ME 401 A

Energy Systems II
Turbomachinery
Part II

Axial Flow Turbine

Axial Vs. Radial Turbine

Axial

Radial

1.

Greater mass handling

Low mass handling

2.

Low pressure ratio

High Pressure ratio

3.

Multistaging easy

Multistaging difficult

Turbine Vs. Compressor

Turbine

Compressor

1.

Design is simple

Complicated design

2.

FPG & acceleration

APG & deceleration

3.

No BL separation

BL separation

4.

Efficiency high

Efficiency low

5.

High P & T

Low P & T

6.

Critical stress problem

Stress not so critical

7.

Blade cooling required

Cooling not required.

Why high pressure drop per stage?

More work o/p per stage
One stage consists of....

Schematic
Work producing machine
High T & P relative to Compressor
Annular expansion!

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Pressure & Velocity variation

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Flow

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Separation?, Diffusion?

Designer has his own choice of distributing the pressure drop

Experience
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Velocity Triangles
1: Inlet to nozzle
2: Inlet to Rotor
3: Exit from rotor
3: Inlet to nozzle
: angle of absolute vel
: angle of relative to vel

ASSUMPTIONS:
Constant axial velocity
Constant u velocity
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Constant Peripheral velocity (u) !?

look at mean diameter to get average picture what happens
2D analysis -> pitch line design analysis
Assumption: constant u.
u increases with r
shape of velocity triangle varies from root to tip
valid when spanwise length is too small
valid when high hub to tip ratio
This is valid in HPT
In case of LPT, spanwise length is large
3D effects unavoidable in LPT !!

Velocity Triangles

Velocity Triangles: Superimposed

Work
Work due to expansion of high pressure hot gases
Due to change in momentum
Force, torque on both stator & rotor; Work only by rotor
Energy / wok transfer only by rotor

Work obtained at rotor, in terms of flow velocities & blade angles

What @ workdone factor ??

Parameters Useful in Turbine Design

1.

Blade loading coefficient / temperature drop coefficient ():

Expresses work capacity of a stage

2.

Flow coefficient ()

3.

Degree of reaction (R)

- plots useful to compare performance of various stages of

different sizes and geometries.

Degree of Reaction
Fraction of stage expansion in rotor
Rather than Pressure drop, Useful to express in terms of static
enthalpy (temp.) drop
Defined & expressed in terms of: p, h, T, Flow vel, blade geometry
Several forms of R

Types of Stages
1.

Zero Degree reaction stages

R=0

2.

Fifty percent reaction stages

R = 0.5

3.

Hundred percent reaction stages

R=1

4. Negative reaction stages

R<0

Zero Reaction / Impulse Stage

No change in static pressure in Rotor
Rotor blades: only transfer without transformation
P to E transformation: only in stator/nozzle blades

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Multistage Velocity-compounded
Huge pressure drop
Single stage: Very high rotational speed
Two stages : Curtis Stages

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Multistage Pressure-compounded
Disadvantages of velocity-compounding
1. C-D nozzle
2. shocks

To avoid these disadvantages, Pressure-compounding

Since less pressure drop, Subsonic nozzle
Pressure drop divided in many stages
Equivalent to using single stages in series
Two stages : Rateau Stages

Multistage Pressure-compounded

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Thermodynamic Analysis: Single-Impulse

Isentropic expansion

Actual adiabatic

Irreversible adiabatic
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50% Reaction Stage

Equal enthalpy drop in both Nozzles and rotors

R =
(h1 h2) = (h2 h3) = (h1 h3)

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50% R: Velocity Triangle

2 = 3
3 = 2
w2 = c3
w3 = c2

Similar velocity triangles

at inlet and exit of rotor
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Blade efficiency / Utilization Factor

Also called, Utilization Factor, to avoid confusion.
Ratio of rotor blade work to energy supplied to rotor blades
Index of energy utilizing capability of rotor

Velocity triangle for

max. utilization

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100% R
Entire change in static properties in Rotor
Work is only due to change in KE in rotor
h1 = h2;

c2 = c3;

2 = 3

Rotor blades are highly staggered

relatively higher losses: large difference in static pressure across rotor

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R > 100%
Flow is decelerating in Nozzle / fixed blades
h2 > h1;

c2 > c1;

3 > 1

Undesirable

R < 0% : Negative Reaction

Flow diffusion in Rotor blades
h3 > h2;

c3 > c2;

2 > 3

Undesirable
Necessary Evil to limit high R at blade tips

Losses
Losses in Impulse stage

Aerodynamic Losses: important to understand to control them

Loss hence = f (choice of blade shape, aspect ratio, spacing, Re, Ma, flow angles)

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Loss Coefficients
Nozzle / Stator
Enthalpy loss coefficient:
N = (h2 h2s) / ( c2^2)
Stagnation Pressure loss coefficient :
YN = (P01 P02) / ( c2^2)

Rotor
Enthalpy loss coefficient:

R = (h3 h3s) / ( w3^2)

Stagnation Pressure loss coefficient :

YR = (P02 rel P03 rel) / ( w3^2)
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Efficiencies:
Total-to-Total:
Ratio of
actual shaft work
&
Ideal SW between TOTAL
conditions at entry & exit

Total-to-Static:
Ratio of
actual shaft work
&
Ideal SW between TOTAL
conditions at entry &
STATIC condition at exit
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Efficiencies for Stage

Total-to-Total:
Ratio of
actual stage work
&
Ideal SW between TOTAL
conditions at entry & exit

Total-to-Static:
Ratio of
actual shaft work
&
Ideal SW between TOTAL
conditions at entry &
STATIC condition at exit
Courtesy: Turbines, Compressors & Fans Yahya

Effect of Reheat
Expansion 1-2: divide 4 stages
Reheat factor = (ws) / ws
>1
T > st
Thermodynamic effect
No actual heat transfer to stage
Reappearance of stage losses
as increased enthalpy during
constant Pressure heating
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Turbine Performance:

at given stator outlet angle, increase as R reduces

stage loading decreases with increase in R
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Turbine Blade Cooling

1% increase -> 2 to 3 % increase in efficiency
Challenge: high speed & stress
Internal

External
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Gas Turbine: COMBUSTOR

Salient Features
Critical component
Energy input
Complex problem of design due to high stresses and temp.
knowledge of FM, combustion, Mechanical design, Materials
CFD comes to rescue
Material development -> 1100 K to 1850 K
Fuels: Liquid petroleum distillates, Natural gases

Operational Requirements & Challenges

High combustion efficiency & low pressure loss
Reduction of visible smoke: high traffic & Millitary
NOx, CO2 emissions: strict norms on pollution
At altitude: low P, T gases
Requirements vary: take-off, high altitude cruise, maneuvers
Fast response: Flame-out, relightning
Combustion in moving air stream
Low residence time in combustor
Uniform temperature distribution to avoid local heating

Combustion System: Types

Can Type: Ideal for centrifugal compressors
Cannular (Tubo-annular)
Annular

Can Type

Courtesy: Gas Turbine Theory HIH S, H C, GFC R

Factors for Combustor Design

comparatively low T after combustion
Known T distribution to avoid local heating
maintain combustion in 30-60 m/s velocity
Coaking : formation of carbon deposits
coaking may damage blades
Flame out : relighting
Unburnt hydrocarbons, NOx , CO2, etc.
Combustion in short time and small space

Combustion Process
Swirl type combustor

Courtesy: Gas Turbine Theory HIH S, H C, GFC R

mixing of fine spray of droplets, breaking down heavy

hydrocarbons, intimate mixing, chemical reactions, burning
Required A/F ratio = 15:1 Available = 100:1
Entry in stages: Primary (15-20), secondary (30), Tertiary
(dilution)

Combustor Types: Flame stabilization

Holes distribution

Upstream:
Afterburners

Walking-Stick
Courtesy: Gas Turbine Theory HIH S, H C, GFC R

Combustor Types: Flame stabilization

T-type

Compact
Mechanically rugged
Courtesy: Gas Turbine Theory HIH S, H C, GFC R

Combustor Chamber performance

Depends on several factors.....
Pressure loss
Combustion efficiency
Outlet temperature distribution
Stability limits
combustion intensity

Combustor in Aircraft Engines

Turbojet

Turboprop

Turbofan

Ramjet
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Centrifugal Compressors

Salient Features
Working fluid: Air (largely), steam, Gas
= f (P, T)
Compressible flow machine: Pressure producing machine
Performance: Euler equation + Equation of state
Mechanical energy is converted to static pressure head
2nd world war: centrifugal compressors
Renewed interest: in conjunction with axial for
turbofan, turboprop

Salient Features
Radically different geometry of flow & passage than Axial
Suitable for: Low specific speed, high P ratio, low mass
Performance wise 3-5% less efficient than axial
Advantages: much higher P ratio (~ 4) per stage,
Simple blade geometry
not affected by small foreign material
Disadvantage: large frontal area
lower efficiency
Multistaging is difficult
Uses: Refrigeration units, petrochemical plants, industrial
small turbo props

Components

3 main components:

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Impeller: imparts E
Diffuser: increases P
Stationary
casing
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Impeller
Imparts mechanical energy to the fluid

Single
sided

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Double
sided

Diffuser
Increases P
Reduces Velocity
@ 50% P increase in I & D

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Stationary Volute Casing

Further increase in P

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Velocity Triangles
r, , x coordinate system
Angles are measured from tangential direction
Different peripheral velocity at Inlet and Outlet

without IGVs

Backward swept Impeller

with IGVs

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Work
NO work in diffuser
Energy input / work: only in Impeller
Axial entry at impeller eye: angular mom. zero
Slip Factor: Inertia of air in passage (Stanitzs formula)
Slip factor (): inversely proportional to no. of vanes
Power input factor (): effect of friction, other losses
Compressor efficiency (c): isentropic to actual work

T-S Plot

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Overall Pressure Ratio

Pressure ratio = f (c, , , u2, cp, T01)
c, , are interdependent
increases T of gas: increase in overall efficiency
: AHAP, f(n)
n increases solid area, friction, , and reduction in c
usually, = 0.9 & n = 19 to 21
low T01 desired; beyond designers control
u2 : Increase -> centrifugal stresses; material limit -> 460 m/s
Pr. Ratio = 4:1
u2 : Increase: Titanium; Pr. Ratio = 8:1

Diffuser
Combustor needs low velocity gas
Danger of separation: eddy formation, waste of KE, low pressure rise
small divergence angle -> long diffuser -> high skin friction loss
optimum angle ~ 7 to 14 deg.

Issue of diffuser vane inlet angle: for smooth entry

Vaneless radial gap between impeller tip & diffuser inlet
ang. Mom Cw r = const. -> Cw reduces with r
continuity: Cr reduces with r, but not as Cw because of density increase
Find Cw & Cr at diffuser inlet, and thus inlet angle
Adjustable diffuser vanes

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Compressibility Effects
Shock wave formation -> losses
Usually, Ma ~ 0.8
Impeller inlet Ma = V1 / (r T1)0.5
Reduce V1: use pre-whirl -> IGV
This reduces work capacity
suitably twist IGV, such that pre-whirl is zero at root of eye
Ma at LE of diffuser should be low;
Variation in circumferential static pressure
transmit to impeller -> mechanical failure
avoid resonance: n(I) should not be multiple of n(D)
common practice: n(I) = prime number & n(D) = even number
Why vane-less space between I and D is important?
Courtesy: Gas Turbine Theory HIH S, H C, GFC R

Losses in Compressor
1. Frictional losses:
skin friction & BL separation
f (friction factor, length of flow passage, sq. of flow vel)

2. Incidence / shock losses:

During off-design condition, entry may not smooth -> losses
in impeller, diffuser, volute

3. Clearance / Leakage losses:

clearances between impeller eye & casing, impeller shaft & casing
overcome by sealing gland
low contribution to total loss

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Compressor Losses

non-zero minimum incidence loss at designed mass flow rate

change in direction from axial to radial, before entering impeller
impeller entry loss
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Non-dimensional numbers
performance depends on several factors
to avoid severe experimentation, dimensional analysis

Some assumptions:

for convenience, use RT for T

no density: included in P & RT
no viscosity: -> Re. Re may not be important for highly turbulent flow.

performance = f (D, N, m, P01, P02, RT01, RT02)

D = char. Length (I dia.)
N = speed RPM
m = mass flow rate
P = pressure
T temperature
R = char. Gas constant
01 = stagnation properties at compressor inlet
02 = stagnation properties at compressor outlet
Buckinghams PI theorem -> 4 PI terms

Surge, Rotational Stall & Choking

Surge: sudden drop in delivery pressure, with violent aerodynamic pulsation

D: positive slope. What if mass flow is reduced? -> Flow reversal
Surging starts in Diffuser passage, and increases with number of vanes
Rotating stall: due to non-uniformity of flow or geometry of channels between vanes,
Flow separates
Courtesy: Gas Turbine Theory HIH S, H C, GFC R
Choking: around E

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Performance Characteristics

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Performance Characteristics

Gas turbine plant should be designed such that compressor will always be
operating on this curve
wise to operate when efficiency is maximum
Courtesy: Gas Turbine Theory HIH S, H C, GFC R

Module 4:
Steam Turbine

Steam Power Plant

Steam Power Plant

Usage: Thermoelectric & Nuclear power plants

Application: propulsion, drive compressors, fans, blowers, pumps
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Carnot Cycle

Rankine Cycle
Why not Carnot Cycle ?!

Salient Features
Idealized model for steam power plant
exploits phase change: liquid-vapour
Maximizes diff. in sp. Volume during compression & expansion

to increase :
increase avg T of heat addition, lower avg T of rejection
Courtesy: Fundamental of Thermodynamics S, B, Wylen

Effect of P & T on Rankine

1. Low Condenser P
condensate, erosion

2. High Boiler P

3. Superheating
Issue: quality of steam
Courtesy: Fundamental of Thermodynamics S, B, Wylen

Reheat
Advantage of superheat
Avoid moisture
avg. T: not much change
little gain in
High T material --> No need of reheat

Courtesy: Fundamental of Thermodynamics S, B, Wylen

Regeneration
Rankine & Carnot

Ideal
uses FWH
reversible

regeneration = Carnot ?
Courtesy: Fundamental of Thermodynamics S, B, Wylen

Regeneration: Actual
avg T of heat addition increases
Closed FWH
Open FWH:
better, cost, construction

Courtesy: Fundamental of Thermodynamics S, B, Wylen

Regeneration: Reality
Economy driven....

combination of reheat & regeneration

Courtesy: Fundamental of Thermodynamics S, B, Wylen

Losses
1. Piping losses:
loss in P and loss in T due to friction

2. Turbine losses:
Frictional effects & heat loss to surrounding
Isentropic efficiency
3. Pump losses:
similar to turbine
4. Condenser losses:
loss of pressure, condensate cooling below sat
usually small
Courtesy: Fundamental of Thermodynamics S, B, Wylen

Regeneration
Rankine & Carnot

Ideal
Actual:
uses FWH
reversible
Impossible
Moisture
regeneration = Carnot ?

Courtesy: Fundamental of Thermodynamics S, B, Wylen

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