)Xj

6.761

63x0

x.037
X.217
X.53

7.251
T.3%

6.YM

6.723

7.052
7.2X2

6.Xii
7.05X

l q i 5 1 . 6 1,394.7

,ill\

2.0

2.5
3.0
i.(l

7.644

6.555
6.6Y6
6.XIY
i.1126

6.2 56
6.3M

6.i5l
6.58-1

6.502
6.6W

6.6W
6 . W

Y.2XX

Y.755

10.202

Y.2W
Y.617

Y. ZY7
9.TY7

10.327
10.052
11.52

IO.4Ql

6.2%
6.il5
6.530
6.726

6.133
6.256
6.362
6.541

5.YW
6.061
6,162
6.332

5.633
5.733
5.XIY
.i
.Y63

gJgc

111/111~

>

2 I .60

13.111

IO

23.y;

20

2X.63
33.6Y
W3Y

13.M
15.33

31)

iIf

io
60

__

i ?

xo
IO0

I25
I50
I60
I Ti
200

250
3(M)
400
42 5
6(Xl

i6.(Hl
53.90
6Y.i
,>.Y

-_

16.73
lX.0X
IY.i?

20.76
??.XI
23.51

ll.05
Il.6.l
I2.6X

l(l.i2
lO.Y.5
ll.Y(l

Y.X3X
10.30
11.10

13.63

12.75

II.XO
12.46

0.705
10.43
I I .ox
lI.66

13.07
13.66

12.22
12.7-I

14.50
li.78

13.51
lZ.77

li.55

13.55

Il.OY5
11,646
12.16
12.64
11. z4
13.56

IC.X6
17.22
IX.61

li.77

I5.5Y

14.50

li.42

I6.X:
18.IX
18.71

15.70
16.91

I5.i6

IY.li

l6,Oi
li.33
17.X5

20.04

IX.66

21.53

20.05
23.OX
26.53
35.43
3X.26
3.1

19.52
20.9 I
23.90

18.16
lY.45

Ii.51

13.5-l

15.36
l6.lX

li.30

I7.i(1
1T.W

16.16

26.i6
30.5Y

IY.iZ
21.56

35.40
37.57

23.M

41.16
48.24
6Y.I

24.79
26.29
29.W

I5.05
I6.5i
IX.05
2fl.03
??.I.(
23.03
24.43
26.Y5
32.XY

24.78
2X.50

35.40
43.72
72.2

40.62
6i.0

?R.O5

Xi.?

7x.3

41.ox
iX.5

IO.YX2
11.67

12.3(U
12.1~0
13.47
I4.2X

27.27
35.71

38.33
6X. 1 1

12.06
12..ii

I z. zo

li.41

7 7 74

2j.37
33.22
35.65
63.4

R.X?O
Y.IW1
Y.XOI
10.34

IO.X?l

X.iYI
X.XZ0
Y.415
Y.YE
10.3W)

11.2M IO.X(N
11.71

Il.20

12.32
12.52
13.27

11.77
1 1.95
12.65
13.51
14.35
14.69

16.i7
16.88
17.4X
IX.48
20.5i
22.iY
27.X2
2Y.24

1i.17
15.06
15.41
15 .Y4
I6.X.)
I8.6X
20.62
24.99
26.2 I

42.10

3i.03

'From Theoretical Steam Rate Tables-Compatible with the 1967 ASME Steam Tables, ASME, 1969.

15.20
16.05

l7.XI
19.66
23.X2
24.98

35.30

10.240
lO.XO1
l l . ? ( P IO.I34
11.779 I O . j ? l
I(!.YO
I?.?'?
12.x5
1l.i3
13.05
I I .60
13.x3
I2.2-l

X.642
Y.057
Y.i27
Y, 7 6 i
10.08
10.53
10.67

11.21

i.713
7.Y75
x.421
x.799
9.136
9.4i2

9.727
10.12
10.25
111.73

14.i6

13.01

1I.W

15.65

13.75

12.44

I1.2X
1 I.XO

I6.00

14.05
14.49

I2.N
I3.03
I 3.62

12.00
12.29
12.77

Ii.7X
15.95
18.39
19.03
24.06

13.69
l4.5Y
16.41
I6.Xi
20.29

16.52
17.39
19. I I
20.XY
24.7i

18.18
21.64

25.78
34.50

22.55
3 0 . 16

15.23
16.73

4.3. COMBUSTION GAS TURBINES AND ENGINES

65

EXAMPLE
4.1
Steam Requirement of a Turbine Operation
Steam is fed to a turbine at 614.7 psia and 825F and is discharged at
64.7psia. (a) Find the theoretical steam rate, Ib/kWh, by using the
steam tables. (b) If the isentropic efficiency is 70%, find the outlet
temperature. (c) Find the theoretical steam rate if the behavior is
ideal, with C,/C,, = 1.33.
(a) The expansion is isentropic. The initial and terminal
conditions are identified in the following table and on the graph.
The data are read off a large Mollier diagram (Keenan et al., Steam
Tables, Wiley, New York, 1969).
Point

TOF

1
2
3

614.7
64.7
64.7

825
315
445

1421

1421.4 1.642
1183.0 1.642
1254.5 1.730

-I

AH, = H,

- Hl = -238.4

Btu/lb

Theoretical steam rate = 3412/238.4 = 14.31lb/kWh. This value is

checked exactly with the data of Table 4.3.

3
kM

>

$ 1255
I

k-

(b) H3 - HI = 0.7(H2- HI) = -166.9 Btu/lb

H3 = 1421.4 - 166.9= 1254.5Btu/lb
The corresponding values of T3 and S3 are read off the Mollier
diagram, as tabulated.
(c) The isentropic relation for ideal gases is

z
W

1183

- 1'987(1285) [(64.7/614.7)'.'' - 11
0.25
= -4396 Btu/lbmol, -244 Btu/lb.

ENTROPY

combustion gases. The name turboexpander is applied to machines

whose objective is to reduce the energy content (and temperature)
of the stream, as for cryogenic purposes.
Gas expanders are used to recover energy from high pressure
process gas streams in a plant when the lower pressure is adequate
for further processing. Power calculations are made in the same way
as those for compressors. Usually several hundred horsepower must
be involved for economic justification of an expander. In smaller
plants, pressures are simply let down with throttling valves
(Joule-Thomson) without attempt at recovery of energy.
The specification sheet of Table 4.4 has room for the process
conditions and some of the many mechanical details of steam
turbines.
4.3. COMBUSTION GAS TURBINES AND ENGINES

When a low cost fuel is available, internal combustion drivers

surpass all others in compactness and low cost of installation and
operation. For example, gas compression on a large scale has long
been done with integral engine compressors. Reciprocating engines
also are widely used with centrifugal compressors in low pressure
applications, but speed increasing gears are needed to up the
300-600rpm of the engines to the 3000-10,000rpm or so of the
compressor.
Process applications of combustion gas turbines are chiefly
to driving pumps and compressors, particularly on gas and oil

BTU/ (LB) ( F )

transmission lines where the low thermal efficiency is counterbalanced by the convenience and economy of having the fuel on
hand. Offshore drilling rigs also employ gas turbines. Any hot
process gas at elevated pressure is a candidate for work recovery in
a turbine. Offgases of catalytic cracker regenerators, commonly at
45psig and as high as 125OoF, are often charged to turbines for
partial recovery of their energy contents. Plants for the manufacture
of nitric acid by oxidation of ammonia at pressures of 100 psig or so
utilize expanders on the offgases from the absorption towers, and
the recovered energy is used to compress the process air to the
reactors.
Combustion gas turbine processes are diagrammed on Figure
4.2 and in Example 4.2. In the basic process, a mixture of air and
fuel (or air alone) is compressed to 5-10 atm, and then ignited and
burned and finally expanded through a turbine from which power is
recovered. The process follows essentially a Brayton cycle which is
shown in Figure 4.2 in idealized forms on TS and PV diagrams. The
ideal process consists of an isentropic compression, then heating at
constant pressure followed by an isentropic expansion and finally
cooling at the starting pressure. In practice, efficiencies of the
individual steps are high:
Compressor isentropic efficiency, 85%
Expander isentropic efficiency, 8 5 4 0 %
Combustion efficiency, 98%

TABLE 4.4. Data Sheet for General Purpose Steam Turbines, Sheet 1 of 2

GENERAL-PURPOSE STEAM TURBINE

DATA SHEET
CUSTOMARY UNITS

ONTRACT
ITEM NO

No

R E V NO

DATE
R E V I EW E D

BY

SHEET

OF

P O NO

Aopllcsbl. t o .

0PrOPO..l

0 Purch.U

0 A s - Built

For

Unit

Sit.

N o , R.qu1r.d

Servlc.

0rlv.n

M.nufactursr

Modd

Equipman1

Smrlnl No.

eAlso available in SI units (API Standard 61 1, January 1982). (Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.)

66

4.3. COMBUSTION GAS TURBINES AND ENGINES

Fuel

Exhaust

67

Air
Compressor

Expander
Air

Figure 4.2. Combustion gas turbine arrangements and their thermodynamic diagrams. (a) Basic unit with PV and TS diagrams. (b) Unit with
an air preheater and TS diagram.

Ta = T1(P2/P1)13.5
= 305(5)13-5= 483K3,

EXAMPLE
4.2
Performance of a Combustion Gas Turbine
Atmospheric air at 80F (305K) is compressed to 5 atm, combined
with fuel at the rate of 1kg/s, then expanded to 1 atm in a power
5 atm
1200 K

Combustion:

mi = flow rate of air, kg/kg fuel

C12Ml

dLz+&
at%p

305K

Air

51.8 kg/s
Compressor

0.975(42000) = J
=

Expander

Water

turbine. Metallurgical considerations limit the temperature to

1700F (1200K). The heat capacities of air and combustion products
are
C, = 0.95 + 0.00021T (K) kJ/kg,

J5,,
991682 + 771985 mi

C, d T

mi = 51.8
Expansion:

k = 1.33, k / ( k - 1) = 4.0
T& = T ~ ( P ~ / P J O . ~=~ 1200(0.2)~.~~
=8 0 2 ~
T4 = 1200 - 0.89( 1200 - 802) = 846K
Power calculations :

the heat of combustion is 42,000 kJ/kg, the furnace efficiency is

0.975, the isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 0.84, and that of
the expander is 0.89. Find

Compressor: w: = -m:AH

a. the required air rate,

Expander: w: = -52.8

Io5
iZOO
517

-51.8

cpdT

= -51.8(216.98) = -11.240 kJ/s

517

b. the power loads of the compressor and expander, and

c. the overall efficiency as a function of the temperature of the
exhaust leaving a steam generator.
Point

1
5
5

2
3
4
5

,-lZCQ

305

Steam
Exhaust

C, d T + mi

1
1

T.
483
802

T
305
517
1200
846
400

C, d T = 52.8(412.35) = 21,772 kJ/s

846

Steam generator: Q = 52.8JT

q, = overall efficiency =

C, d T

21772 - 11380 Q
42000

The tabulation shows efficiency with three different values of

the exhaust temperature.

Compression :

846
600

k = 1.4, k / ( k - 1) = 3.5,

500

)It

14311
19937

0.247
0.588
0.722

68 DRIVERS FOR MOVING EQUIPMENT

Other inefficiencies are due to pressure drops of 2-5%, loss of
1-3% of the enthalpy in the expander, and 1% or so loss of the air
for cooling the turbine blades. The greatest loss of energy is due to
the necessarily high temperature of the exhaust gas from the
turbine, so that the overall efficiency becomes of the order of 20%
or so. Some improvements are effected with air preheating as on
Figure 4.2(b) and with waste heat steam generators as in Example
4.2. In many instances, however, boilers on 1000F waste gas are

economically marginal. Efficiencies are improved at higher pressure

and temperature but at greater equipment cost.
Inlet temperature to the expander is controlled by the amount
of excess air. The air/fuel ratio to make 1700F is in the range of
50 Ib/lb. Metallurgical considerations usually limit the temperature
to this value. Special materials are available for temperatures up to
2 2 W F but may be too expensive for process applications.

REFERENCES

4. R.T.C.

1. M.P. Boyce, Gar Turbine Engineering Handbook, Gulf, Houston, 1982.

2. F.L. Evans, Equipment Design Handbook f o r Refineries and Chemical
Plants, Gulf, Houston, 1979, vol. 1.
3. H. Gartmann, De Lava1 Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New
York. 1970.

Harman, Gas Turbine Engineering, Macmillan, New York, 1981.

5. E.E. Ludwig, Applied Process Design for Chemical and Process Plants,
Gulf, Houston, 1983, vol. 3.
6. M a r k Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, McGraw-HdI, New
York, 1987.