Unit III

Intra-Personal Processes: Theory and application of

Learning, Motivation, Sensation and Perception, and
Leadership.
Inter-personal Process: Analysis of Inter-personal
relationships.
MEANING OF LEARNING
Learning is a term frequently used by a great number of people in a wide variety of
contexts. Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour or
potential behaviour as a result of direct or indirect experience. There are two primary
elements in this definition:
I.

The change must be relatively permanent. This means that after "learning" our
behaviour must be different, either better or worse as compared to our
behaviour prior to this learning experience. For example you "learn" to drive a
car or have learned how to use a computer.

II.

This change must occur due to some kind of experience or practice. This
learning is not caused by biological maturation. For example a child does not
learn to walk, it is a natural biological phenomenon. We do not learn to eat or
drink.

Learning is thus a change in behaviour as a result of experience. Different

psychologists and behavioural scientists have defined learning differently.
Given below are a few important definitions of learning:
Stephen P Robbins - "Learning is any relatively permanent change in
behaviour that occurs as a result of experience".
Munn N.L - "Learning is the process of having one's behaviour modified,
more or less permanently, by what he does and the consequences of his
action, or by what he observes".
Steers and Porter - "Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change
in behaviour potentially that results from reinforced practice or experience".
It must be understood that the learning itself is not observable, but only change in
behaviour is observable which is the result of the process of learning. This change in
behaviour must be differentiated from changes in behaviour from other causes. The
causes of such changes including aging, such as being stronger or improvement in
memory in the early formative years, instinctive response tendencies such as a timid
person being brave at the time of a crisis. Accordingly, as a unique determinant of
behaviour, learning cannot take place unless the learner actually experiences what
has to be learned.

DETERMINANTS OF LEARNING
The important factors that determine learning are:
1. Motive: Motives also called drives, prompt people to action. They are primary
energisers of behaviour. They are the ways of behaviour and mainspring of action.
They are largely subjective and represent the mental feelings of human beings. They
are cognitive variables. They arise continuously and determine the general direction
of an individual's behaviour without motive learning cannot occur.
2. Stimuli: Stimuli are objects that exist in the environment in which a person lives.
Stimuli increase the probability of eliciting a specific response from a person.
3. Generalisation: The principle of generalisation has important implications for
human learning. Generalisation takes place when the similar new stimuli repeat in the
environment. When two stimuli are exactly alike, they will have probability of eliciting
specific response. It makes possible for a manager to predict human behaviour when
stimuli are exactly alike.
4. Discrimination: What is not generalisation is discrimination. In case of
discrimination, responses vary to different stimuli. For example an MBA student may
learn to respond to video teaching but not to the oral lecturing by his professor.
5. Responses: The stimulus results in responses - be these in the physical form or in
terms of attitudes or perception or in other phenomena. However, the responses need
to be operationally defined and preferably physically observable.
6. Reinforcement: Reinforcement is a fundamental conditioning of learning.
Reinforcement can be defined as anything that both increases the strength of
response and tends to induce repetitions of behaviour that preceded the
reinforcement. No measurable modification of behaviour can take place without
reinforcement.
7. Retention: Retention means remembrance of learned behaviour overtime. Converse
is forgetting. Learning which is forgotten over time is called "extinction". When the
response strength returns after extinction without only intervening reinforcement it is
called "spontaneous recovery"
THEORIES OF LEARNING
The most basic purpose of learning theory like any other is to better explain how
learning occurs. Attempts have been made by the psychologists and behavioural
scientists to develop theories of learning.
Four theories have been offered to explain the process by which we acquire patterns
of behaviour:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Classical conditioning theory;

Operant conditioning theory;
Cognitive learning theory; and
Social learning theory.

1. Classical conditioning theory;

The concept of classical conditioning is studied by every entry-level psychology

student, so it may be surprising to learn that the man who first noted this
phenomenon was not a psychologist at all. Ivan Pavlov was a noted Russian
physiologist who went on to win the 1904 Nobel Prize for his work studying digestive
processes. It was while studying digestion in dogs that Pavlov noted an interesting
occurrence his canine subjects would begin to salivate whenever an assistant
entered the room. Pavlov suggested that the salivation was a learned response. The
dogs were responding to the sight of the research assistants' white lab coats, which
the animals had come to associate with the presentation of food.
Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936) organized and directed research in physiology at
the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg, Russia from 1891
until his death in 1936. His book "Conditioned Reflexes" is one of the classic
works in psychology.
Classical conditioning is modifying behaviour so that a conditioned stimulus is paired
with an unconditioned stimulus and elicits an unconditioned behaviour. Ivan Pavlov, a
Russian psychologist developed classical conditioning theory based on his
experiments to teach dog to salivate in response to the ringing of a bell. When Pavlov
presented meat (unconditioned stimulus) to the dog, he noticed a great deal of
salivation (conditioned response). But, when merely bell was rung, no salivation was
noticed in the dog. Then, when next Pavlov did was to link the meat and the ringing of
the bell. He did this several
times. Afterwards, he merely rang the bell without presenting the meat. Now, the dog
began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. After a while, the dog would salivate
merely at the sound of the bell, even if no meat were presented. In effect, the dog had
learned to respond i.e. to salivate to the bell.

1. When Pavlov rang a bell without producing meat, the dog did not salivate.
2. When he rang a bell and showed a piece of meat, the dog salivated quite profusely.
3. Pavlov repeated this quite a few times.
4. After some time, it was found that the dog would start salivating at there sound of
the bell even if no food was offered. The dog had learned to respond ie., salivate to
the sound of the bell. Key concepts:
1. The meat was an unconditional stimulus. It invariably caused the dog to react
in a particular way. This reaction is known as the unconditional response (UR).
2. The bell was an artificial stimulus. Though it originally gave neutral response,
when it was paired with the unconditional response (meat), it produced a
response, even when alone.
3. The dog, after repeated conditioning, started salivating even without the
meat, in response to the bell alone. This is called Conditional Response.
1. To learn a conditional response, one has to build up a relationship between
conditional stimulus and conditional stimulus
2. When the stimulus, one compelling and the other neutral are paired, the neutral
becomes a conditional stimulus and takes on the properties of unconditional stimulus.
Criticism:
1. It is passing and not permanent.
2. When something happens we react in a specific way.
3. It explains simple, reflexive behaviour only.

4. It is difficult to trace the exact cause of response. There may be so many.

5. The theory explains learning but fails to explain the behaviour of human
beings.
6. This theory explains only peoples reflexive behaviour, whereas peoples
behaviour is voluntary.

2. Operant conditioning theory;

OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY: (Instrumental)
According to this theory, it is behaviour that produces effects. This theory suggests
that people emit responses to those that are rewarded and will not respond to those
that are not rewarded or from which there emits punishment. Behaviour is voluntary
and it is determined, maintained and controlled by its consequences. It takes for
granted that human beings explore their environment and act upon it. This principle
involves relationship between three elements;
1. Stimulus situation
2. Behavioural response
3. Consequence of the response to the person.
Through this process human beings will learn which behaviour will be rewarding and
they engage in those performances. Behaviour is a function of its consequences. It is
voluntarily learned behaviour instead of reflexive or unlearned behaviour.
B.F. Skinner said that when pleasing consequences follow certain types of behaviour,
the frequency of that kind of behaviour in increased. People will engage in desired
kinds of behaviour if they are reinforced for doing that kind of behaviour. Re3wards
are most effective if they immediately follow the desired behaviour. Behaviour that is
not rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated.
Factors Influencing Operant Conditioning: Several factors affect response rate,
resistance to extinction and how quickly a response is acquired.
1. The first factor is the magnitude of reinforcement. In general, as magnitude of
reinforcement increases, acquisition of a response is greater. For example,
workers would be motivated to work harder and faster, if they were paid a
higher salary. Research indicates that level of performance is also influenced by
the relationship between Perception and Learning the amount of reinforcement
expected and what is actually received. For example, your job performance
would undoubtedly be affected if your salary were suddenly cut by half. Also, it
might dramatically improve if your employer doubled your pay.
2. The second factor affecting operant conditioning is the immediacy of
reinforcement. Responses are conditioned more effectively when reinforcement
is immediate. As a rule, the longer the delay in reinforcement, the more slowly a
response is acquired.
3. The third factor influencing conditioning is the level of motivation of the learner.
If you are highly motivated to learn to play football you will learn faster and
practice more than if you have no interest in the game. Skinner found that when
food is the rein forcer, a hungry animal would learn faster than an animal with a
full stomach.

Implications:
1. Operant conditioning theory has great impact on human learning. Most behaviour .Are learned,
controlled and altered by consequence.
2. Suitable reward systems can be designed to motivate employees.
3. This theory leads to a comprehensive approach to the study of behaviour.

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY:

This theory emphasis the free-will and positive aspects of human behaviour. Cognition
refers to an individuals ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretations and
understanding about himself and his environment.
Learning implies that organisms learn the meanings of various objects and
events and learned response depends upon the meanings assigned to the
stimuli - E.R. Hilgard

Cognitive theorists say that the learner forms cognitive structure in memory,
preserves and organizes information about various events that occur in the
learning process.
Edward C. Tolman trained a rat in a T-Maze to turn right to obtain food. Then he
released the rat from the opposite direction. The rat should have turned right
according to past conditionings. But, instead, the rat turned left and reached the
food. The conclusion is that the rat formed a cognitive map to figure out how to
get to the food and reinforcement was not a precondition to learning. Thus, in
learning,
1. Stimulus leads to another stimulus rather than S-R or R-S.
2. Learning consists of relationships between cognitive environmental
cues and expectations and behaviour is goal-directed.
Wolfang Kohler (1887 - 1967): Learning by insight: - A German Psychologist studied
anthropoid apes and become convinced that they behave intelligently and were
capable of problem solving. In his book The Mentality of Apes (1925), Kohler
describes experiments he conducted on chimpanzees confined in caged areas. In one
experiment Kohler hung a bunch of bananas inside the caged area but overhead, out
of reach of the apes; boxes and sticks were left around the cage. Kohler observed the
chimp's unsuccessful attempts to reach the bananas by jumping or swinging sticks at
them. Eventually the chimps solved the problem by piling the boxes one on top of the
other until they could reach the bananas.

Implications
Because this theory showed the strong relationship between cognitive cues and
workers expectations, it showed in the field of motivation. Various training
programmes are based on this theory.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY:
The social learning theory combines both behaviouristic and cognitive concepts. It
says that learning can take place by vicarious or modeling processes.
Social Learning
Albert Bandura contends that many behaviours or responses are acquired through
observational learning. Observational learning, sometimes called modelling results
when we observe the behaviours of others and note the consequences of that
behaviour. The person who demonstrates behaviour or whose behaviour is imitated is

called models. Parents, movie stars and sports personalities are often powerful
models. The effectiveness of a model is related to his or her status, competence and
power. Other important factors
are the age, attractiveness, and ethnicity of the model. Whether learned behaviours
are actually performed depends largely on whether the person expects to be
rewarded for the behaviour. Social learning integrates the cognitive and operant
approaches to learning. It recognises that learning does not take place only because
of environmental stimuli (classical and operant conditioning) or of individual
determinism (cognitive approach) but is a blend of both views. It also emphasises that
people acquire new behaviours by observing or imitating others in a social setting. In
addition, learning can also be gained by discipline and self-control and an inner desire
to acquire knowledge or skills irrespective of the external rewards or consequences.
This process of self-control is also partially a reflection of societal and cultural
influences on the development and growth of human beings.
Usually, the following four processes determine the influence that a model will have
on an individual:
I. Attention Process: People can learn from their models provided they recognise
and pay attention to the critical features. In practice, the models that are
attractive, repeatedly available or important to us tend to influence us the most.
II.

Retention Process: A model's influence depends on how well the individual can
remember or retain in memory the behaviour/action displayed by him when the
model is no longer readily available.

III.

Motor Reproduction Process: Now, the individual needs to convert the model's
action into his action. This process evinces how well an individual can perform
the modelled action.

IV.

Reinforcement Process: Individuals become motivated to display the modelled

action if incentive and rewards are provided to them.

Learning occurs in two steps;

1. The person watches other people act and makes a mental picture of the action in
his mind. He also sees the consequences, whether there is a reward or punishment.
2. The person then takes out the mental picture that he has made. If the
consequences are positive, he will do it again.People learn not only from experience
but also from the experience of others.
Modeling applications:
1. This precisely defines the goal or target behaviour that will lead to performance
improvement.
2. Selects the appropriate model and modeling medium.
3. Makes sure that the employee is capable of meeting the technical skills required for
attaining the target behaviour.
4. Structures a favourable learning environment to increase the probability of a better
and more productive environment.
5. Models the target behaviour and carries out supporting activities.
6. Positively reinforces the production of the targeted behaviour, both during training
and back in the job.
7. Once the target behaviour is produced, maintaining and strengthening it, first
continuously and then intermittently.

Integrating Various Learning Theories:

All theories of learning try to explain the logic behind the learning process, though
they differ in their orientations. None of the theories explain learning fully. To
understand the process of learning we have to take relevant element from all the
theories.

ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR MODEL (OB model)

This model is derived from Skinners Operant conditioning theory. It is designed to
reduce and replace undesirable behaviour and replace them with desirable ones
leading to goal attainment. It is 58
built around the use of rewards for observable behaviour. It can be defined as the
technique for modifying behaviour of the organizational members so that they are
engaged in desirable behaviour. It is an application of reinforcement concepts to
individuals in the work setting. OB is aprogramme where managers identify
perform-related employees behaviour and then implement an intervention
strategy to strengthen desirable behaviours and weaken undesirable
behavioure - S.P. Robbins
Steps in OB Model :
1. Identification of critical behaviour relevant to organizational performance.
2. These behaviours are measured. If there is no discrepancy between desired
behaviour and measured behaviour, there is no need for further action.
3. If there is discrepancy, functional analysis of behaviour is done, using
intervention strategies.
4. Behaviour modifications are made and once again evaluated to see whether
modifications have been done on the right track.
There are 5 steps for the modification of behaviour.
1. Identification of critical behaviour. This can be done through discussions with
particular employees and their immediate superiors. There are usually 5-10%
behaviour that account for 70-80% employees performance.
2. Measurement of the behaviour: This is done by either, counting, observing or
going through records. Date regarding number of times job is performed under
present conditions is cokkected.
3. Functional analysis: This step identifies the consequences of the
pwrformance. It explains the various behaviours of the employees towards their
particular jobs.
4. Intervention Strategies: These strategies are developed to maintain and
strengthen desirable performances and weaken undesirable ones. Some
elements are changed. Reward linkage performances are entered into. New
technologies are adopted.
5. Systematic Evaluation: After changes are introduced, the system is assessed.
It is seen whether the changes have really led to improvement of doing things. It
is to be seen whether the employees have undergone a relatively permanent
change in behaviour.
Contribution:
1. It is used to improve employees productivity.
2. Errors are reduced

3. Absenteeism, tardiness and accidents have been reduced.

4. Customer relationship has been improved.
Criticism:
1. The model assumes that peoples feelings and innermost thoughts to
responses are irrelevant. But it has been seen that thoughts and feelings many
a times immediately follow environmental stimuli

Motivation
Motivation Theories: Individual Needs
Motivation is a complex phenomenon. Several theories attempt to explain how motivation works. In
management circles, probably the most popular explanations of motivation are based on the needs of the
individual. The basic needs model, referred to as content theory of motivation, highlights the specific
factors that motivate an individual. Although these factors are found within an individual, things outside the
individual can affect him or her as well. In short, all people have needs that they want satisfied. Some are
primary needs, such as those for food, sleep, and waterneeds that deal with the physical aspects of
behavior and are considered unlearned. These needs are biological in nature and relatively stable. Their
influences on behavior are usually obvious and hence easy to identify.
Secondary needs, on the other hand, are psychological, which means that they are learned primarily
through experience. These needs vary significantly by culture and by individual. Secondary needs consist
of internal states, such as the desire for power, achievement, and love. Identifying and interpreting these
needs is more difficult because they are demonstrated in a variety of ways. Secondary needs are responsible
for most of the behavior that a supervisor is concerned with and for the rewards a person seeks in an
organization.
Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory

Several theorists, including Abraham Maslow, Frederick Herzberg, David McClelland, and Clayton
Alderfer, have provided theories to help explain needs as a source of motivation.
Abraham Maslow defined need as a physiological or psychological deficiency that a person feels the
compulsion to satisfy. This need can create tensions that can influence a person's work attitudes and
behaviors. Maslow formed a theory based on his definition of need that proposes that humans are
motivated by multiple needs and that these needs exist in a hierarchical order. His premise is that only an
unsatisfied need can influence behavior; a satisfied need is not a motivator.

Maslow's theory is based on the following two principles:

Deficit principle: A satisfied need no longer motivates behavior because people act to satisfy
deprived needs.

Progression principle: The five needs he identified exist in a hierarchy, which means that a need at
any level only comes into play after a lowerlevel need has been satisfied.

In his theory, Maslow identified five levels of human needs. Table illustrates these five levels and provides
suggestions for satisfying each need.
Although research has not verified the strict deficit and progression principles of Maslow's theory, his ideas
can help managers understand and satisfy the needs of employees.

Herzberg's two-factor theory

Frederick Herzberg offers another framework for understanding the motivational implications of work
environments.

In his twofactor theory, Herzberg identifies two sets of factors that impact motivation in the workplace:

Hygiene factors include salary, job security, working conditions, organizational policies, and
technical quality of supervision. Although these factors do not motivate employees, they can cause
dissatisfaction if they are missing. Something as simple as adding music to the office place or
implementing a nosmoking policy can make people less dissatisfied with these aspects of their
work. However, these improvements in hygiene factors do not necessarily increase satisfaction.

Satisfiers or motivators include such things as responsibility, achievement, growth opportunities,

and feelings of recognition, and are the key to job satisfaction and motivation. For example,
managers can find out what people really do in their jobs and make improvements, thus increasing
job satisfaction and performance.

Following Herzberg's twofactor theory, managers need to ensure that hygiene factors are adequate and
then build satisfiers into jobs.

Alderfer's ERG theory

Clayton Alderfer's ERG (Existence, Relatedness, Growth) theory is built upon Maslow's hierarchy of
needs theory. To begin his theory, Alderfer collapses Maslow's five levels of needs into three categories.

Existence needs are desires for physiological and material wellbeing. (In terms of Maslow's model,
existence needs include physiological and safety needs)

Relatedness needs are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships. (In terms of Maslow's
model, relatedness correspondence to social needs)

Growth needs are desires for continued psychological growth and development. (In terms of
Maslow's model, growth needs include esteem and selfrealization needs)

This approach proposes that unsatisfied needs motivate behavior, and that as lower level needs are
satisfied, they become less important. Higher level needs, though, become more important as they are
satisfied, and if these needs are not met, a person may move down the hierarchy, which Alderfer calls the
frustrationregression principle.
What he means by this term is that an already satisfied lower level need can become reactivated and
influence behavior when a higher level need cannot be satisfied. As a result, managers should provide
opportunities for workers to capitalize on the importance of higher level needs.

McClelland's acquired needs theory

David McClelland's acquired needs theory recognizes that everyone prioritizes needs differently. He also
believes that individuals are not born with these needs, but that they are actually learned through life
experiences. McClelland identifies three specific needs:

Need for achievement is the drive to excel.

Need for power is the desire to cause others to behave in a way that they would not have behaved
otherwise.

Need for affiliation is the desire for friendly, close interpersonal relationships and conflict
avoidance.

McClelland associates each need with a distinct set of work preferences, and managers can help tailor the
environment to meet these needs.
High achievers differentiate themselves from others by their desires to do things better. These individuals
are strongly motivated by job situations with personal responsibility, feedback, and an intermediate degree
of risk. In addition, high achievers often exhibit the following behaviors:
1. Seek personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems
2. Want rapid feedback on their performances so that they can tell easily whether they are improving or
not
3. Set moderately challenging goals and perform best when they perceive their probability of success
as 5050
4. An individual with a high need of power is likely to follow a path of continued promotion over time.
Individuals with a high need of power often demonstrate the following behaviors:
5. Enjoy being in charge
6. Want to influence others
7. Prefer to be placed into competitive and statusoriented situations
8. Tend to be more concerned with prestige and gaining influence over others than with effective
performance
9. People with the need for affiliation seek companionship, social approval, and satisfying
interpersonal relationships. People needing affiliation display the following behaviors:

10. Take a special interest in work that provides companionship and social approval
11. Strive for friendship
12. Prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones
13. Desire relationships involving a high degree of mutual understanding
14. May not make the best managers because their desire for social approval and friendship may
complicate managerial decision making
Interestingly enough, a high need to achieve does not necessarily lead to being a good manager, especially
in large organizations. People with high achievement needs are usually interested in how well they do
personally and not in influencing others to do well. On the other hand, the best managers are high in their
needs for power and low in their needs for affiliation.

LEADERSHIP & Its

Theories
DEFINITIONS AND MEANING OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership is a great quality and it can create and convert anything. There are many
definitions of leadership. Some of the definitions of leadership are reproduced below:"Leadership" according to Alford and Beatty "is the ability to secure desirable actions
from a group of followers voluntarily, without the use of coercion".
According to Chester I Barnard, "It (leadership) refers to the quality of the behaviour of
the individual whereby they guide people on their activities in organized efforts".
According to Terry, "a leader shows the way by his own example. He is not a pusher,
he pulls rather than pushes".
According to Koontz and O'Donnell - Managerial leadership is "the ability to exert
interpersonal influence by means of communication, towards the achievement of a
goal.
Since managers get things done through people, their success depends, to a
considerable extent upon their ability to provide leadership".
In the words of R.T. Livingston - Leadership is "the ability to awaken in others the
desire to follow a common objective".
According to the Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences - "Leadership is the relation
between an individual and a group around some common interest and behaving in a
manner directed or determined by him".
According to Peter Drucker - Leadership "is not making friends and influencing people
i.e., salesmanship. Leadership is the lifting of man's vision to higher sights, the raising
of man's performance to higher standards, the building of man's personality beyond
its normal limitations".

According to Louis A Allen - "A leader is one who guides and directs other people. He
gives the efforts to his followers a direction and purpose by influencing their
behaviour".
In the words of Theo Haimann - "Leadership is the process by which an executive
imaginatively directs, guides and influences the work of others in choosing and
attaining specified goals by mediating between the individuals and the organization in
such a manner that both will obtain maximum satisfaction".
In the words of James Gibbon - Leadership is "a process of influencing on a group in a
particular situation at a given point of time and in a specific set of circumstances that
stimulates people to strive willingly to attain organizational objectives, giving them
the experience of helping attain the common objectives and satisfaction with the type
of leadership provided".
According to Katz and Kalm - "In the descriptions of organizations, no word is used
with such varied meanings. The word leadership is sometimes used to indicate that it
is an attribute of personality; sometimes, it is used as if it were a characteristic of
certain positions, and sometimes as an attribute of behaviour".
From the above definitions we can conclude that leadership is a psychological process
of influencing followers (subordinates) and providing guidance, directing and leading
the people in an organization towards attainment of the objectives of the enterprise.

Nature & Characteristics

a. Leadership implies the existence of followers: We appraise the
qualities of leadership by studying his followers. In an organization
leaders are also followers for e.g.:- Supervisor works under a branch
head. Thus, in a formal organization a leader has to be able to be
both a leader as well as a follower, and be able to relate himself
both upward and downward.
b. Leadership involves a community of interest between the
leader and his followers: In other words, the objectives of both
the leader and his men are one and the same. If the leader strives
for one purpose and his team of workers work for some other
purpose, it is no leadership.
c. Leadership involves an unequal distribution of authority
among leaders and group members: Leaders can direct some of
the activities of group members, i.e., the group members are
compelled or are willing to obey most of the leader's directions. The
group members cannot similarly direct the leader's activities,
though they will obviously affect those activities in a number of
ways.
d. Leadership is a process of Influence: Leadership implies that
leaders can influence their followers or subordinates in addition to
being able to give their followers or subordinates legitimate
directions.

e. Leadership is the function of stimulation: Leadership is the

function of motivating people to strive willingly to attain
organizational objectives. A successful leader allows his
subordinates (followers) to have their individual goals set up by
themselves in such a way that they do not conflict with the
organizational objectives.
f. A leader must be exemplary: In the words of George Terry - "A
Leader shows the way by his own example. He is not a pusher, he
pulls rather than pushes". According to L.G. Urwick - "it does not
what a leader says, still less what he writes, that influences
subordinates. It is what he is. And they judge what he is by what he
does and how he behaves". From the above explanation it is clear
that a leader must set an ideal before his followers. He must
stimulate his followers for hard and sincere work by his personal
behaviour. In other words a leader must set an exemplary standard
before his followers.
g. A Leader ensures absolute justice: A leader must be objective
and impartial. He should not follow unfair practices like favouritism
and nepotism. He must show fairplay and absolute justice in all his
decisions and actions.
LEADERSHIP SKILL
In a broad way the skills which are necessary for an industrial leader may be
summarized under four heads:(a) Human skill
(b) Conceptual skill
(c) Technical skill and
(d) Personal skill.
Human Skill
A good leader is considerate towards his followers because his success largely
depends on the co-operation of his followers. He approaches various problems in
terms of people involved more than in terms of technical aspects involved. A leader
should have an understanding of human behaviour. He should know people; know
their needs, sentiments, emotions, as also their actions and reactions to particular
decisions, their motivations etc. Thus, a successful leader possesses the human
relations attitude. He always tries to develop social understanding with other people.
The human skill involves the following:(a) Empathy: A leader should be able to look at things objectively. He should
respect the rights, belief and sentiments of others. He should equip himself to
meet the challenges emanating from the actions and reactions of other people.
The leader should be empathetic towards his followers so that he can carefully
judge their
strengths, weakness, and ambitions and give them the attention they deserve.
(b) Objectivity: A good leader is fair and objective in dealing with subordinates.
He must be free from bias and prejudice while becoming emotionally involved
with the followers. His approach to any issue or problem should be objective and

not based on any pressure, prejudice or preconceived notions. Objectivity is a

vital aspect of
analytical decision making. Honesty, fairplay, justice and integrity of character
are expected of any good leader.
(c) Communication Skill: A leader should have the ability to persuade, to
inform, stimulate, direct and convince his subordinates. To achieve this, a leader
should have good communication skill. Good communications seem to find all
responsibilities easier to perform because they relate to others more easily and
can better utilize
the available resources.
(d) Teaching Skill: A leader should have the ability to demonstrate how to
accomplish a particular task.
(e) Social Skill: A leader should understand his followers. He should be helpful,
sympathetic and friendly. He should have the ability to win his followers
confidence and loyalty.

Conceptual Skill
In the words of Chester Barnard -"the essential aspect of the executive process is the
sensing of the organization as a whole and the total situation relevant to it".
Conceptual skills include
(a) The understanding of the organization behaviour,
(b) Understanding the competitors of the firm, and
(c) Knowing the financial status of the firm.
A leader should have the ability to look at the enterprise as a whole, to recognize that
the various functions of an organization depend upon one another and are
interrelated, that changes in one affect all others. The leader should have skill to run
the firm in such a way that overall performance of the firm in the long run will be
sound.
Technical Skill
A leader should have a thorough knowledge of, and competence in, the principles,
procedures and operations of a job. Technical skill involves specialized knowledge,
analytical skill and a facility in the use of the tools and techniques of a specific
discipline. Technical competence is an essential quality of leadership.
Personal Skill
The most important task of the leader is to get the best from others. This is possible
only if he possesses certain qualities. These personal skills include(a) Intelligence: Intellectual capacity is an essential quality of leadership. Leaders
generally have somewhat higher level of intelligence than the average of their
followers.
(b)Emotional Maturity: A leader should act with self-coincidence, avoid anger,
take decisions on a rational basis and think clearly and maturely. A leader
should also have high frustration tolerance. According to Koontz and O'Donnell "Leaders cannot afford to become panicky, unsure of themselves in the face of
conflicting forces, doubtful of their principles when challenged, or amenable to
influence".

(c) Personal Motivation: This involves the creation of enthusiasm within the
leader himself to get a job done. It is only through enthusiasm that one can
achieve what one wants. Leaders have relatively intense achievement type
motivational drive. He should work hard more for the satisfaction of inner drives
than for extrinsic material rewards.
(d) Integrity: In the words of F.W Taylor - "integrity is the straight forward honesty
of purpose which makes a man truthful, not only to others but to himself; which
makes a man high-minded, and gives him high aspirations and high ideals".
(e) (e) Flexibility of Mind: A leader must be prepared to accommodate other's
viewpoints
and modify his decisions, if need be. A leader should have a flexible mind, so
that he may change in obedience to the change in circumstances. Thomas Carle
has said - "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of a little mind". In sum, a
leader must have a dynamic personality, intellectual attainment, amiable
disposition, unassuming temperament and knowledge of how to deal with his
followers.

The different types of leadership styles are:1. Autocratic or task Management Leadership,
2. Participative or democratic leadership,
3. Laissez faire or Free-rein Leadership, and
4. paternalistic Leadership.
Autocratic or Task Management Leadership
The autocratic Leader gives order which he insists shall be obeyed. He
determines polices for the group without consulting them, and does not give
detailed information about future plans, but simply tells the group what steps
must they take. In other words, an autocratic leader is one who centralizes the
authority in himself and does not delegate authority to his subordinates. He is
dictatorial by nature, and has no regard for the subordinates. He drives himself
and his subordinates with one thought uppermost in his mind- action must
produce results. An autocratic close the entire planning and cells upon his
subordinates to execute what he has planned. An Autocratic leader operates on
the following assumptions:(a) An average human being has inherent dislikes of work and will avoid it if he
can.
(b) His assumption is that if his subordinate was intelligent enough, he would
not be in that subordinate position.
(c) He assumes that unintelligent subordinates are immature, unreliable and
irresponsible persons. Therefore, they should be constantly watched in the
course of their work.
(d) As he has no regard for his subordinates, he gets the work done by his
subordinates through negative motivation i.e. through threats of penalty and
punishment. Thus under this style all decision-making power is centralized in
the leader. The autocratic leader stresses his prerogative to decide and order
and subordinates obligation to do what they are told to carry out. He does not
give subordinates the freedom to influence his behaviour.

Types of autocratic leadership

Strict autocratic leaders: A strict autocratic relies on negative influence and
gives orders which the subordinates must accept. He may also use his power to
disperse rewards to his group.
Benevolent Autocrat: The benevolent is effected in getting high productivity in
many situations and he can develop effective human relationship. His
motivational style is usually positive.
Manipulative Autocrat: A manipulative autocratic leader is one who makes the
subordinates feel that they are participating in decision making process even
though he has already taken the decision.
Participative or Democratic Leadership
A democratic leader is one who consults and invites his subordinates to
participate in the decision making process. He gives orders only after consulting
the group; sees to it that polices are worked out in group decisions and with the
acceptance of group. The manager largely avoids the use of power to get a job
done. He behaves that a desired organizational behaviour can be obtained if
employees' needs and wants are satisfied. Therefore, he not only issues orders
but interprets them and sees to it that the employees have the necessary skill
and tool to carry out their assignments. He assigns a fair work lead to his
personal and recognizes the job that is well done; there is a team approach to
the attainment of organizational goals. He recognizes human value for greater
concern for his subordinates. A participative leader operates on the following
assumptions:(a) Subordinates are capable of doing work and assuming the responsibility if
they are given opportunities and incentives.
(b) Subordinates are supervised, guided and aided rather then threatened and
commanded to work.
(c) Mistakes are not viewed seriously. The assumption is that disciplinary action
breeds discontent and frustration among employees and creates an unhealthy
work environment.
Laissez Faire or Free-rein Leadership
A free-rein leader does not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself. The
leader avoids using power and interest the decision making authority to his
subordinates. He does not direct his subordinates and there is complete
freedom for the subordinates. Group of members work themselves and provide
their own motivation. The manager exits as a contact man with outsiders to
bring for his group the information and resources it needs to accomplish its job.
A free-rain leadership operates on the following assumption:(a) He follows the rule of minimum exposure to accountability.
(b) He relieves himself of responsibilities and is ready to blame his subordinates
if something goes wrong.
(c) He has no clear idea of the goals to be attained.
(d) He is more security conscious than status conscious.
This mode of direction can produce good and quick results if the subordinates
are highly
educated and brilliant people who have a will to go ahead and perform their
responsibility.
Paternalistic Leadership
Under this type of leadership, the leader assumes that his function is fatherly.
His attitude is that of treating the relationship between the leader and his
groups that of family with the leader as the head of the family. The leader works
to help to work to help, guide, protect and keep his followers happily working

together as members of a family. He provides them with good working

condition, fringe benefits and employee services. It is said that employees under
such leadership well work harder out of gratitude.

Sensation and
Perception
Perception: Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their
sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. - Stephan P.
Robbins
What one perceives can be different from objective reality. All people may not agree
on the same thing. Usually they disagree. This is a cognitive process ie., ways in which
different people process information. Computers process information, just like human
beings. The difference is that humans process it subjectively.
Concept of perception: Perception is the process of selecting, organizing and
interpreting or attaching meaning to the events happening in the environment. It has
the following features;
1.It is an intellectual process by which a person collects data from the environment,
organizes it and obtains meaning from it.

2.Perception is the basic cognitive or psychological process. The manner in which a

person perceives the environment affects his behaviour. Peoples thought, emotions
and feelings are results of perception.
3.Perception is a subjective process because it is an intellectual and psychological
process. Different people have different perception of reality.
Factors influencing perception:A number of factors operate to influence perception. These factors are found in the
perceiver, in the object or situation and in the context of the situation. This can be
seen in the following diagramme;
Factors in the person

Attitudes
Motives
Interests
Experiences
Expectations

Factors in the situation

Time
Work Setting
Social Setting

Factors in the Target

Novelty
Motion
Sounds
Size
Background
Proximity
Similarity

Factors that influence Perception

When an individual looks at a thing or target, he is heavily influenced by his personal
characteristics such as attitudes, motives, interests, past experience, etc. One sees
what one wants to see. Factors of the target one perceives can also affect perception.
Certain traits or characteristics makes the situation or person stand out. Eg: Marriage
Day, a special birthday party, a special friend, a woman flamboyantly dressed, etc.
The context in which things are seen or perceived is also important. The same thing
seen at different times, situations, or social settings gives different perceptions.
FACTORS IN THE PERCEIVER: (Causes for distortion in perception)
A.
Personality:
a.
Secure people perceive others as warm individuals who are good and
helpful.

b.
Thoughtful people do not make hasty judgments based on a single
evidence.
c.
Self-accepting people perceive others as liking them. They do not distrust
others.
d.
People who are actually as they see themselves, tend to asses others
correctly.
B.
Mental Set Up: Mental set up is the tendency to react in a certain way to a given
situation. Such people react or act according to their set mental state.
C.
Attribution: This is the process by which individuals interpret events as being
caused by particular aspects in the settings around them. People learn to behave
according to thr factors in their environment. Different people have different views
about why people behave in a particular manner. Some people attribute the reasons
for something within them. This is known as internal locus of control, while others may
assign the reason to something lying outside.
This is known as external locus of control. Studies suggest that internals;
a.
Are more curious about the situations around them
b.
Use more information for decision making and are more aware.
c.
Adopt a more alert, calculative attitude with respect to their
situations.
Externals;
a.
Are less curious about their situations.
b.
Use less information and are less aware.
c.
Adopt passive, less calculating attitudes.
FIRST IMPRESSIONS:
Many people evaluate others on the basis of their first impression. This may not
be an accurate way of doing things. The tendency is to continue ones perception
based on the first impression, even if it is not correct. This can be set right by more
frequent interactions, though t is not easy.
Halo-Effect: The halo serves as a screen, keeping the perceiver from actually seeing
the trait he is judging. A person is judged on the basis of one trait or event. Eg;
Performance Reports or ratings that are judged on the basis of one or two incidents or
conditions. This happens when the traits to be judged are unclear or when the traits
are not frequent.
Stereotyping: This happens when the perceiver judges a person on the basis on the
group to which he belongs, ie;, the group characteristics. That it is many a times
generalised that fat people are jolly, Chinese are inscrutable, Americans are ambitious
and materialistic.
Contrast Effect: The perceiver judges a person in comparison to others and not in
isolation. This happens in interviews.
Projection Effect: This is the tendency to attribute ones own characteristics to others.
FACTORS IN PERSON PERCEIVED:
There are certain factors associated with the person or object perceived which also
distort perception. They are;
1) Status: It is the relative of a person in comparison to others. It may be based on
organizational positions, intelligence, knowledge, wealth, etc. Theses
perceptions may or may not be true. For example: people with high status have
disagreeable qualities.

2) Visibility traits: There are many traits that are not visible on the surface. Such
qualities as honesty, loyalty cannot be seen visibly. Closeness among people
provides the opportunity to see the traits correctly.
SITUATIONAL FACTORS:
This also affects perception. In a hierarchy, a person is perceived as per the
position he occupies or the place in which he is met. That is why the marketing
departments are lavishly furnished. This may not reflect the true picture and
distort peoples perception.
PROCESS OF PERCEPTION:
Perception is a process consisting of several sub-processes. It is also called inputthroughput-output approach. The basis is that there are inputs that are processed to
get outputs.
Inputs:
Subjects, events or people in the environment
The Throughputs: Selection, organization and interpretation mechanism.
Outputs:
Resultant opinions, feelings, attitudes that influence our
behaviour.

Characteristics of
stimuli or outputs

Perceptual
Outputs
Objects
People
Events

Perceptual Mechanism

Perceptual
Outputs
Attitudes
Opinions
Feelings
Values

Selection
Introspection

Organisation

Characteristics of
the situation

Behaviou
r

Characteristics
of the perceiver

Process of perception

Perceptual Inputs
A. Inputs: Stimuli may be in the form of objects, events or people. It includes
everything in the environment. What is important is the characteristics of the
stimuli, whether it is favourable or unfavourable. When the perceiver interacts
with the stimuli, sensation takes place. This starts the perception process.

B. Perceptual Mechanism: This involves selection of stimuli, 0rganization of stimuli

and interpretation of stimuli.
C. Selection of stimuli: It is not possible for a person to select all stimuli. So, many
are screened out. There are 2 types of selected stimuli.
1.
Internal Factors: These factors are related to an individuals complex
psychological make up. Things that appeal to a person such as selfconcept, beliefs, expectations, inner needs, response, disposition etc.,
are some of the factors.
2.
External Factors: These are environmental influences with specific
characteristics such as size, intensity, repetition, novelty, familiarity,
contrast and motion are some of the factors.
D. Organisation of Stimuli : After the stimuli are received, they are organized in a
particular ways and designs to make sense out of them. They are put in
organized patterns on the basis of figures, groupings, proximity, similarity,
simplification and closure.
E. Interpretation of Stimuli: The stimuli that have been organized are then
interpreted according to different perceivers, in order to get meaning out of it.
People interpret stimuli according to their own, assumptions and feelings. So,
characteristics of the stimuli, situation under which the perception takes place
and the characteristics of the perceiver affect the interpretation.
F. F.
Perceptual Outputs: After the stimuli inputs are interpreted, the output
emerges. They may be in the form of covert actions or overt ones. Covert is the
psychological attitudes such as beliefs and impressions. Overt is the physical
behaviour, which in turn, requires other factors as availability, money, capacity,
etc.
MANAGERIAL APPLICATION OF PERCEPTION:
People, including managers, act on the basis of what they see and how they perceive
things. The perception affects the behaviour of the managers as well as other
employees. Managers must remember that people will allow only those things which
they find meaningful. In order to influence their behaviour. Therefore, perception is
very important. Mangers should lay special stress on three aspects.
1.
Interpersonal working relationship
2.
Selection of employees
3.
Performance appraisal.
1.
Interpersonal working relationship: Behaviour in an organization should be
integrated. Managers in the organization must understand whether the members
share the same or similar perceptions. If they do not, corrective measures have to be
taken.
2.
Selection of employees : Usually new recruits are inducted on the basis of tests,
interviews, family background and the applicants application. During selection, there
may be some problem in a mangers concept
a.
Managers emotional state may vary from day to day causing
varying perceptions of even the same individual.
b.
There may be strong tendencies of stereotyping, halo effect,
first impression, etc.
3.
Performance Appraisals: The appraisal of a subordinates performance is highly
affected by the accuracy of a managers perception.
a.
Managers may evaluate persons positively because they are better
liked or more

b.

popular.
Because of the halo effect or one time evaluation.

It is therefore essential for people in an organization to perceive people in an

organization correctly. The following measures can be taken to attain this.
1. Perceiving oneself correctly: The more accurately a person perceives himself,
the more accurately he can perceive others. This requires mutual trust and
better interpersonal relationships.
2. Enhancing self-concept: When people have a positive self esteem, ie., regard for
themselves, they will have positive esteem of others.
3. Having positive attitude: One should not be biased.
4. Being empathetic: Being able to see situations as they are seen by others. Look
at others point of view.
5. Communicating more openly: Make communication more effective so that
messages reach the right place at the right time.
6. Avoid common perceptual distortions.

SENSATION:
Both perception and sensation are cognitive processes. Sensation may be described
as the process to a physical sensory organ. The sense organs are continually affected
by senses, both internally and externally. Sensations deal with elementary behaviour,
that are largely determined by physiological functioning. Perception is something
more. It correlates, integrates and comprehends different sensations. Perception
classifies the sensation and perceives an output.

E.G. Boring has said, The distinction between sensation and perception is commonly
made on the assumption that sensation refers to the action by a receptor when it is
stimulated and perception refers to the meaning given to the sensation.

The words sensation and perception are interrelated, which makes it

quite easy to mix up the definition of the two words. Sensation is
essentially the feeling what we feel with our senses. Sensations are
things in our environment that are registered by the five major sensory
organs. Sensation is what we see, hear, smell, taste and feel. Perception
is how we interpret these sensations. Perception helps us make sense of
our sensations.
defines sensation as:
The operation or function of the senses; perception or awareness of
stimuli through the senses.
A mental condition or physical feeling resulting from stimulation of a
sense organ or from internal bodily change, as cold or pain.
Physiology. The faculty of perception of stimuli.
A general feeling not directly attributable to any given stimulus, as
discomfort, anxiety, or doubt.
A mental feeling, especially a state of excited feeling.
A state of excited feeling or interest caused among a number of
persons or throughout a community, as by some rumor or
occurrence.
A cause of such feeling or interest: The new Brazilian movie was the
sensation of the film festival.
perception as:

 The act or faculty of apprehending by means of the senses or of the

mind; cognition; understanding.
Immediate or intuitive recognition or appreciation, as of moral,
psychological, or aesthetic qualities; insight; intuition; discernment:
an artist of rare perception.
The result or product of perceiving, as distinguished from the act of
perceiving; percept.
Psychology. A single unified awareness derived from sensory
processes while a stimulus is present.
The main difference between sensation and perception is that sensations
are the passive process of bringing information from the outside world
into the body and to the brain. Perception, on the other hand, is the active
process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the information brought
to the brain by the senses.
Sensations are passive, in the sense that we do not have to be
consciously engaging in a "sensing" process. It is what our senses do
naturally and at all the time. However, perception is what our brain
actively does: it interprets the sensations.
Sensation is the process by which our senses gather information and send
it to the brain. Humans are capable of sensing a large amount of
information as any given time, such as room temperature, brightness of
the lights, someone talking, a distant train, or the smell of perfume.
However, due to too much information, our brain does not interpret
everything.
For example, if you are talking to someone, you might not realize that
someone just walked in the room, even though you probably did hear the
door creak and their footsteps. Its just that your brain didnt interpret the
information, and hence you didnt perceive the person walking in. Due to
this most of our world goes unperceived by us. Scientists estimate that
we observe 11,000,000 bits of info per second. However, we interpret
only 40 bits.
Also, perception can be shaped by learning, memory and expectation. An
example of this and an easy way to distinguish between sensation and
perception is that: When we see a building from far, it appears small.
When we walk towards the building it appears to get bigger, at least that
is what our eyes see. However, we do not exclaim in surprise that the
building is growing, or that we are shrinking. It is because we know that
the building is the same size as it always was, as we are as well, its just
our relative distance from the building that makes the building appear so.

Another example of perception shaped by learning, memory and

expectation is when we walk into a room. If anything is amiss, or if
something has been moved or removed entirely, we can tell the
difference. Our eyes see the room, and we perceive that something is
different from before.