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SRI LANKA INSTITUTE of ADVANCED TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION

ATI Labuduwa

Civil Engineering
Trainee Manual

Training Unit

Structural Steel Engineering 2


Part 2
Theory

No: CE 018

Training Unit
Structural Steel Engineering 2
Part2
Theoretical Part
No.: CE 018

Edition:

2009
All Rights Reserved

Editor:

MCE Industrietechnik Linz GmbH & Co


Education and Training Systems, DM-1
Lunzerstrasse 64 P.O.Box 36, A 4031 Linz / Austria
Tel. (+ 43 / 732) 6987 3475
Fax (+ 43 / 732) 6980 4271
Website: www.mcelinz.com
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PREFACE
This edition of CE018: Structural Steel Engineering 2 - Part2 has been prepared to help
Instructors to conduct a basic course on the design of structural members of steel
buildings. The intended audience for this book is pre-university and diploma level students.
This compilation shall help students develop adequate understanding of the basics of
structural steel design.
Design of steel structures is a vast subject and many good text books are available. Most
of such books treat the subject with adequate depth and contains enough material to
conduct two full courses on steel structures at undergraduate and graduate level. As such,
these books tend to be too overwhelming for the intended audience i.e. pre-university and
diploma level students. Therefore, advanced topics are deliberately avoided to keep the
presentation of the topics simple. Complex derivation of design formulas are kept at
minimum, only those which are deemed essential are included. In most cases the final
design equations are mentioned. Emphasis is given on understanding these equations for
their proper use and application rather than their development. Worked out examples are
given in the accompanying CE018: Test Questions and Answers which also includes some
problems for practice.
Chapters 1 and 2 describe local buckling criteria of structural steel members. Chapter 3
described various types of connections commonly used in steel buildings.
It is believed that if the materials presented in this compilation are thoroughly followed and
the problems including the worked out ones are practiced, a fairly good understanding of
the basics of theory of structural steel design shall be developed.

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STRUCTURAL STEEL ENGINEERING 2 - Part2


TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE .............................................................................................................................2
1

COMPRESSION MEMBERS: COLUMNS.....................................................................5


1.1

Introduction............................................................................................................5

1.2

Buckling of Compression Members.......................................................................5

1.3

Basic Column Strength..........................................................................................7

1.4

Column Shapes.....................................................................................................7

1.5

Radius of Gyration and Slenderness Ratio ...........................................................9

1.6

Column Formulas ................................................................................................10

1.6.1

ASD: Inelastic Buckling ...................................................................................11

1.6.2

ASD: Elastic Buckling......................................................................................11

1.6.3

LRFD Design equations ..................................................................................12

1.7

Built-up sections ..................................................................................................12

1.8

Unbraced Height .................................................................................................13

1.9

Column Design....................................................................................................15

1.10

Column Splices ...................................................................................................16

FLEXURAL MEMBERS: BEAMS.................................................................................22


2.1

Introduction..........................................................................................................22

2.2

Beam Cross Sections..........................................................................................23

2.3

Bending Behaviour of Beams..............................................................................24

2.4

Lateral-Torsional Buckling...................................................................................27

2.5

Local Buckling of Beam Elements.......................................................................28

2.6

Design for Limited Deflection ..............................................................................30

2.7

Allowable Stress Design of Beams .....................................................................33

2.7.1

Specification Formulas ....................................................................................34

2.8

Shear in Beams...................................................................................................41

2.9

Shearing Buckling of Beam Webs.......................................................................42

2.10

Bend Buckling of Beam Webs.............................................................................46

2.11

Combined Shearing and Bending of Webs .........................................................47

2.12

Crippling and Vertical Buckling of Webs .............................................................49

2.13

Beam Columns....................................................................................................52

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2.13.1

Working Stress Design Criteria ...................................................................53

2.13.2

Simplified Interaction Criterion for Small Axial Compression ......................56

2.13.3

Design Procedure........................................................................................57

CONNECTIONS ..........................................................................................................65
3.1

Introduction..........................................................................................................65

3.2

Types of Connections..........................................................................................65

3.2.1
3.3
3.3.1

Beam Line .......................................................................................................66


Framed Beam Connections.................................................................................68
Flexural Stress on Connection Angles ............................................................69

3.4

Seated Beam Connections - Unstiffened ............................................................70

3.5

Stiffened Seat Connections.................................................................................75

3.6

Beam-Column Moment Connections ..................................................................79

3.6.1

Horizontal Stiffener in Compression Region of Connection ............................81

3.6.2

Horizontal Stiffener in Tension Region of Connection.....................................83

3.6.3

Split-Beam Tee Connections...........................................................................88

3.6.4

End-Plate Connections....................................................................................92

3.7

Column Bases .....................................................................................................94

3.8

Column Bases to Resist Moment ........................................................................97

Appendix ...........................................................................................................................104

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1.1

COMPRESSION MEMBERS: COLUMNS

Introduction

Compression members are usually given names which identify them as particular
members in a structure. The vertical compression members in building frames are called
columns in the United States and stanchions in England. Compression members are
sometimes called posts, and the diagonal members at the end of through-bridge trusses
are usually called end posts. Other compression members in trusses are known according
to their position as chord members or web members. The principal compression member in
a crane is called a boom. Some types of compression member are called struts. Members
which connect adjacent frames at the eaves of some types of industrial buildings are called
eave struts.

Fig. 1.1 Elastic buckling of column.

1.2

Buckling of Compression Members

Column buckling theory originated with Leonhard Euler in 1759. An initially straight
concentrically loaded member, in which all fibres remain elastic until buckling occurs, is
slightly bent as shown in Fig. 1.1. Though Euler dealt with a member built-in at one end
and simply supported at the other, the same logic is applied here to the pin-end column,
which having zero end rotational restraint represents the members with least buckling
strength.
At any location z, the bending moment

(about the x-axis) on the slightly bent member is


(1.1)

and since
(1.2)
the differential equation becomes
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(1.3)
After letting k = P/EI, the solution of this second-order linear differential equation may be
expressed
y = A sin kz +B cos kz

(1.4)

Applying boundary conditions, (a) y = 0 at z = 0; and (b) y = 0 at z = L, one obtains for


condition (a), B = 0; and for condition (b),
0 = A sin kL

(1.5)

Satisfaction of Eqn. (1.5) may be accomplished in three possible ways; (a) constant A = 0,
i.e., no deflection; (b) kL = 0, i.e., no applied load; and (c) kL = n, the requirement for
buckling to occur. Thus

(1.6)
The fundamental buckling mode, a single-curvature deflection (y = A sin

from Eqn.

1.4.), will occur when n = 1; thus the Euler critical load for a column with both ends pinned
is
(1.7)
or in terms of average compressive stress, using

Euler's approach was generally ignored for design because test results did not agree with
it; columns of ordinary length used in design were not as strong as Eqn. (1.7) would
indicate. It was recognized that in fact ordinary length columns fail by inelastic buckling
rather than by elastic buckling.

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1.3

Basic Column Strength

In order to determine basic column strength certain conditions may be assumed for the
ideal column. With regard to material, it may be assumed (1) there are the same
compressive stress-strain properties throughout the section; (2) no initial internal stresses
exist such as those due to cooling, after rolling and those due to welding. Regarding shape
and end conditions, it may be assumed (3) the column is perfectly straight and prismatic
(4) the load resultant acts through the centroidal axis of the member until the member
begins to bend; (5) the end conditions must be determinate so that a definite equivalent
pinned length may be established. Further assumptions regarding buckling may be made,
as (6) the small deflection theory of ordinary bending is applicable and shear may be
neglected; and (7) twisting or distortion of the cross section does not occur during bending.
Once the foregoing assumptions have been made, it is now agreed that the strength of a
column may be expressed by

(1.8)
where P/A = average stress in the member
Et = tangent modulus at stress P/A
KL/r = effective (equivalent pinned-end) slenderness ratio (K value discussed later)
It is well known that long compression members fail by elastic buckling and that short
stubby compression members may be loaded until the material yields or perhaps even into
the strain-hardening range. However, in the vast majority of usual situations failure occurs
by buckling after a portion of the cross section has yielded. This is known inelastic
buckling.

1.4

Column Shapes

From the foregoing discussion it is evident that the strength of any given column (because
of its tendency to buckle) will depend upon the area and shape of the cross section as well
as the grade of steel from which it is made. A useful property of a section resulting entirely
from its shape is the moment of inertia. Unbraced columns tend to buckle in a direction
perpendicular to the axis about which the moment of inertia is least. Therefore, the ideal
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cross section is one having the same moment of inertia about any axis through its centre of
gravity. This obviously is a circle.

Fig. 1.2 Typical column sections


As material near the centre of gravity of a section contributes little to the moment of inertia,
the most efficient column is one having as small an amount of material as possible placed
near the axis. A hollow circular section (a pipe) approaches this ideal: however, pipe
columns are used only to a limited extent in buildings and rarely as principal members in
the frames of multi-storey structures. One difficulty encountered when using pipe columns
is that of making effective beam connections.
A rolled W-shape-column is shown in Fig. 1.2a, and the same section reinforced with
flange plates in Fig. 1.2b. Columns built-up of angles, plates, and channels are shown in
(c) and (d), and they may be welded, bolted, or riveted. Angle sections used as struts are
shown in (e), (f), and (g).

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1.5

Radius of Gyration and Slenderness Ratio

In the design of beams, the section modulus is an index of the strength of a member in
bending. From its definition (S =I/c), it is evident that the value of the section modulus
depends upon the size and shape of the section. In column design, the analogous term is
radius of gyration. It too is dependent upon the size and shape of the section and is one
measure of effectiveness in resisting buckling. The radius of gyration is expressed in
inches by the formula, r = I / A, in which I is the moment of inertia of the section about the
given axis and A is the area. The tendency of a column to buckle varies in general with the
ratio of its unbraced length to its least lateral dimension. For structural shapes such as
those shown in Fig. 1.2, the least lateral dimension is not an accurate criterion.
Consequently, the radius of gyration, which relates more precisely to the stiffness of
column sections in general, is used in column design formulas.

Fig. 1.3 Effect of end condition


There are two other factors which affect the buckling tendency of columns - actual length
and end-conditions. These combine to produce what is termed "effective buckling length,"
i.e., the distance between points of contra-flexure (between points where there is a change
in curvature). For the pin-ended column (Fig. 1.3d), these points occur at the column ends
where lateral movement (translation) is prevented. As may be seen from Fig. 1.3, the
effective length may be quite different for various end-conditions.

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In design, end-conditions are accounted for through use of an effective length factor, i.e., a
dimensionless number or "K-value," which when multiplied by the actual length of the
column gives the effective length for buckling. The ratio of effective length to least radius of
gyration (KL/r), is called the slenderness ratio. It is the absolute measurement of the
column's tendency to buckle. L and r are both expressed in inches.
A great deal of engineering judgment must be used in selecting the appropriate "K-value."
Fig. 1.3 illustrates the six most common theoretical end-conditions and the recommended
"K-values" for each. The difference between theoretical and recommended values is
largely due to the fact that joint fixity or truly pinned ends are seldom realized in actual
construction. Case (d) previously referred to, is the condition most frequently encountered.
Actually, the proper value of K is derived from an analysis of the degree of restraint
imparted to the column end by other structural members framing into that end.

1.6

Column Formulas

It is seen that the average unit stress in a column at the time of failure is less than the
yielding strength of the material by an amount dependent upon the buckling tendency of
the column. It follows that the allowable average stress for use in design must also be
influenced by this factor and will, therefore, depend upon the slenderness ratio as well as
the compressive strength of the material. Using an average Factor of Safety of 1.67 and
A36 Steel, the maximum permissible column design stress would be
36,000/1.67 = 21,600 psi
It is this quantity that must be reduced to allow for buckling stresses. From Eqn. (1.8)

Considering a pin ended column, K=1.0. It is reasonably estimated that the upper limit of
elastic buckling failure will occur when the average column stress is equal to one-half the
yield stress; therefore,

and, solving for L/r,

(1.9)
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It is this formula which establishes the slenderness ratio that distinguishes elastic from
inelastic buckling. It will vary with the yield point of the steel, and the symbol for this value
of L/r is Cc. Therefore,

(1.10)
The value of Cc for A36 Steel is 126.1, and for steels with a 50-ksi yield point, 107.0. In
conclusion, if the actual slenderness ratio KL/r Cc, elastic buckling would be the assumed
mode of failure. If, on the other hand, KL/r < Cc, inelastic buckling would best describe the
mode of failure. The AISC Specification provides a special reduction formula for allowable
stress Fa in each case.

1.6.1 ASD: Inelastic Buckling

The maximum average unit stress should not exceed

(1.11)
where F.S. is the factor of safety. This factor of safety reflects the inconsistencies in
column performance under tests done by researchers. The recommended formula for
factor of safety derived from these considerations is

(1.12)
Note that when KL/r = 0, F.S. = 1.65, and when KL/r = Cc, F.S. = 1.92.

1.6.2 ASD: Elastic Buckling

The maximum average unit stress should not exceed that resulting from the Euler formula
when a constant factor of safety of 23/12 is used. Therefore, it should be pointed out

(1.13)
that this formula does not include a factor representing the stress grade of steel. This is
due to the fact that E does not vary appreciably with Fy and E controls buckling.

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Consequently, the same limiting stress will be the result for all grades of steel in the elastic
range.

1.6.3 LRFD Design equations

The AISC/LRFD design strength of columns is

where

= 0.85 and

with

given by
(1.14a)
(1.14b)
in which

. The

Equation (1.14a) is a lower-bound limit for column strength in the range


formulas account for an initial crookedness of about L/1500. Substitution of
(1.14b) gives

where FE is the Euler stress

calculated nominal strength of columns for

into Eqn.

. Therefore, the

> 1.5 is about 88 percent of the column

strength on which the AISC/ASD allowable-stress formula, Eqn. (1.11) is based.

1.7

Built-up sections

Rolled W or M sections such as that shown in Fig. 1.2a are by far the most frequently used
in steel building construction. However, at times it is necessary to reinforce ordinary rolled
sections with plates as shown in Fig. 1.2 (b), and (d), and it may even be necessary or
desirable to fabricate a column using plates and angles or other standard shapes.
Properties of the most widely used built-up sections, such as area and radii of gyration,
may now be found in steel handbooks as readily as for rolled shapes. When such tables
are not available, the moment of inertia of a built-up section must be determined. It is
usually necessary to find the moment of inertia about both principal axes of the section and
then to compute the least radius of gyration by substituting the least I in the equation r =
I/A. With the least radius of gyration and the area determined, the methods of previous
article apply.

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Fig. 1.4 Width-thickness ratio of elements of column sections.


When designing built-up sections, care should be taken to conform to the limits of the
width-thickness ratios set forth in AISC Specification. These limits are inversely
proportional to the square root of the yield point stress Fy. Two categories are defined:
unstiffened elements (projecting) and stiffened elements (supported along two edges).
Figure 1.4a illustrates three typical unstiffened elements and shows how to determine the
dimensions b and t. For unstiffened elements, the ratio b/t must be limited to 95/Fy except
for single-angle struts and stems of tees. Figure 1.4b illustrates three typical stiffened
elements. The dimensions b and t are determined as shown. For the general case, the
ratio b/t must be limited to 253/Fy; however, if the stiffened element is the flange of a
square or rectangular section and is of uniform thickness, the limit of the ratio is reduced to
238/Fy.

1.8

Unbraced Height

In multi-storey steel frame buildings, the unbraced height of a column is usually taken as
the floor-to-floor distance. There are occasions, however, when there is need to brace a
column against buckling at closer intervals in at least one direction. In a previous article it
was stated that the slenderness ratio KL/r is determined by using the least radius of
gyration. This is valid only when the column has equal unbraced heights for both axes, and
end conditions are the same for both axes. When the unbraced height is different for each
axis, the column buckling tendency is greatest for that axis having the largest slenderness
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ratio. In Fig. 1.5, the proper slenderness ratio for design would be KL1/rx or KL2/ry,
whichever is greater. It is obvious that whenever intermediate supports are possible, it
would be desirable to orient the column so that the axis having the smallest radius of
gyration would be the one braced.

Fig. 1.5 Unbraced height

Fig. 1.6 Column end conditions in a frame


The effect of end-condition on buckling tendency is further, illustrated in Fig. 1.6. In this
example, the girder is rigidly attached to the column thus restricting end rotation about the
x-x axis at the top of the column. However, due to the absence of bracing in this direction,
end translation is not restricted. The eaves beam is attached to the column in such a
manner as not to restrict column rotation about the y-y axis, but end translation is
prevented by the bracing. The bottom of the column would be classified as a simple
pinned-end condition, restricted against translation in both directions. Therefore, the Kvalue for the x-x axis is 2.0 and for the y-y axis, 1.0. (Fig. 1.3). To determine the maximum
slenderness ratio for design, a calculation must be made for both axes, i.e.

and

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Fig. 1.7 Column splices.


It is also possible to encounter conditions under which the three terms K, L, and r, will all
be different. The maximum value of KL/r always governs the tendency of a column to
buckle and should be used to establish Fa.

1.9

Column Design

The design of columns is an indirect process. Generally, the length of the column and the
applied load it is to support are known, and the designer must select a rolled shape or builtup section in which the average (actual) stress does not exceed the allowable stress as
given in the specifications. The two unknowns are A and r, and the value of one cannot be
computed without knowing the other. The design, therefore, must be accomplished by trial
and error. A trial section is selected and investigated using Eqns. (1.11) or (1.13). If either
the load-carrying capacity of the trial section is found to be less than that required, or is so
much greater than necessary that the section would be uneconomical, another trial section
is selected using the first as a guide. This process is repeated until a satisfactory section is
found. Steel handbooks contain tables of safe loads for different column sections and
lengths.

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Summary column design procedure


The steps essential to the design of a column, when safe load tables are not used, are as
follows:
1. Assume a trial section. (The applied load, unbraced heights, and end conditions for
each axis are known.)
2. Find the area A and radii of gyration r of the trial section from tables of properties
for designing.
3. Compute the maximum slenderness ratio (KL/r).
4. Compute the allowable average stress by the appropriate formula as discussed in
Art. 1.6.
5. Compute the allowable load on the column by multiplying the stress found in Step 4
by the area of the section.
6. Compare the allowable load found in Step 5 with the applied load plus the column
weight. A good result is obtained when the calculated allowable load is a little
greater than the actual design load. If the result is unsatisfactory, repeat the
process until a satisfactory section is found.

1.10 Column Splices


Columns are usually spliced within the middle half of the column height, the detail of the
splice depending on the relative sizes of the members to be connected. In building
construction, it is usual practice to mill the ends of columns since most of the stress is
transmitted by direct bearing. When the entire cross-sectional area of the upper column
bears on the column below, the splice plates serve only to hold the columns in position or
to transmit bending stresses (Fig. 1.7a, b, and d). Where full bearing cannot be assured,
special splices, similar to those shown in Fig. 1.7 (c) and (e), must be designed.

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Example 1.1 (AISC/ASD):


Design a building column of A36 steel, 15 ft long, to support a dead load of 50 kips and a
live load of 200 kips. Assume K = 1 for both x and y axes.
Solution:
Required capacity is 50 + 200 = 250 kips. Assume Fa = 15 ksi.

Although any rolled shape or built-up section may be used as a column, the shapes most
commonly used are the W8's, W10's, W12's, and W14's. A W shape from either the W8's
with flange widths of 8 in or the W10's with flange widths of 10 in will have sufficient area.
These are commonly called 8 x 8 and 10 x 10. Because of its larger radius of gyration, the
10 x 10 will require less area. Noting that the least radius of gyration for the 10 x 10 series
is 2.54 in, we find

From Eqn. 1.11

Therefore, the W10 x 54, which has an area of 15.8 in, is adequate.
Example 1.2 (AISC/LRFD):
Design a building column of A36 steel, 15 ft long, to support a dead load of 50 kips and a
live load of 200 kips. Assume K= 1 for both x and y axes.
Solution:
Required capacity is 1.2 x 50 + 1.6 x 200 = 380 kips. LRFD requires cPn 22 380 kips,
where c = 0.85, and Pn = AgFcr, in which Fcr is determined by c and Fy.
Therefore, 0.85 AgFcr 380 kips.
Assuming Fcr = 28 ksi, Ag,req = 16.0 in.

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The shapes most commonly employed as columns are the W8's, W10's, W12's, and
W14's, although any rolled shape or built-up section may be used. The W 14 x 61, W 12 x
58, W 10 x 60, and W8 x 58 may be satisfactory.
Try W8 x 5 8, A = 17.1 in, ry = 2. 10 in.

From Eqn. 1.14,

cPn = 0.85 x 418 = 355 < 380 kips NOT OK


Try W12 x 58, A = 17.0 in, ry = 2.51 in. Using these properties and repeating the
calculations produces

Example 1.3 (AISC/ASD):


Design a minimum-weight welded-I cross section for a pin-ended column which carries a
central load of 165 kips. The unsupported length is 18 ft. A36 steel, AISC/ASD
specification.
Solution:
Assuming Fa = 16 ksi

From Table A-l, rx = 0.435h and ry = 0.25b. For Ix = Iy, h 0.6b. For a flange width of 12 in,
the minimum thickness is 6/16 = 3/8 in. The area of the two flanges is 9.00 in.
A 6 x 3/16 in web, for which 6 / 3/16 = 35 < 42, gives an additional 1.22 in. The
proposed section is shown in Fig. 1.8.

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Fig. 1.8 Section for example 1.3


Example 1.4 (AISC/LRFD):
Design a minimum-weight welded-I cross section for a pin-ended column which carries a
central load of 45 kips DL and 120 kips LL. The unsupported length is 18 ft. A36 steel,
AISC/LRFD specification.
Solution:
Design load

P = 1.2 x45 + 1.6 x 120 = 246 kips


cPn = 0.85Pn = 246 kips

Pn = 289 kips

Assuming Fcr = 28 ksi,

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From Table A-1, rx = 0.435h and ry = 0.25b. For Ix = Iy, h 0.6b. For a flange width of 12 in,
the minimum thickness is 6/16 = 3/8 in. The area of the two flanges is 9.00 in. A 6 x
3/16 in web, for which 6 / 3/16 = 35 < 42, gives an additional 1.22 in. The proposed
section is shown in Fig. 1.8.

PROBLEMS FOR EXERCISE


1.1

Select the lightest W section to carry an axial compression load P of 100 kips. The
member is part of a braced frame and has an effective length KL of 22 ft. (a) Use A
36 steel; (b) Use A572 Grade 50 steel. (P = 450 kN; KL = 6.5 m)

1.2

Select the lightest W section to carry a compressive load of 825 kips on an effective
length of 25 ft. Use A572 Grade 50 steel. If there is a 7% differential in price per
pound between this steel and A36, is the section economical when designed using
the A572? (P =3700 kN; KL = 7.6 m)

1.3

Determine the allowable column load for the built-up section shown, if the steel is
A572 Grade 50, and the effective length KYLY = 14 ft and KXLX = 42 ft. (KYLY = 4.2
m; KXLX = 14.5 m)

Fig. for problem 1.3

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1.4

Select the lightest W section for the column shown in the accompanying figure. The
member is built into a wall so that it may be considered as continuously braced in
the weak direction. Use A36 steel. Note: Not all of the available W sections are
included in the AISC Manual column load tables.

Fig. for problem1.4

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2.1

FLEXURAL MEMBERS: BEAMS

Introduction

Although there are no hard-and-fast rules, the following names are in common use to
describe teams with reference to their function:
-

Floor beam: In buildings, a major beam usually supporting joists; a transverse beam in
bridge floors.

Girder: In buildings, the same meaning as (and more commonly used than) floor beam;
also any major beam in a structure

Girt: A horizontal member fastened to and spanning the wall columns of industrial
buildings, used to support wall covering, such as corrugated metal

Header: A beam framed to two beams at right angles to it, and usually supporting joists
on one side of it; used at openings such as stairwells

Joist: A beam supporting floor construction but not major beams

Lintel: A beam spanning door, window, or other wall openings and supporting wall
immediately above

Purlin: A roof beam, usually supported by trusses

Rafter: A roof beam, usually supported by purlins

Spandrel beam: A beam at the outside wall of a building, supporting its share of the
floor and also the wall up to the floor above

Stringer: In bridge floors, a .longitudinal beam supported by floor beams (sometimes


called a joist); a beam supporting stair steps

Trimmer: One of the beams or joists supporting a header

Fig. 2.1 Typical beam sections

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2.2

Beam Cross Sections

Typical beam cross sections are shown in Fig. 2.1. Two types of I cross section are rolled
in a wide variety of sizes. The Standard Beam (S), ranges in depth from 3 to 24 in (Fig.
2.1a). Increase in section modulus for a given depth is achieved by spreading the rolls to
increase the flange width and web thickness while maintaining the same depth. The wideflange shapes (W) give more section modulus per pound (Fig. 2.1b). They range in depth
from 4 to 40 in. The W shape achieves increase in section modulus by increasing flange
and web thicknesses and flange width while maintaining a constant depth inside the
flanges. Light beams and miscellaneous shapes (M) are of the same shape as the W but of
lighter weight (and smaller section modulus) for the same depth. Some producers weld
three plates to form standard shapes of the same dimensions as the deeper W's (Fig.2.1c).
The section modulus of the W may be increased by welding plate to the flanges (Fig. 2.1d).
Since the web of an I contributes only a small part of the bending resistance, it is
sometimes economical in welded beams of high-strength steel to use a lower-strength
steel for the web. Such beams are called hybrid beams.
Box sections (Fig. 2.1e) are also efficient beam sections. They are available as rolled
shapes, called structural tubing, in rectangular form ranging from 3 x 2 to 20 x 12 in. The
four-plate welded box is also used extensively.
Channels (Fig. 2.1f) are used occasionally, usually as purlins, girts, eave struts, lintels, and
as trimmers and headers for stairwells and other openings. They are sometimes used with
the S or W shapes for crane-runway girders, as in Fig. 2.1g. Two channels arranged as in
h are commonly used as eave struts in industrial buildings.

Fig. 2.2 (a) Section of beam, (b) stress-strain curve, (c) beam cross section.
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2.3

Bending Behaviour of Beams

Figure 2.2a represents a length of originally straight beam which has been bent to the
radius by couples M; that is, the segment is subjected to pure bending. It is assumed that
plane cross sections normal to the length of the unbent beam are still plane after the beam
is bent. Therefore, considering two cross sections AB and CD a unit distance apart, similar
sectors OAB and BCD give
(a)
where y is measured from the axis of rotation (neutral axis). Thus, strains are proportional
to distance from the neutral axis. The corresponding variation in stress over the cross
section is given by the stress-strain diagram of the material, rotated 90 from the
conventional orientation, provided the strain axis e is scaled through Eqn. (a) with the
distance y (Fig. 2.2b). The bending moment M is given by
(b)
where dA is an element of area at the distance y (Fig. 2.2c). Thus, the moment M can be
determined if the relation between stress and strain shown in Fig. 2.2b is known. If stress is
proportional to strain so that f = E , Eqn. (a) and (b) give
(c)
or, eliminating

through Eqn. (a),


(d)

or,
(2.1)

Fig. 2.3 Sharply yielding material

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Fig. 2.4 Variation of stress and strain across section at different loading stages.

Fig. 2.5 Normalized moment versus extreme fibre strain.


The bending behaviour of a beam of rectangular cross section made of a sharply yielding
steel (Fig. 2.3) will now be investigated. Equation (d) holds so long as the stress is given by
OA of Fig.2.3, that is, if f Fy. When the extreme fibre strain attains the value y, the strain
distribution and stress distribution are given by Fig. 2.4b and c. The corresponding
moment, called the yield moment, is

(e)
where b is the width and d the depth of the cross section (Fig. 2.4a). For M < My, moment
is proportional to extreme-fibre strain or stress. This is shown by OA in Fig.2.5, where the
ratio M/My is plotted against .
As the load on the beam increases beyond the load corresponding to My, strain continues
to increase in proportion to distance from the neutral axis, but the stress distribution
consists of OA, the elastic region, and a portion of AB, the yield plateau, of Fig. 2.3,
provided the extreme-fibre strain is less than s, the strain at the beginning of strain
hardening. Thus, if the extreme-fibre strain is 2 y, as in Fig. 2.4d, the stress distribution is
that shown in Fig. 2.4e. The corresponding resisting moment is
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(f)
which gives point B in Fig. 2.5. This moment is only 37.5 percent more than the yield
moment My even though the extreme-fibre strain is doubled. Still further deformation is
shown in Fig. 2.4f, where 90 percent of the cross section has yielded. The corresponding
moment from Fig. 2.4g is 0.249Fybd, which gives point C in Fig. 2.5.
It will be noted in Fig. 2.5 that the rate of increase in moment falls off rapidly soon after My
is exceeded, so M appears to be approaching a limiting value. This limit is determined by
the distribution of stress shown in Fig. 2.4h, for which
(g)
This is only 0.4 percent larger than the moment for an extreme-fibre strain of 10 y. Thus,
although the assumed stress distribution cannot exist, it determines a practical limiting
value with negligible error. However, even this limit is exceeded after strain hardening
begins, since stresses at and near the extreme fibre now exceed Fy. This is shown by DE
in Fig. 2.5.
The moment given by Eqn. (g) is called the plastic moment of resistance, denoted by Mp. It
is usually taken as the limiting value; i.e., the benefits of strain hardening are neglected.
The ratio of the plastic moment to the yield moment for the rectangular cross section is
given by

This ratio is called the shape factor.

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2.4

Lateral-Torsional Buckling

Shapes that are intended to be used primarily as beams are generally proportioned so that
the moment of inertia about the major principal axis is considerably larger than that about
the minor principal axis. This is done to produce shapes that make economical beams. As
a result, they are relatively weak in resistance to torsion and to bending about the minor
axis, and if not held in line by floor construction or by bracing, they may become unstable
under load. The instability manifests itself as a sidewise bending accompanied by twist and
is called lateral buckling or lateral-torsional buckling.
It is not always easy to decide whether a beam has adequate support against lateral
buckling. Embedment of the top flange in a concrete slab provides support except when
the beam is a cantilever so that the compression flange is at the bottom. A completely
encased beam is supported no matter which flange is in compression. Wood flooring
spiked to nailing strips fastened to the top flange should furnish lateral support. Corrugated
sheet-metal roofs are sometimes attached to purlins by metal straps or clips. It is
questionable whether such connections provide dependable lateral support.
Lateral bracing must be adequate to hold the braced beam in position. Thus, stiffness as
well as strength is required. As a general rule, bracing will be adequate if each lateral
brace is designed for 2 percent of the compressive force in the flanges of the beam it
braces. This rule of thumb is based on observations from laboratory tests.
Without going into the details of derivation, the critical bending moment to cause lateral
buckling is stated here,
(2.2)
where Cb is a coefficient which depends on the variation in moment along the span and K
is an effective-length coefficient which depends on the conditions of restraint at the
supports. Values of Cb and K for a number of cases of practical interest are given in Table
2.1. Values of K in this table are based on identical boundary conditions for both warping
and y-axis rotation. In other words, the simple support means one for which both warping
and y-axis rotation are permitted at each end, while the fixed support means one for which
both are prevented. If boundary conditions are mixed, values of K for y-axis rotation and for
warping restraint are unequal.

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Values of Cb for the first three cases in Table 2.1 can be determined from either of the
following equations,
(2.3a)

(2.3b)
where M1 is the smaller of the two end moments M1 and M2 and where M1/M2 is positive
for reverse-curvature bending. The following equation gives more accurate values of Cb if
the moment diagram within the unbraced length is not a straight line.

(2.3c)
Where, Mmax = absolute value of maximum moment in the unbraced length
MA = absolute value of moment at the one-quarter point
MB = absolute value of moment at the midpoint
MC = absolute value of moment at the three-quarter point

2.5

Local Buckling of Beam Elements

If a beam cross section is to develop the yield moment My, the compression flange must be
able to reach yield stress and the web, or webs, must be able to develop the corresponding
bending stresses. Local buckling of the flange and/or web can prevent these limits from
being attained. More restrictive limits must be observed if a beam cross section is to attain
the fully plastic moment Mp. This is because the compressive strain in the flange must be
several times the yield strain to develop a moment essentially equal to the fully plastic
moment (Figs. 2.4 and 2.5).
Specification values of flange and web slendernesses are given in Table 2.2. The terms
compact and non-compact of this table refer to the compact section, which is one that can
develop a fully plastic moment Mp before local buckling of any of its compression elements
occurs, and the non-compact section, which is one that can develop a moment equal to or
greater than My, but less than Mp, before local buckling of any of its elements occurs.
Elements slenderer than those designated as non-compact are usually called slender
elements.
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All W shapes satisfy the compact-section web requirements for all the steels in which they
are available unless otherwise stated. The limiting values given in Table 2.2 cover most
situations, since it is usually not economical to use thinner elements that require reduction
in the allowable stress because of local buckling.
Table 2.1 Coefficients of Eqn.2.2

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Table 2.2 Limiting values of beam flange and web slenderness.

2.6

Design for Limited Deflection

Although a beam is unsuitable if it cannot support its loads without excessive deflection, it
is not easy to set a dividing line between reasonable and unreasonable deflection.
Excessive deflection in floor construction is objectionable not only because of the feeling of
softness but also because of undesirable vibration characteristics and the possibility of
damage to attached construction such as plaster. Excessive deflection in floor construction
supporting machinery may result in misalignments as well as dangerous vibration.
Excessive deflection in purlins may cause damage to roofing materials and, on flat roofs,
accumulation of water during rainstorms which, under certain conditions, can cause
collapse. Retention of water due to the deflection of flat-roof framing is called ponding.
The maximum deflection of a simply supported beam uniformly loaded in a principal
plane is given by

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(a)
where W denotes the total load on the span. But since the maximum bending moment M =
WL/8, we may eliminate W from Eqn. (a) to get
(2.4a)
Substituting M/I = f/c = f/(d/2) into Eqn. (2.4a) gives
(2.4b)
Similar equations may be derived for other load distributions. However, Eqn. (2.4) will
predict deflection with sufficient accuracy for practically any vertical load. Table 2.3 gives
ratios of the true deflection to the value given by Eqn. (2.4) for 13 different load
distributions. The first six entries show that the equation is satisfactory for almost any case
of distributed load except possibly the first. The next three suggest that the maximum
deflection for a single concentrated load is, closely enough, 80 percent of the value given
by Eqn. (2.4) unless the load is very near a support. The remaining entries show that the
formula can be used without significant error for multiple concentrated loads, with the
possible exception of the rather extreme location of loads in case 10.
Permissible deflection of a beam is usually relative to the span, since a deflection of 1 in. in
a span of 30 ft will not ordinarily be more objectionable than a deflection of 1/2 in. in a span
of 15 ft. Occasionally, however, permissible deflection is independent of span. For
example, if a lintel is placed to clear a glass-block panel by 1/2 in., its permissible
deflection is somewhat less than 1/2 in regardless of its span. The most frequently quoted
deflection limit prohibits live-load deflections in excess of 1/360 of the span for beams
supporting plastered ceilings. The source of this rule seems to be unknown. Presumably it
was given originally as a safe limit with respect to cracking of plastered ceilings. This
deflection limit is a requirement of the AISC/ASD specification. AASHTO limits deflection
due to live load plus impact to not more than 1/800 of the span, while AREA limits it to
1/640.
The ratio L/d of beam span to beam depth which corresponds to a specific ratio /L of
deflection to span can be determined from Eqn. (2.4b):
(b)
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If we wish to limit deflection to, say, 1/300 of the span for steel beams designed for f =
0.6Fy, we find from Eqn. (b) that
(2.5a)
The commentary to the AISC/ASD specification suggests this value of L/d as a guide to
deflection control of beams in floors, with the provision that larger values may be used if
the allowable bending stress is proportionately reduced. For purlins (except those in flat
roofs) the value 1000/Fy, is suggested. It should be noted that these limits are based on
deflection due to the total load, rather than live load only, since the allowable stress 0.6Fy
was used in deriving them.
Equation (b) can be expressed in terms of bending stress by substituting Fb for f Then for a
deflection limit of 1/300 of the span, and with E = 30,000 ksi, we get
(2.5b)
This formula is useful in computing the value of L/d for a deflection limit of L/300 for live
load only by substituting for Fb the live-load bending stress. It should be noted that the
deflection limits discussed above are not mandatory. The AISC/ASD Commentary
suggests that they be followed "if practicable."
Table 2.3 Ration of true deflection to value given by Eqn. (2.4)

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2.7

Allowable Stress Design of Beams

Allowable bending stresses for beams not supported laterally at intervals short enough to
prevent lateral-torsional buckling are based in part on simplified forms of Eqn. (2.2) for
elastic buckling, together with various empirical formulas for inelastic buckling. The
simplified forms of Eqn. (2.2) are derived as follows. If we neglect the second term in
brackets, the critical bending stress is

(a)
Since the webs of I shapes are thin compared to the thickness of their flanges, we can
obtain simple and fairly accurate approximations to Iy, J, and Sx of the equal-flanged beam
by considering only the flanges. Thus,

where b = flange width


t = flange thickness
d = beam depth
Substituting these values into Eqn. (a) and using E = 2(1 + ) G with = 0.25 gives

(b)
where Af = bt = area of one flange. For steel, Eqn. (b) gives

(2.6a)
If we neglect the first term in brackets in Eqn. (2.2), the critical bending stress is

(c)
This equation can be simplified for the equal-flanged I by substituting for Cw its value
(d)

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Substituting for Sx its value

(e)
The last fraction in the equation can be written simply as ry, where ry is the radius of
gyration about the y axis of the T consisting of the compression flange and one-sixth of the
web. Therefore,

(f)
For steel, Eqn. (f) gives

(2.6b)
Since Eqn. (2.6a) is derived from the first term in Eqn. (2.2) and Eqn. (2.6b) from the
second, a better value of Fcr is given by
(2.6)
where Fcr(1) and Fcr(2) denote the critical stresses by Eqn. (2.6). This formula is used in the
Canadian Standard.

2.7.1 Specification Formulas

To facilitate comparison in the discussion to follow, specification formulas written in forms


which are not necessarily the same as in the specifications.
AISC/ASD. The allowable bending stress Fb for channels and I-shaped member of steels
with Fy 65 ksi, supported against lateral buckling and bent about the major axis, are as
follows:
Compact section:
Non-compact section:

Fb = 0.66 Fy
Fb = 0.60 Fy

(2.7a)
(2.7b)

If

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(2.7c)

(2.7d)

Where
Notation in Eqn. (2.7) is as follows:
bf = flange width
tf = flange thickness
h = distance between adjacent lines of fasteners, or clear distance between flanges
if welds are used
t = web thickness
The ratio 1.1 of the allowable stresses 0.66Fy, and 0.60Fy is approximately equal to the
smallest of the shape factors for standard I-shaped members. It should be noted that Eqn.
(2.7b), (2.7c), and (2.7d) are not applicable if bf/2tf exceeds 95. Elements as slender as this
buckle at stresses less than the yield stress.
Lateral support may be continuous, as for a beam which is the direct support of a floor, or
by bracing members. Lateral-support spacing for beams designed for Fb = 0.66Fy must not
exceed the smaller of the values of Lc given by the following:

(2.8a)

(2.8b)
Equation (2.8a) is equivalent to a limiting value of L/ry, since, for I-shaped members,
. Thus

Equation (2.8b) is derived from Eqn. (2.6a) with Cb = K = 1.

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A larger allowable stress, Fb = 0.75Fy, is permitted for compact I shapes bent about the
minor axis. This is in recognition of the fact that such bending is equivalent to the bending
of two rectangles (the flanges) about their major axes, for which the shape factor is 1.5,
compared to the 1.10 to 1.15 shape factor for I shapes bent about their major axis.
If

, the allowable stress is given by


(2.9)

The allowable stress 0.75Fy also applies to round and square bars and to solid rectangular
bars bent about the minor axis. Lateral bracing is not required for members bent about the
minor axis provided they are loaded through the shear centre.
Beams with L Le. Allowable bending stresses for members with laterally unsupported
lengths greater than those given by Eqn. (2.8) are as follows,

(2.10a)

(2.10b)

(2.10c)
These equations are not to be used for channels, because the formula for Cw, which is
involved in their derivation, is quite different for channels than for I-shaped members.
Another set of equations are also specified,
(2.11a)

(2.11b)
Eqn. (2.11) It is applicable for channels in bending about the major axis as well as for Ishaped members. The larger of the values of Fb given by Eqn. (2.11) and Eqn. (2.10)
should be used. Cb in these equations is given by Eqn. (2.3). However, Cb should be taken
as unity if the bending moment at any point within the unbraced length is larger than that at
both ends of the unbraced length.

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The largest lateral-brace spacing L for which the allowable stress 0.6Fy, may be used as
given by Eqn. (2.10) and (2.11):

(2.12a)

(2.12b)
Example 2.1 (AISC/ASD):
Select the lightest W section to carry a uniformly distributed live load of 1.5 kips/ft and a
dead load (not including the weight of the beam) of 0.50 kips/ft on a 30-ft simply supported
span. The beam does not have continuous lateral support and so must be braced.
Assuming that it will be braced to satisfy compact-section requirements, design the beam
using (a) Fy = 36 ksi and (b) Fy = 65 ksi.
Solution:
(a) Assume beam weight 60 lb/ft.

From the AISC Manual's beam-selection table, the lightest W shape for this section
modulus is the W21 x 62 (Sx = 127 in). This is obviously more than adequate to
compensate for the 2 lb/ft difference between the beam weight and its assumed value, 60
lb/ft.
Deflection. The ratio L/d for the W21 is 360/21 = 17.1, which is less than the deflectioncontrol value 280/24 = 20 given by Eqn. (2.13). Therefore, deflection is less than the
allowable value.
Lateral support. The spacing of the bracing must not exceed the smaller of the values by
Eqn. (2.8):

Use W21 x 62 with three braces spaced at 7.5 ft.

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(b) Assume beam weight 40 lb/ft.

The lightest W shape for this section modulus is the W16 x 40 (Sx = 64.7 in).
Deflection. The ratio L/d for the W 16 is 30 x 12/16 = 22.5. If only the live-load deflection is
of concern, Eqn. (2.5b) should be checked for a stress Fb times the ratio of live load to live
load plus dead load, that is, 42.9 x 1.5/2.04 = 31.5 ksi. Therefore, from Eqn. (2.5b), L/d =
480/31.5 = 15.2. For the W16, L/d = 30 x 12/16 = 22.5. Since this exceeds the control
value 15.2, a larger section is needed. The next larger, the W 18 x 40, turns out to be
inadequate. For the next larger, the W21 x 44, we have

Therefore, use W21 x 44.


Lateral support. The total-load bending stress for the W21 x 44 is fb = 229.5 x 12/81.6 =
33.8 ksi. Since this is less than the maximum allowable, 0.6 x 65 = 39 ksi, for non-compact
sections, lateral bracing need be spaced only to obtain the necessary allowable stress by
Eqn. (2.10) and (2.11). Try three braces spaced 7.5 ft. Then Cb = 1.13 (Table 2.1), and the
limiting values of L/rT for Eqn. (2.10) are the following:

For the W21 x 44, rT = 1.57, so L/rT = 90/1.57 = 57.3. Therefore, Eqn. (2.19b) applies, and

Since this value of Fb exceeds fb, Fb by Eqn. (2.11) need not be calculated. This is because
the larger value controls, and since Fb by Eqn. (2.11b) is larger than fb, its value by Eqn.
(2.11) is immaterial.
Braces need not be equally spaced unless equal spacing is desirable or necessary for
other than bracing purposes. For example, try two braces 7 ft apart, equidistant from the
beam mid-span, which gives end spans of (30 - 7) = 11.5 ft. The end moments for the
centre (7-ft) segment are
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Equations (2.11) need not be checked. The beam is adequate with only two lateral braces
spaced 7 ft apart equidistant from the centre.
Example 2.2 (AISC/ASD):
Determine the lightest W section to support concentrated loads of 1.4 kips dead load and
4.0 kips live load at each quarter point of a 60-ft simple span. The beam is laterally
supported at the ends and at the points of load application. Live-load deflection is limited to
1/300 of the span. Fy = 36 ksi.
Solution:
The moment of inertia required to satisfy the deflection limit can be calculated from Eqn.
(2.4a). However, the value of by this equation should be multiplied by 0.95 for the case of
three concentrated loads (Table 2.3). The maximum moment due to the concentrated
loads of 1.4 + 4.0 = 5.4 kips is

and Eqn. (2.4a) yields

From the AISC Manual's moment-of-inertia selection tables we find the lightest section to
be the W24 x 62, for which I = 1550 in4.
From Eqn. (2.8a)

Since this is less than the 13-ft spacing of the lateral supports, Eqn. (2.10) and (2.11)
apply. Equation (2.8b) need not be checked since the smaller of the values by Eqn. (2.8)
applies. To determine which of Eqn. (2.10) should be used, we compute, using Cb = 1.13
from Table 2.1,
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Therefore, since LrT = 1801.71 = 105 Eqn.(2.10b) applies:

From Eqn. (5.20b) with LdAf = 180 x 5.72 = 1030,

The beam-weight moment is M = 1/8wL = 1/8 x 0.06 x 60 = 27.9 ft. kips


Therefore M=162+28=190 ft. kips and

This exceeds the allowable stress, which is the larger of the two values of Fb calculated
above.
The next larger section shown in the moment-of-inertia table, the W24 x 68, for which the
calculations will not be shown, is adequate.
If a deflection check is not needed, an initial sizing of the beam can be based on Mp. The
initial selection is then checked as above and revised if it proves to be inadequate. Also,
the Manual contains design-moment charts from which the lightest section to satisfy a
specific moment requirement can be determined. However, since the charts are based on
Cb = 1, if Cb > 1 the section so indicated may be larger than necessary and it, or, say, the
next lighter section shown in the chart should be checked until a suitable one is found.

Fig. 2.6 Shear stress distribution for W or I shapes.

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2.8

Shear in Beams

Shearing stress is seldom a factor in the design of a steel beam, and it is usually
calculated, if at all, only as a check after the beam has been designed for bending. Shear
may determine the design of beams which support heavy concentrated loads near the
reaction points and of very short (small values of L/d) beams uniformly loaded,
(2.13)
where fv is the shear stress at any point on the cross section of the beam, Vy is the total
shear force at that section, Qx is the area-moment (

) of the part of the section above

(or below) the point where fv is calculated, Ix is the inertia of the beam section and t is the
thickness of section where fv is calculated. The distribution of shear stresses in the web of
a W18 x 50 due to a shear of 50 kips acting in the plane of the web is shown in Fig. 2.6. To
calculate the maximum stress, which is at the neutral axis, we use the following value of Qx
in Eqn.(2.13):
Qx = 7.33 x (8.995 - 2.12) = 50.4 in.
This value is determined from the AISC Manual's table of properties of the WT9 x 25,
which is one-half of a W18 x 50. The result is,

The shearing stress at the juncture of the flange and web, neglecting the fillet, is obtained
by using

=37.2
The result is

The total shearing force, Vy, is found by integrating fv, over the area of the web to be 48.5
kips, which is 97 percent of the shearing force.

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The shearing stress in W beams loaded in the plane of the web can be approximated
satisfactorily by assuming the shear to be distributed uniformly over an area equal to the
product of the depth of the beam and the thickness of the web. Thus, in the example
above, we get fy = 50 / (17.99

0.355) = 7.83 ksi. This is 12 percent less than the true

maximum value. Design-specification stresses are based on the assumption that the
shearing stress will be computed in this way.

2.9

Shearing Buckling of Beam Webs

Figure 2.7 shows a flat plate acted upon by shear stresses distributed uniformly along the
four boundaries. Because this is a state of pure shear, the shear stresses are equivalent to
principal stresses of the same magnitude, one tension and one compression, acting at 45
to the shear stresses. These are shown on an interior element of the web in the figure.
Thus, it can be seen that buckling in the form of waves or wrinkles inclined at about 45
may develop. Such shear buckling of the web of an aluminium beam is shown in Fig. 2.8.
The shear stress Fv,cr at which buckling of a perfect plate begins is given by

(2.14)
Here, h denotes the depth of the web and t denotes thickness of the same. Values of k for
a plate with all four edges simply supported is given to good approximation by,

(2.15a)

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Fig. 2.7 A plate acted upon by in-plane shear along edges

Fig. 2.8 Shear buckling of aluminium-beam web.

(2.15b)
where a/h is the aspect ratio of the plate (Fig. 2.7). A single formula, valid for all a/h, also
gives good results:

(2.16)
Equations (2.15) and (2.16) are compared in Fig. 2.9. Both formulations are used in the
several specifications. If the four edges are clamped,
(2.17a)

(2.17b)

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We note from Eqn. (2.15) that k is only slightly larger than 5.34 for a hinged-edge plate with
large aspect ratio. Thus, if a/h = 5, k = 5.50. Therefore, the shear-buckling behaviour of the
webs of rolled beams can be conservatively evaluated by using k = 5.34 from Eqn. (2.15)
or k = 5 from Eqn. (2.16). In any case, some approximation is involved in using Eqn. (2.14),
since bending stresses will always be present. However, at the ends of simply supported
beams these stresses are small enough to be neglected in investigating shear stresses.
Substituting k = 5.34, E = 29,000 ksi, and

= 0.30 into Eqn. (2.14) gives

(2.18)
Eqn (2.18) is based on linear elastic behaviour which may not be the real case. It is more
likely that inelastic buckling shall also be involved. Derivation of critical buckling stress for
shear in the inelastic range is beyond the scope of this text. Code equations consider both
elastic and inelastic ranges which are stated below.
AISC/ASD. The following equations are used for designing beams in shear,

(2.19)

Fig.2.9 Comparison of eqn. (2.15) and (2.16).

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(2.19b)

(2.19c)
Equations (2.19) are given in the following form in the specification:

(2.20a)

(2.20b)

Where
The stress Fv is defined as the stress on the area equal to the overall depth of the beam
times the web thickness, and the depth h as the clear depth between flanges. The
coefficient k is determined by Eqn. (2.15). The coefficient Cv in Eqn. (2.20) is the ratio of
the shear critical stress to the shear yield stress.
Example 2.3 (AISC/ASD):
Evaluate the actual and allowable shears for the beams designed in Example 2.1
(AISC/ASD). The beams were designed for a uniform load of 2 kips/ft on a span of 30 ft, so
the reaction is 30 kips, not including the weight of the beam. Allowable shear stresses are
given by Eqn. (2.19) or (2.20).
Solution:

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2.10 Bend Buckling of Beam Webs


Since bending stresses are compressive over part of the depth of the beam, they may
cause local buckling of the web. Figure 2.10 shows a flat plate, simply supported on all four
edges, which has buckled due to the bending stresses shown. As in the case of plates
under uniform edge compression, beam webs bend buckle in a single transverse wave and
multiple lengthwise waves. Critical flexural stress in the web for bend buckling of web is,

Fig.2.10 Bend buckling of beam web.

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(2.21a)

(2.21b)
Tests show that beam webs are partially restrained against rotation by the flanges to the
extent that the critical stress is likely to be at least 30 percent higher than that given by
Eqn. (2.21a). Thus, we may use

(2.21c)
In the above equations b is the depth of web, t is the thickness of web. The following
AISC/ASD formulas are requirements for compact sections:

(2.22a)

(2.22b)
In these formulas fa = P/A is the service-load axial compression.

2.11 Combined Shearing and Bending of Webs


Shear buckling and bend buckling of webs were discussed in preceding articles as
independent buckling modes. While bend buckling can occur alone (where pure bending is
involved), shear cannot exist without some bending. Furthermore, webs at the interior
supports of continuous beams are subjected concurrently to large bending moments and
shears. Therefore, the effect of these combinations of stress must be considered.

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Fig. 2.11 shows a flat plate with hinged edges subjected to bending stresses and to shear
stresses distributed along the edges. The curve in the figure gives, for a square plate, the
relation between the ratios Fb,cr/Fb,cr and Fv,cr/Fv,cr, where Fb,cr is the critical

Fig. 2.11 Interaction of flexural and shear stresses


stress on the extreme fibre for pure bending, Fv,cr, is the critical stress for pure shear, and
Fb,cr and Fv,cr are the bending and shearing stresses which, acting simultaneously, cause
buckling. It is seen that the effect of shearing stress on the critical bending stress is small if
Fv,cr/Fv,cr is small. Thus if Fv,cr/Fv,cr = 0.4 bending stress of almost 0.9 Fb,cr can be resisted.
Similarly, the effect of bending stress on the critical shear stress is small Fb,cr/Fb,cr is small.
The interaction curve of Fig. 2.11 is very nearly circular. Furthermore, curves for other
aspect ratios a/b differ from it only slightly. Therefore, the interaction of shear stress and
bending stress can be written in the form

(2.23)
This equation is based on critical stresses. It can be expressed in terms of actual stresses
and allowable stresses by dividing the numerator and denominator of each term by the
factor of safety. Thus

(2.24)

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where fv,fb = concurrent actual shearing and bending stresses


Fv = allowable shear stress in absence of bending
Fb = allowable bending stress in absence of shear

Fig. 2.12 Vertical compression in beam web

2.12 Crippling and Vertical Buckling of Webs


In addition to shearing and bending stresses in the web of a beam, there are compressive
stresses in the vertical direction because of bearing of the loads on the flanges. In the
beam shown in Fig.2.12, we see that there must be vertical compression immediately
above the bearing plate at the support. Furthermore, since there is no load on the top
flange above the support, the vertical compression must diminish at successively higher
horizontal sections until it becomes zero at the top flange. To estimate this stress, we
isolate a portion of the beam below the section 1-1 at the edge of the fillet of the beam
cross section and to the left of section 1-2. The inclination of section 1-2 is arbitrary; it is
intended to account for the dispersion of the compressive stresses. Similar compression
exists on section 3-3 below the top flange at the supported column. The failure that may
result as a result of such localized compression is called by various names, such as direct
compression, web crippling, and local yielding. Specifications to avoid crippling are,
ASD. For interior loads,
(2.25a)
For end reactions,
(2.25b)
LRFD.
, with

= 1 and Rn as follows:

For interior loads,


(2.26a)

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For end reactions,


(2.26b)
Notation in Eqn. (2.25) and (2.26) is as follows:
R = concentrated load or reaction
Rn = nominal resistance
N = length of bearing
tw = web thickness
k = distance from extreme fibre to toe of fillet

Fig.2.13 Vertical buckling of beam web.


Vertical buckling. Vertical compression in beam webs may also result in an overall-buckling
failure (Fig. 2.13). Fig.2.13 a, b, c and d shows the different mode by which the web can
buckle when the beam is acted upon by vertical load on the top only. An exact solution of
this problem requires a stability analysis of the entire web with unlike load systems on two
opposite edges which is beyond the scope of present text.
Concentrated-load web buckling of the type shown in Fig. 2.13c is influenced by the lateral
bending stiffness of the beam flange. Buckling of this type was observed in tests at Lehigh
University and the University of Texas-Austin. In the AISC specifications this type of
buckling is called sideways web buckling, for which the following formulas are prescribed.

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ASD. Loaded flange restrained against rotation and

(2.27a)

Loaded flange not restrained against rotation and

(2.27b)
The notation in these equations is as follows:
Rn = nominal resistance
dc = web depth clear of fillets
tw = web thickness
l = largest unbraced length along either flange
bf = flange width
According to the definitions in the specifications, h is the same as dc.
Stiffeners: If the value of Rn in the applicable Eqn. (2.27) is less than the load to be
supported and cannot be increased by changing one or more of the dimensions involved,
web stiffeners must be provided. Stiffeners supporting a concentrated load on the top
flange of a beam are shown in Fig. 2.14. Such stiffeners are designed as columns.

Fig.2.14 Use of stiffeners against web buckling and web crippling.


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2.13 Beam Columns


Nearly all members in a structure are subjected to both bending moment and axial load either tension or compression. When the magnitude of one or the other is relatively small
its effect is usually neglected and the member is designed as a beam, as an axially loaded
column, or as a tension member. For many situations neither effect can properly be
neglected and the behaviour under the combined loading must be considered in design.
The member subjected to axial compression and bending is referred to as a beam column.
Since bending is involved, all of the factors considered earlier in this chapter as well as
chapter 6 apply here also; particularly, the stability related factors, such as lateral-torsion
buckling and local buckling of compression elements. When bending is combined with axial
tension, the chance of instability is reduced and yielding usually governs the design. For
bending in combination with axial compression, the possibility of instability is increased
with all of the considerations of Chapter 6 applying. Furthermore, when axial compression
is present, a secondary bending moment arises equal to the axial compression force times
the deflection.
A number of categories of combined bending and axial load along with the likely mode of
failure may be summarized as follows:
a) Axial tension and bending; failure usually by yielding.
b) Axial compression and bending about one axis; failure by instability in the plane of
bending, without twisting. (Transversely loaded beam-columns that are stable with
regard to lateral-torsional buckling are an example of this category.)
c) Axial compression and handing about the strong axis: failure by lateral-torsional
buckling.
d) Axial compression and biaxial bending - torsionally stiff sections; failure by instability in
one of the principal directions. (W shapes are usually in this category.)
e) Axial compression and biaxial bending - thin-walled open sections; failure by combined
twisting and bending on these torsionally weak sections.
f)

Axial compression, biaxial bending and torsion: failure by combined twisting and
bending when plane of bending does not contain the shear centre.

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Because of the number of failure modes, no simple design procedure is likely to


account for such varied behaviour. Design procedures generally are in one of three
categories: (1) limitation on combined stress; (2) semi-empirical interaction formulas,
based on working stress procedures, and (3) semi-empirical interaction procedures
based on ultimate strength. Limitations on combined stress ordinarily cannot provide a
proper criterion unless instability is prevented, or large safety factors are used.
Interaction equations come closer to describe the true behaviour since they account for
the stability situations commonly encountered.

2.13.1 Working Stress Design Criteria

For working stress design, the strength interaction equations, may be converted to unit
stresses and a factor of safety (FS) applied to bring them into the service load range.
Stability Interaction Criterion: The ultimate strength interaction equation, Eqn. (2.28),
including lateral-torsional buckling is

(2.28)
where Pu and Mui are the axial force arid primary bending moment, respectively, that occur
when failure is imminent. When both the numerator and denominator are divided by a
factor (FS) to bring all terms into the service load range,

or

(2.29)
which gives as a design requirement,

(2.30)
for uniaxial bending and compression. By analogy, for bending about both x- and yaxes, Eqn. (2.30) would become

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(2.31)
Which is the stability interaction equation, where
= nominal axial compression stress at service load
flexural stresses at service load based on primary bending moment about the xand y-axes, respectively .
Fa = allowable compression stress considering the member as loaded by axial
compression only
allowable flexural stresses for the x- and y-axes, respectively, considering the
member loaded in bending only. According to the definition of Cb, when the stability
equation, Eqn. (2.31) is used for braced frames Cb = 1.0. but when Eqn. (2.31) is used for
unbraced frames,
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05(M1/M2) +0.3(M1/M2)2

2.3

Cm = factors to be taken as follows:


1. For braced frames without transverse loading between supports,
Cm = 0.6 - 0.4 M1/M2 0.4, where the moments carry a sign in accordance with end
rotational direction; i.e., positive moment ratio for reverse curvature, negative
moment ratio for single curvature. In this situation Cm converts the linearly varying
(from smaller value M1 to larger value M2) primary bending moment into an
. Thus, philosophically the flexural stress

equivalent uniform moment,


due to primary bending moment is

2. For braced frames with transverse lateral loading between supports, Cm is an


integral part of the moment magnifier. AISC permits using Cm = 0.85 for members
with moment restraint at the ends, and Cm = 1.0 for members with simply supported
ends.
3. For unbraced frames, Cm = 0.85. The AISC Commentary suggests that Cm may be
.

taken conservatively as

In the application of Eqn. (2.31), the term F'e refers to the effective pin-end length in the
plane of bending:

where K = effective length factor (see Sec. 6.5)


Lb = actual unbraced length in the plane of bending
rb = radius of gyration for the axis of bending
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It is noted that a nominal safety factor of 23/12 = 1.92 is used; this is the maximum factor
used for long axially loaded members and is therefore conservative in the magnification
term.
Yielding Interaction Criterion: At support locations in braced frames and for low
slenderness situations in unbraced frames, yielding (plastic strength under the action of P
and M) under combined axial compression and bending may govern. The strength
interaction equation, Eqn. (2.32), forms the basis for the working stress criterion,
(2.32)
where Pu and Mu are the axial force and primary bending moment, respectively, that occur
when maximum strength is achieved. When the numerator and denominator are divided by
a factor (FS) to bring all terms into the service load range,

(2.33)
Or

(2.34)
which, gives as a design requirement,

(2.35)
The AISC Specification has used an expression more conservative than Eqn. (2.35) by
, which for I-shaped sections would

using 1.0 instead of 1.18, and instead of

correspond to 0.66 Fy for x-axis bending and 0.75 Fy for y-axis bending, AISC has used Fb.
For instance, the allowable stress Fbx might require reduction below 0.66 Fy or even below
0.60 Fy because of the laterally unbraced length adjacent to a braced location. Thus AISC
uses for the yield criterion,

(2.36)
for uniaxial bending and compression. For biaxial bending, the general equation is
(2.37)

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which is the yield interaction equation, where the quantities are as defined following Eqn.
(2.31), except that in evaluating Fbx and Fby the moment gradient term Cb is used in exactly
the way it is used for bending alone, rather than in the special way it is used for the stability
interaction criterion, Eqn. (2.31).

2.13.2 Simplified Interaction Criterion for Small Axial Compression

When fa/Fa does not exceed 0.15, it is permitted use of the following instead of Eqn. (2.31)
or Eqn. (2.37),
(2.38)
Example 2.4:
Investigate the acceptability of a W16 x 67 used as a beam-column under the loading
shown in Fig. 2.15 Steel is A572 Grade 60.

Fig 2.15 Beam-column for example 2.4


Solution:
(a) Column effect,

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(b) Beam effect.

Since 29.9 > 27.8, Fb controls. In both formulas Cb is taken as 1.0 (i.e., not used), because
Cm in this situation converts the moment diagram into an equivalent uniform moment; for
which Cb would be 1.0.

(c) Moment magnification.

where the x-axis is the axis of bending.

(d) Check of AISC Formulas:


For stability, Formula (1.6-la),

For yielding, at the braced point,

For the above equation which does not involve Cm, Fb should use Cb = 1.75 for this
problem. In which case Fb > 0.60Fy; use 0.60Fy = 36 ksi.
The W1 6 x 67 is acceptable for the given loading.

2.13.3 Design Procedure

To aid in selection of a beam-column section, it is usually advantageous to convert, in an


approximate way, the resulting bending moment into an equivalent axial compression load
and then to make use of column tables. Occasionally, conversion of the axial load into
equivalent moment will be helpful. The stability interaction equation, Eqn. (2.30), may be
written

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(2.39)
Multiplying by AFa gives

(2.40)
Next, examine the magnification term, which may be changed in form, using

from

section 2.13.1

(2.41)
(2.42)
Thus the equivalent column load PEQ may be expressed using Eqn. (2.40), for uniaxial
bending,
(2.43)
where B = bending factor = A/S and a = 149,000Ar2 for axis of bending. Note is made that
the allowable stress ratio
increases

reduces PEQ while the term

usually

When the yield criterion controls, the equivalent column load PEQ may be

expressed,

(2.44)
corresponding to AISC Formula for uniaxial bending. When

, PEQ may be

computed similarly from Eqn. (2.38) as


(2.45)
corresponding to AISC Formula for uniaxial bending.

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Example 2.5:
Select the lightest W14 section to carry an axial compression force of 150 kips in
combination with a moment of 500ft-kips. The member is part of a braced system, with
support provided in each direction at top and bottom of a 14-ft length. Conservatively
assume the moment causes single curvature and varies as shown in Fig. 2.16. Use A36
steel and the AISC Specification.

Fig. 2.16 Figure for example 2.5


Solution:
Conservatively assume the effective length factor K = 1.0. If adjacent member stiffness is
known, the alignment chart which appears as Fig.14.3. 1a in Chapter 14 may be used to
determine K < 1.0 for this braced frame. Since at the start one may have no idea whether
faFa < 0.15, use the simplest PEQ expression, Eqn. 2.45, PEQ = P + MBx (Fa/Fb)
Referring to AISC Manual, Column Load Tables: for W14 sections, find the average
bending factor with respect to the strong axis, Bx 0.19. Neglect temporarily FaFb; i.e.,
assume Fa Fb.
PEQ 150+500(12)(0.19) = 150+1140 = 1290 kips
At this point, since the column part represents less than 15% (150/1290) of the total,
assume that AISC Formula will apply. Obtain trial sections from AISC Manual using P =
1290 kips and L = 14 ft, and try one section lighter than indicated,
W14X211, Bx =0.183, ry =4.07in., Lc = 16.7ft P = 1183 kips
Check:

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Revise:
PEQ = 150 + 500(12)(0.183)(0.80) = 1028 kips
using closer approximations for the variables. Select for the revised PEQ,
W14X193, Bx = 0.183, ry = 4.05in., Lc = 16.6ft P = 1083 kips
Little change in properties from preliminary check.
Complete check:

Use W14x193
Although the AISC Specification does not require it, check to see the effect of the
neglected secondary bending moment.

Obviously, using AISC Formula (2.45) instead of Formula (2.43) involves insignificant error.
Example 2.6:
Select the lightest W section to carry an axial compression P = 120 kips applied with an
eccentricity e = 5in. as shown in Fig.2.17. The member is part of a braced frame, and is
conservatively assumed loaded in single curvature with constant e. Use A36 steel and the
AISC Specification.

Fig. 2.17 Figure for example problem 2.6


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Solution:
(a) Compute the equivalent column load. Estimate bending factor and assume other
factors to be unity.
W10, PEQ 120 + 0.26(50)(12) = 276 kips
W12, PEQ 120 + 0.22(50)(12) = 252 kips
W14, PEQ 120 + 0.20(50)(12) = 240 kips
It is apparent that the axial compression effect exceeds 15% of the total equivalent load.
Since maximum moment occurs at mid-height when stability controls, only AISC Formula
(2.43) needs to be checked.
(b) Select trial sections. With a view toward satisfying Eqn. (2.43), compute
P(KL) = 120(240) = 6.92 x 106
Cm = 1.0

Magnification =
The reduction from FaFb probably exceeds magnification. Select for L = 20ft,
W10X60

P = 243 kips

W12X58

P = 230 kips

W14X61

P = 237 kips

(c) Check W12x 58.

PEQ = 120 + 0.22(50)(12)(0.615)(1.13) = 212 kips


(d) Revise to W12 x 53 and check AISC Formula (2.43).

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Use W12 x 53. A check of W10 and W14 sections will show that no lighter weight section is
acceptable. Note that even though AISC Formula (2.45) must also be checked, the check
is made by inspection.
PROBLEMS FOR EXERCISE
2.1

Prove that the shape factor for the circular cross section is 1.70.

2.2

Compute the shape factor for the cross section consisting of two equal isosceles
triangles whose common base constitutes the neutral axis.

2.3.

Compute the shape factor for the tee flange width if 12 in. and stem height of 8 in.

2.4.

A simply supported beam spanning 15 ft carries a uniformly distributed load of 0.75


klf DL and 2.25 klf LL, not including the weight of the beam. Floor construction
restrains it against lateral buckling. What size beam of A36 steel is required?

2.5

Purlins 20 ft long and spaced 6 ft on centers support a roof which is on a slope of 1


in 12. The roof is decked with 2-in-thick precast slabs made of lightweight concrete
weighing 65 pcf and securely fastened to the purlins. The built-up roofing weighs 6
psf. For the snow load of 10 psf what size A36 joist is required? If snow load is 40
psf, what is the size of joists?

2.6

A simply supported beam spanning 30 ft carries uniformly distributed loads of 1.2 klf
DL and 1.6 klf LL and a concentrated live load of 8 kips 12 ft from one end.
Headroom limits the depth to not more than 22 in. Determine the laterally supported
A36-steel beam required.

2.7

The beam shown in Fig. below has continuous lateral support. The 16-kip
concentrated loads are made up of 12 kips DL and 4 kips LL. What size A36-steel
beam is required?

Fig. for problem 2.7


2.8

Same as Prob. 2.7 except that, instead of the fixed concentrated loads shown, the
beam supports a moving live load consisting of two wheel loads of 10 kips each
spaced at 6 ft on centers.

2.9

Design the joists and girders for the floor of the building shown in Fig. below. The
live load is 80 psf uniform. The floor is a 4-in concrete slab. A36 steel, AISC
specification.
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Fig. for problem 2.9


2.10

A cross section of the roadway of a highway beam bridge is shown in Fig. below.
The span is 40 ft. The bridge is to be designed to the AASHTO HS20-44 loading
(Fig. 1.1). Since a beam cannot deflect unless there is a transverse bending of the
roadway slab, the result is that part of the wheel directly over a beam may be
supported by adjacent beams. Therefore the load on any one beam may be more
or less than the load on a wheel directly over it, depending upon the stiffness of the
floor and the spacing of the beams. According to the AASHTO specifications, for
concrete floor slabs the fraction of a wheel load supported by an interior beam
directly underneath it is S/5.5, where S is the spacing of the beams in feet, while the
load on an outside beam is computed on the assumption that the flooring acts as a
simple beam. Design the beams in A36 steel. The clearance diagram for the truck
loading is shown in Fig. 1.1. Consider impact requirement to be 30% of live load.

Fig. for problem 2.10


2.11

The framing plan for an office building is shown in Fig. below. Design the beams in
A36 steel. Given:
Floor: 2 in concrete on cellular steel, 40 psf
Ceiling: Acoustical plaster and hung ceiling, 10 psf
Exterior walls: Aluminium window wall 10 ft high at 20 psf
Live load: Office area 70 psf (includes 20 psf for movable partitions)

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Fig. for problem 2.11

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3.1

CONNECTIONS

Introduction

The design of the structural members discussed in the preceding chapters is based on
theories which usually can be depended upon to produce satisfactory results. On the other
hand, the behaviour of connections is so complex that, in many cases, it is impossible to
describe in terms of simple formulas, or for that matter any formula. For this reason,
formulas which are derived analytically often require modification to bring them into
agreement with test results. Design of connections is sometimes left to the fabricator, and
designers do not always give them the attention they deserve. Investigations of structural
failures often show connections or other details, rather than the members, to be the origin
of failure.
Connections may be subjected to direct shear; eccentric shear, which produces a
combination of direct shear and a twisting moment; direct tension, which produces tension
in the connectors; moment, which produces tension on some connectors and compression
on the opposite side of the connection; and combinations of these. Because of the wide
variety of loading conditions to which a connection may be subjected and the range of
details which may be employed, it is essential that the designer have a considerable
knowledge of behaviour. Connections for tension members were discussed in Chaps. 3
and 4 and 5. In this chapter beam connections, column splices, and moment-resistant
column bases will be discussed.

3.2

Types of Connections

Steel construction is defined in three categories according to the type of connections used.
The following three types are indicated.
Type 1. Rigid-frame, where full continuity is provided at the connection so that the
original angles between intersecting members are held virtually constant; i.e., with
rotational restraint on the order of 90% or more of that necessary to prevent any angle
change. Such connections are used under both the working stress and plastic design
methods.
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Type 2. Simple framing, where rotational restraint at the ends of members is as little
as practicable. For beams, simple framing provides only shear transfer at the ends. One
may consider the framing simple if the original angle between intersecting pieces may
change up to 80 percent of the amount it would theoretically change if frictionless hinged
connections could be used. Design of simply supported beams under working stress
method uses Type 2 connections. Simple framing is not used in plastic design, except for
connections of members transverse to the plane of the frame in which the plastic strength
is to develop. Two or more plastically designed planar systems may be linked together by
means of simple framing combined with cross-bracing.
Type 3. Semi-rigid framing, where rotational restraint is between 20 and 90% of that
necessary to prevent any relative angle change. Alternatively, one may consider that with
semi-rigid framing the moment transmitted across the joint is neither zero (or a small
amount) as in simple framing, nor is it the full continuity moment as assumed in elastic
rigid-frame analysis. Design of construction using Type 3 connections may be used when
"the connections of beams and girders possess a dependable and known moment capacity
intermediate in degree between the rigidity of Type 1 and the flexibility of Type 2." Further
discussion on this type of connection is beyond the scope the present text.

3.2.1 Beam Line

In order to better understand the practical distinction between the connection types, the
beam line is a useful graphical device.

Fig. 3.1 Moments and rotations for slope deflection equations.

As shown in Fig. 3.1, consider a beam AB loaded in any manner and subject to end
and

moments Ma and Mb, and with end slopes

. The moments necessary to have

are designated MFa and MFb, the fixed-end moments. Writing the slope
deflection equations,

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(3.1)
Solving Eqn. (3.1) for

and

gives

(3.2)
Subtracting the second equation from the first gives
(3.3)
If symmetrical loading is considered, then
(3.4)
in which case Eqn. (3.3) becomes

Or
(3.5)
which may be called the beam-line equation. When

= 0 (a full fixity condition), Ma =

MFa; and for a hinged end where Ma = 0, the slope becomes

Fig.3.2 Moment-rotation characteristics of connection types


Figure 3.2 shows a diagram of the beam-line equation and also the moment-rotation
behaviour of typical connections of Types 1, 2, and 3. The typical rigid connection would
have to carry an end moment M1 about 90% or more of MFa; hence its degree of restraint
may be said to be 90%. The simple connection (Type 2) may have to resist only 20% or
less of the moment MFa, as indicated by the moment M2, while the semi-rigid connection
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would be expected to resist some intermediate value M3, at perhaps 50% of the fixed-end
moment MFa. If one is able to establish the moment-rotation characteristics of a particular
connection, then the strength can be designed so that the resulting end rotation is
compatible with that caused by the loads.

Fig. 3.3 Typical framed beam connections.

3.3

Framed Beam Connections

These simple framing connections, Type 2, are used to connect beams to other beams or
to column flanges. For the most part these connections are standardized. Typical bolted
and welded framed connections are shown in Fig. 3.3. It is intended in such connections
that the angles be as flexible as possible. The connection to the column (2 rows of 5
fasteners shown in Fig. 3.3a) is usually made in the field while the connection to the beam
web (one row of 5 fasteners shown in Fig. 3.3b) is usually made in the shop. Generally on
plans, shop fastener holes are shown as in Fig. 3.3b, while field fastener holes are shown
as solid black dots.

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Fig. 3.4 Behaviour at tension edge of clip angles

3.3.1 Flexural Stress on Connection Angles

Examine the stress due to flexure on the clip angles, as shown in Fig. 3.4. The tensile force
T per inch at the top of the angles is obtained by taking the applied moment (reaction P
times eccentricity e of applied load measured to fastener line A or to the centroid of weld A)
and computing the flexural stress on the projecting angle legs. If the angle thickness is t
and the angle length is L, the stress at the top of the angles is,

(3.6)
where T is the load on the top 1 in. length of two connection angles. The load T bends the
connection angles as shown in Fig. 3.4. For the high strength bolted connection the
clamping force provides fixity at the bolt and the critical section in flexure is probably at the
base of the fillet of the angle, a distance k from the back of angle.
If the bolted connection is considered a fixed-end beam (Fig. 3.4a) because of the
clamping due to initial tension in the bolts, and the welded connection is considered a
simply supported beam (Fig. 3.4b) because of the lack of initial tension, the bending stress
in the angles may be approximated as:
For bolted angles,
(3.7)
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For welded angles


(3.8)
From Eqn. (3.7) or (3.8) one may observe that thick angles will reduce tie stress; however,
the deformation will also reduce, offsetting the desired flexibility. For framed connections,
adequate deformation of the angles is desired to get close to simple support conditions.
The deflections may be approximated as follows:
For bolted angles,
(3.9)
For welded angles,

(3.10)
Equations (3.9) and (3.10) show that for constant deformation the thicker the angle the
greater must be the stress. Further, for a constant stress f the thinner the angle the greater
the deflection.

3.4

Seated Beam Connections - Unstiffened

As an alternative to framed beam connections using web angles, or other attachments to


the beam web, a beam may be supported on a seat, either unstiffened or stiffened. In this
section the unstiffened seat is treated, as shown in Fig. 3.5. The unstiffened seat (an
angle) is shown in Fig. 3.5 and is designed to carry the entire reaction. It must always,
however, be used with a top clip angle, whose sole function is to provide lateral support of
the compression flange.

Fig. 3.5 Seated beam connections - unstiffened.


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As with the case of the framed-beam connection, the seated connection is intended to
transfer only the vertical reaction and should not give significant restraining moment on the
end of the beam; thus the seat and the top angle should be relatively flexible. The design
of unstiffened seats involves the following steps:

Fig. 3.6 Critical sections for flexure on seats.

Fig. 3.7 Bearing stress assumptions seated connections.

a) Determine the seat width.


b) Determine the moment arms e and ef (Fig. 3.6 and 3.7)
c) Determine the length and thickness of the angle.
d) Determine the supporting angle leg dimension, and the weld size; or the number and
placement of bolts.
The seat width is based on the bearing length N (Fig. 3.7) required:

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(3.11)
Where tw = thickness of web
k = distance from outer face of flange to web toe of fillet. Generally the seat width
should not be less than 3 in.
The moment arms e and ef are obtained as follows, referring to Fig. 3.7a:
(3.12)
(3.13)
The bending moment on the critical section of the angle, is M = Pe

(3.14)
Using the allowable stress on solid rectangular sections bent about their weak axis,
Fb = 0.75 Fy
in which case Eqn. (3.14) becomes
(3.15)
This length of the seat angle is generally taken as either 6 in. or 8 in. for a beam gage g of
3 in. and 5 in., respectively. The number of bolts, which are in combined shear and
tension, are determined in accordance with the principles of Chapter 5. The weld size and
length are obtained using the principles of Chapter 4.

Fig. 3.8 Bearing stress on stiffened seats

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Example 3.1:
Design the seat angle to support a W 12x40 beam on a 25-ft span, assuming the beam
has adequate lateral support. Use A36 steel.
Solution:
In many cases it will be wise practice to design the seat for the maximum reaction when
the beam is fully stressed in flexure.
(a) Determine seat width, length, and thickness:

Take N = k = 1.25in., Try 4-in. seat width. Using Eqn. 3.12 with a clearance of ~4 in. to
allow for possible mill underrun,

Since g = 5 in. for W12 x40 use angle length of 8 in. The angle thickness required is
then, by Eqn. 3.15,

Use seat angle, 12 in. thick and 8 in. long


(b) Determine bolted connection to column, using 3/4 in.-diam A325 bolts in a bearing- type
connection with no threads in the shear plane.
Rss = 13.25 kips;

RB = 32.63 kips (based on1/2 in.-thick angle); Rt = 19.44 kips

assuming two vertical rows of connectors at a 3 -in. pitch.

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Fig. 3.8 Designs for example 3.1


Try 2 bolts (i.e., n = 1) as shown in Fig. 3.8. The direct-shear component is

Since the bolts lie on the centre of gravity, no moment of inertia can be computed using
y. However, since initial tension exists, the initial compression is

The change in stress due to moment is,

Since 1.9 < 2.33, the initial pre-compression is not eliminated and the connection may be
considered safe.
Use 2 bolts, with seat angle, L4 x 3 x 1 2 x 0' - 8.

Fig. 3.9 Bearing stress on stiffened seats

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3.5

Stiffened Seat Connections

When reactions become heavier than desirable for unstiffened seats, stiffeners may be
used with the seat angle in bolted construction, or a T-shaped stiffened seat may be used
in welded construction. The un-stiffened seat may become excessively thick when the
beam reaction exceeds about 40 kips. There are no AISC restrictions, however, to the
maximum load that may be carried by un-stiffened seats.
The stiffened seat as discussed herein is not intended to be part of a moment resisting
connection, but rather it is only to support vertical loads. Here the stiffened seat is treated
as AISC Type 2 construction; i.e., "simple framing."
The steps in the design of stiffened seats are as follows:
1. Determine the seat width.
2. Determine the eccentricity of load, es.
3. Determine the stiffener thickness, ts.
4. Determine the angle sizes and arrangement of bolts; or the weld size and length.
The seat width is based on the required bearing length, N (AISC)
(3.16)
where tw and k are defined following Eqn. (3.11). Because of the rigidity of the stiffener, the
most highly stressed portion is at the edge of the seat rather than at the interior side as it
was for the un-stiffened seat (see Fig. 3.8).
Assuming the beam reaction P is located at N/2 from the edge of the seat the thickness of
the stiffener ts may be established to satisfy several criteria:
(3.17)
in order to be at least as thick as the beam web:

(3.18)
according to AISC so as to prevent local buckling:
(for stiffener angles)

(3.19)

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according to AISC-, bearing on contact area. It is assumed that 1/2 in. of the stiffener angle
is clipped off so as to get close bearing under the seat angle. Equation (3.19) assumes no
eccentricity of load with respect to centre of bearing contact length.

(3.20)
(for welded stiffener)
where the combined bending and direct stress on the rectangular stiffener plate is taken as
a bearing stress. The neutral axis for flexure is taken at W/2. While one may argue that the
bearing allowable stress should not be used, it seems that 0.60 Fy is overly conservative.
Many designers will prefer to use that value, however.
(3.21)
for welding of weld size a with E70 electrodes. Assuming two lines of fillet weld such that
the weld may be fully effective and not overstress the stiffener plate in shear, it is required
that
2(0.707) (21.0) = 0.40 Fyts
which gives Eqn. (3.21). For some of the common types of steel this means
ts 2.06a

(for A36 steel)

ts 1.48a

(for Fy = 50 ksi)

Once the stiffener dimensions have been established, the connection must be designed to
transmit the reaction at the moment arm, es. For the bolted connection, AISC tables,
"Stiffened Seated Beam Connections", consider only direct shear in determining fastener
group capacities. One may reason that as long as initial compression between the pieces
in contact is not reduced to zero due to flexure, the moment component need not be
considered.
For the welded connection suggested by the AISC Manual, as shown in Fig. 3.6c, the weld
configuration is subject to direct shear and flexure using the combined stress at the top of
the weld as the critical one. Thus the configuration is identical to that used for web framing
angles (see Fig. 3.3d) except the return is longer. Treating welding as a L shaped line with
long side = L and short side as b = 0.2L the section modulus of the L shaped line can be
calculated as,

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Then,
force/unit length
force/unit length

force/unit length

(3.22)

Equation (3.22) is used for obtaining capacities given in the AISC Manual tables, "Stiffened
Seated Beam Connections", when es is taken as 0.8W.

Example 3.2:
Design a welded stiffened seat to support a W30 x 99 with a reaction of 150 kips. The steel
is A572 Grade 50.
Solution:
The bearing length required is

Required W = 6.25 + 0.5 (setback) = 6.75 in.

Use 7 in.

Since the W30 X 99 flange thickness is 0.670 in., use 5/8 in. seat plate.
Minimum weld size for welding on 5/8 in. seat and 0.67-in. flange is 1/4 in.
The stiffener thickness is next to be established:

If the allowable stress is reduced to 0.60Fy, a 1-in. plate would be indicated. If a 3/4 in.
stiffener plate is used, Eqn. 3.21 would permit a maximum effective weld size of

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For weld size and length, use es = 0.8 W as is used for AISC Manual tables. Using Eqn.
3.22 and assuming 0.8W (5.6 in.) is about L/4:

Accept the overstress in view of the fact that using es = 0.8 W is believed to overestimate
the moment arm. Use 5/16 in. weld with L = 20 in. Use stiffener plate, 3/4 x 7 x 1'-8"; and
seat plate 5/8 x 7 x 1'-0". The seat plate width equals the flange width (10.45 in.) plus
enough to easily make the welds (approx. 4 times the weld size is often used). The final
design is shown in Fig. 3.10.

Fig. 3.10 Design for example 3.2

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3.6

Beam-Column Moment Connections

In continuous beam-to-column connections it is the design intent to have full transfer of


moment and little or no relative rotation of members within the joint (i.e., AISC Type 1 rigid-frame connections). Since the flanges of a beam carry most of the bending moment
via tension and compression flange forces acting at a moment arm approximately equal to
the beam depth, it is the transfer of these essentially axial forces for which provision must
be made. Since the shear is carried primarily by the web of a beam, full continuity requires
that it be transferred directly from the web.

Fig. 3.9 Continuous beam-to-column connections (welded).

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Fig. 3.10 Continuous beam-to-column connections (bolted).

Fig. 3.11 Continuous beam-to-column connections: welded attachment to column


web.
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Columns being rigidly framed by beams may have attachments to both flanges, as in Figs.
3.9a, b, and c, or only to one flange, as in Fig. 3.9d, and in Fig. 3.10. Alternatively, the rigid
attachment of beams may be to the web, from either or both sides, as in Fig. 3.11. When
the rigid system has rigid attachments either to the flanges or the web (but not to both) the
system is said to be a two-way, or planar, rigid frame. When the rigid frame system
consists of continuous connections to both flange (or flanges) and web (either or both
sides), the system becomes a four-way system, or space frame.
The variety of arrangements for a continuous beam-to-column connection is so great as to
preclude any complete listing or illustration; however, those shown in Figs. 3.9, 3.10, and
3.11 are believed to be common in current design use. Most connections are partly shop
welded and then completed in the field by either welding or fastening with high-strength
bolts.

3.6.1 Horizontal Stiffener in Compression Region of Connection

When the forces in beam flanges are transmitted as compression or tension forces to
column flanges, horizontal stiffeners, as in Figs. 3.11b and d and Fig. 3.12a, may be
required. Such stiffeners prevent web crippling in a region where the beam flange causes
compression, and prevent distortion of the column flange where the beam flange causes
compression. The following development, and resulting AISC provisions are from research
conducted at Lehigh University.

Fig. 3.12 Strength of column web in compression region of connection.


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Consider a beam compression flange bearing against a column as in Fig. 3.14a. When the
maximum strength of the column web is reached, the load has been distributed along the
base of the fillet (k from the face of flange) on a 1:2.5 slope such that for equilibrium
(3.22)
where Pbf is the required nominal strength of the column web and Fyc is the yield stress of
the column web. The strength Pbf also corresponds to the load transmitted by the beam
flange under factored loads.
Under an ultimate strength philosophy, Pbf could be as high as FybAf if the beam must
develop its plastic moment Mp at the connection to the column, or it could be some lesser
value based on a factored load moment less than Mp. When plastic design is used the load
factor 1.7 would be used in the analysis of the structure. When working stress method is
used it is less obvious how to incorporate a strength concept. AISC requires taking Pbf as
the service load flange force multiplied by 5/3 for gravity dead and live load and by 4/8
when wind or earthquake is included. Such a requirement is consistent with the general
use of a 1.67 safety factor for working stress method and is somewhat conservative for
plastic design. Past practice has been conservative in using the maximum possible Pbf
(i.e., FybAf) in the development of the design requirements. Thus the minimum column web
thickness t required to prevent web crippling is
(3.23)
Not only must web crippling be prevented but overall vertical buckling of the web plate
must be avoided. Based on elastic plate buckling theory,

(3.24)
or, if Fcr = Fyc, the stability ratio limit would be

(3.25a)
Where, dc is the depth of the web and t is the thickness. The above equation has later
been replaced by a more rational equation,

(3.25b)

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When the above equations are not satisfied, stiffeners must be provided for which the
required area of stiffener is,
(3.26)
In proportioning the stiffeners the following must be satisfied,
(3.27a)
(3.27b)
where bs is the width of stiffener, t is the thickness of column web and b is the width of the
compression flange of beam. Also the local buckling criterion of section 7.5 (table 7.2) must
be satisfied.

Fig. 3.13 Strength of column flange in tension region of connection.

3.6.2 Horizontal Stiffener in Tension Region of Connection

At the beam tension flange it is the deformation caused to the column flange which is the
main concern, as shown in Fig. 3.13. A yield-line analysis was performed on the portion of
the column flange of width q and length p, as in Fig. 3.13. Skipping the detailed derivation,
only the result is given here,

(3.28)

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The minimum value of tbmFyc / Pbf will give the largest if requirement. The maximum Pbf is
FybAf and assuming it unlikely that Fyc is less than Fyb the negative term may be expressed
tbm/Af the minimum value for which is 0.15 as given by some studies. Thus Eqn. (3.27)
becomes

(3.29)
AISC requires that a pair of stiffeners shall be provided opposite the tension flange unless
the column flange thickness satisfies the following:

Example 3.3:
Design the connection for the rigid framing of two W16 x 40 beams to the flanges of a W12
x 65 column using A572 Grade 50 steel, as shown in Fig. 13.6.7. Use A36 steel for
stiffeners.

Fig. 3.16 Connection with horizontal stiffeners for Example 3.3.


Solution:
(a) Compression region. Design for the maximum flange force transmitted by the beam.
Thus
Pbf = AfFy = 6.995(0.505)50 = 177 kips
To avoid stiffeners, the column web thickness must satisfy Eqn. 3.23 and 3.25b

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Since the column web (W 12 x 65, t = 0.390 in.) has less thickness than required to
prevent web crippling, compression stiffeners are required. The area Ast of stiffener
required according to Eqn. 3.26, is

Using Eqn. 3.27a, the minimum stiffener width b, is

Min bs = 2.14 in.,

say 3 in.

From Eqn. 3.27b, the minimum thickness ts, is

In addition, local buckling must be prevented; thus one of the following must be satisfied:
AISC working stress method, "compact section" not utilized at the joint.
AISC working stress method, "compact section" requirement.

Assuming "compact section" is needed, try 5/16 in.


Provided Ast = 2(3)(0.3125) = 1.88 sq in. > 1.09

OK

Two plates, 5/16 x 3, are acceptable for the compression zone.


(b) Tension region. Check Eqn. 3.30:

Since the flange thickness of the W12 x 65 (tf = 0.605) is less than 0.75 in., a stiffener is
required. The local buckling requirements do not apply to the tension plates; however, the
minimum requirements of AISC still apply, and the minimum 5/16 x 3 used for the
compression region should also be used here.
Use 2 Ls - 5/6 x 3 x 10 7/8, A3 6, for both compression and tension sides.

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Fig. 3.17 Weld requirements for horizontal plates.


(c) Connection of plates to column. The forces to be considered in the design of welding
are shown in Fig. 3.17. When beams frame from both sides and contribute equal flange
forces Pbf, the weld on the ends of the plates must be designed to carry all of the force Pbf
which is not directly taken by the web. For this example, Fig. 3.17a applies, and the
proportion of Pbf carried by stiffeners is based on the compression region and assumed to
be valid also for the tension region; thus

Maximum effective weld size, using shielded metal arc welding with E70 electrodes,

Use 3/8 in. fillet weld, top and bottom, on both tension and compression plates where they
bear against the column flanges. Along the column web, fillet weld is required on only one
side of plate. If the 3/8 in. or larger weld size seems undesirable the stiffener plates could
be made wider, say 3 or 4 in., but they would then have to be thicker to satisfy local
buckling requirements.

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Fig. 3.14 Prying action in tee stub connection.

Fig. 3.15 Simplified loading model for prying action

(3.30)

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3.6.3 Split-Beam Tee Connections

For bolted moment connections, the split-beam tee as shown in Fig. 3.10c is one of the
more common types. The design of a connection involving the transfer of a tensile force
through a thick-plate bolted connection, such as the tee connected to the flange, requires
consideration of "prying action." Consider the deformation of a tee section, as in Fig. 3.14,
where as the pull on the web deforms the flange and deflects it outward, the edges of the
flanges of the tee bear against the connected piece giving rise to the force Q, known as the
"prying force." Inclusion of this force is required.
When bolted connections are not subject to distortion such as is evident in Fig. 3.18b, the
treatment of bolts in simple tension is valid. However, when a thick-flanged tee distorts, the
flange tips tend to dig in, giving rise to the force Q. Based on the simplified loading model
as shown on Fig. 3.15, the equations for the prying force Q are as follows:
1. For connections using A325 bolts,

(3.31a)
2. For connections using A490 bolts,

(3.31b)
where P = externally applied load per fastener
b and a = distances defined in Fig.3.14
D = the nominal bolt diameter
tf = the thickness of the flange or plate being attached
w = the length of flange tributary to a pair of bolts.
Thus the design requirement satisfying AISC may be stated
(3.32)
Where Rt = AbFt

Example 3.4:
Design a split-beam tee connection, such as in Fig. 3.12c, to enable a plastic hinge to
develop in a W14 x 53 beam framing to the flange of a W14 x 159 column. Use A572
Grade 50 steel and 3/4 in.-diam A325 bolts in a bearing-type connection (A325-N). Use
working stress design.

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Solution:
(a) Determine tensile force to be carried. Since the W14x53 satisfies the local buckling
requirements for "compact section," and if the maximum laterally unbraced length is Lc
=7.2 ft, the allowable stress is 0.66Fy.
M = 0.66FySx = 33(77.8) 1/12 = 214 ft-kips
If all moment is transmitted by the tees, the force of the couple is

(b) Check whether the tensile force can be accommodated by the bolts in tension:
Allowable bolt capacity Rt = 0.4418(44) = 19.4 kips
Only 8 bolts will fit, as shown in Fig. 3.20; therefore the maximum tensile force which may
be carried is
T = 8(19.4) = 155 kips < 184 kips

NG

When this difficulty arises one may use a stub beam or a tee stub attached to the bottom of
the main beam (Fig. 3.18) to increase the moment arm of the couple. Actually, when
designing for the support moment, one might have used a beam size required for the midspan moment and then used the stub beam to gain the increased capacity required at the
support. The necessary moment arm is
Arm = 214(12)/155 = 16.6 in.
Extra depth required =. 16.6 -13.92 = 2.6 in.
Try as stub beam a WT5x22.5, tw = 0.350 in., tf = 0.620 in., bf = 8.020 in., whose
dimensions are comparable to the main W14x53 beam.

(c) Check shear stress on web (section c - c of Fig. 3.20) of WT5x22.5

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(d) Determine bolts required to transmit tension and compression forces at the top and
bottom of beam:

Using 3 in. spacing, the minimum length of WT5 x 22.5 required is 21 in.:
Use WT5x22.5 stub tee, 2'-0" long, welded to the bottom of W14x53, as shown in Fig.
3.20.
(e) Determine thickness required to transmit tension on section a - a (Fig. 3.20):

Using the length of section a - a as 13 in. (column flange width = 15.565 in.), and deducting
two holes, give

(f) Determine flange thickness required for flexure on section b - b, Fig. 3.20.

using notation of Fig. 3.18. The critical section at M1 may be taken at 1/16 in. from the face
of the web. Thus

assuming the length of tee at the critical section is 14 in.,

Try a tee cut from S24x79.9, tf = 0.871 in., tw = 0.501 in.

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(g) Check prying force using Eqn. 3.31a,

This is not acceptable since it exceeds Rt = 19.4 kips allowed. It is best to revise the
section to obtain a thicker flange and reduce prying action Try S24 x 105.9, tf = 1.102 in., tw
= 0.625 in.

(h) Recheck flexural stress on flange.

Use tees cut from S24x 105.9 to carry tensile and compressive forces.
Not discussed in this example is the development of the shear capacity of the W14 x 53. A
pair of angles may be attached to the beam web for the purpose of providing whatever
shear is required. The final design is shown in Fig. 3.20.

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3.6.4 End-Plate Connections

This simple type of moment resisting connection consists of a plate welded to the end of
the beam and then bolted to the column, as shown in Fig. 3.10d. Behaviour of end-plate
connections has been studied by many researchers. When properly designed using the
minimum number of high-strength bolts, the region near the tension flange of the beam is
designed as for the split-tee design discussed previously in this section. The fastener
group is designed for shear and tension, including any effect of prying action. The use of
Eqn. (3.31) for the prying force Q is appropriate for the typical end-plate connection.

Fig. 3.21 End plate connection for example 3.4


Example 3.5:
Design an end-plate connection for a W14 x 53 beam section attachment to a W14 x 176
column; both of A36 steel. Design for full moment capacity of the beam and for 45 kips
shear at service load. Use A325 bolts in a bearing-type connection (A325-X). Use working
stress design.
Solution:
(a) Determine the number of bolts required for the tensile force of the bending moment.
The force to be developed in the tension flange is

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For symmetrical placement above and below the tension flange, either 4 or 8 bolts would
be needed. If the bolt size were increased to 1 in. diam, 4 bolts might be satisfactory.
For 1 in.-diam bolts, A325-X,
Rt = 0.7854(44) = 34.6 kips

(b) Establish the plan dimensions of the end-plate. For determining the distance s (Fig.
3.20) the fillet weld size (for E70 electrodes) and the bolt installation clearance are needed.

The minimum erection clearance for 1 in.-diam bolts is 1 15/16 in.

Try a plate 9 in. wide and about 18 in. long.


(c) Estimate the plate thickness required. Referring to Fig. 3.19, the moment arm b for
computing the bending moment on the plate is

Assume Q = 0; then P = T/2, and

Try 1 in.-thick end-plate.


(d) Check prying action. Using Eqn. 3.31a,
a = 1.5 in.;

b = 1.81 in.;

w = z = 4.5 in.

For the 1 in.-thick plate, the prying force is zero as assumed.

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(e) Check combined shear and tension on bolts.

Allowable tensile stress F't in the presence of shear is (AISC)

(f) Length of end-plate.


At the end near the compression flange of the beam, it is sometimes desirable to extend
the plate outside the beam flange an amount equal to the end-plate thickness tp. This will
increase the length of the critical section used in computing the web crippling stress. If a
45 flow through the end-plate is assumed, the critical section length could be increased by
tp using (tp + 5k + 2 tp) instead of (tp + 5k + tp)
Check web crippling on the W24 x 176 without extending the end-plate beyond the
compression flange of the beam.

This is well below the allowable value of 0.75Fy = 27 ksi.


Use g. 1 x 9 x 1'-5 3/8", with 6 - 1-in.-diam bolts in a bearing-type connection (A325-X),
as shown in Fig. 3.21.

3.7

Column Bases

The design of column bases involves two main considerations. The compressive forces in
the column flanges must be distributed by means of a base plate to the supporting medium
so that bearing stresses are within permissible values allowed by specifications. The
second concern is with the connection, or anchorage, of the base plate and column to the
concrete foundation. For frame analysis it may be of importance to evaluate the momentrotation characteristics of the entire anchorage, including the base plate, anchor bolts, and
concrete footing, to determine its stiffness and degree of fixity.
The dimensions and loads are given in Fig. 3.16. It is assumed the stress distribution under
the base plate is uniform and the plate projections beyond the critical sections act as
cantilever beams. The bending moments on cantilevers of spans m and n are respectively

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(on section parallel to column web)

(3.33)

(on section parallel to column flanges)

(3.34)

The unit stress is

(3.35)
or
(3.36)

Fig. 3.16 Column base plate dimensions


The larger of Eqn. (3.35) or (3.36) governs. A stress of 0.75Fy for bending on solid
rectangular sections is allowed by AISC. Thus the required plate thickness can be found:
(3.37)

Required

or

(3.38)

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Example 3.6:
Design a base plate for a W14 x 145 column of A36 steel to carry 775 kips axial
compression resulting from dead load, live load, and wind. Assume allowable unit pressure
Fp under plate is 1.0 ksi under gravity loading.
Solution:
Once the column has been designed it is frequently best to design the base plate for the
column capacity rather than the applied load, in order to avoid having the connection as
the weakest element. The column capacity, of course, depends on the effective (equivalent
pinned-end) length. AISC tables, "Column Base Plates," provide base plate sizes
assuming the shortest practical effective length, in most cases 6 ft.
Determine plan dimensions for plate:

Note the allowable stress is increased 33 1/3% for loading that includes wind in
accordance with most code provisions. The plate should be approximately square, with
slight differences in dimensions B and N to give nearly equal values for m and n.

(b) Determine plate thickness:

Use 2' x 24 x 25" plate.

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3.8

Column Bases to Resist Moment

Column bases frequently must resist moment in addition to axial compression. The
situation has some similarities to the behaviour of bolted connections discussed in an
earlier chapter, and in many respects is analogous to the situation of reinforcing bars in
concrete construction. The axial force causes a pre-compression between the base plate
and the contact surface (frequently a concrete wall or footing). When the moment is
applied the pre-compression on the tension side in flexure is reduced, often to zero,
leaving only the anchor bolt to provide the tensile force resistance. On the compression
side, the contact area remains in compression. The anchorage will have an ability to
undergo rotational deformation depending primarily on the length of anchor bolt available
to deform elastically. Also, the behaviour is influenced by whether or not the anchor bolts
are given an initial pretension.

Fig. 3.17 Column bases to resist moment


A number of elaborate methods are available for designing moment resisting bases, with
variations depending on the magnitude of the eccentricity of loading and the specific details
of the anchorage. Some simple details are shown in Fig. 3.17. When the eccentricity of
loading, e = M/P, is small such that it does not exceed 1/6 of the plate dimension N in the
direction of bending (i.e., within the middle third of the plate dimension), the ordinary
combined stress formula applies. Thus for small e

(3.39)

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where M = Pe, S = Ar / (N / 2) = AN / 6, r = N / 12

Therefore

(3.40)

where N = plate dimension in the direction of bending. Equation (3.40) is correct for e N/6
when there is no bolt pretension, and is considered satisfactory for practical purposes at
least up to e = N/2 without serious error.
When the eccentricity e exceeds N/6, part of the base plate at the tension face becomes
inactive and the stress distribution becomes as shown in Fig. 3.18. A simple practical
assumption to use for such a situation is that the resultant of the triangular distribution is
located directly under the compression flange of the column. When large moment is
designed for, generally the attachment arrangement to the base of the column becomes
more complex than those of Fig. 3.17.

Example 3.7:
Design a column base of the type shown in Fig. 3.25 to carry an axial compression of 150
kips and a moment of 190 ft-kips on a W14 x 82 column section. Use A36 steel with E70
electrodes in shielded metal arc welding, and the working stress method. The base rests
on a large concrete footing having fc = 3000 psi such that the allowable bearing stress Fp
is 0.7 fc

Solution:
Estimate the base plate plan dimensions. The eccentricity of load is

Allowing 3 in. beyond the flanges for attachments, the dimension N is estimated at 20 in.,
making e/N > 0.5; therefore Eqn. 3.40 will not be practical to use since a triangular stress
distribution will occur under the base plate. Referring to Fig. 3.25, assume the compressive
stress resultant force lies directly beneath the compression flange for bending. If the
tension anchor bolts can be cantered at 2 in. from the column face, the internal couple
moment arm will be
Arm = dc - tf + 2 = 14.31 - 0.855 + 2 = 15.46 in.

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Fig. 3.25 An example of moment resisting column base.


If the compressive stress distribution is assumed to be as in Fig. 3.25, the length x is

The distance from the compression edge of plate to the nearest anchor bolt is
Edge distance = 7.73 - 0.5(0.855) - 2 = 5.3 in.
N = x + 5.3 = 23.2 + 5.3 = 28.5 in.
Use N = 28 in. since the foregoing procedure is not precise. The width B required will
depend on the allowable bearing pressure. Moment equilibrium about R (Fig. 3.25) gives
the required tensile force T,

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Since the flange width is 10.13 in., B must be larger than required for bearing stress. To
allow for connection of section to base plate, 12 in. is probably minimum. To minimize
deformation of the plate, try something larger, say 15 in. Try a plate with 15 x 28 in. plan
dimensions.
Determine plate thickness:

(c) Select anchor bolts. Assume A307 bolts; Fu = 60 ksi.

Select 3 - 1 in. -diam. anchor bolts at each flange of column A = 3(1.77) = 5.31 sq. in. >
4.1 sq. in.
Use 6 - 1 in. -diam A307 threaded rods for anchor bolts.
(d) Channel stiffeners and their connections. The bolt load is transmitted through the
channel (MC12 x 45), which is stiffened by four plate stiffeners inside the channel, as
shown in Fig. 3.25. Each interior plate stiffener may be assumed to carry the full bolt load.

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As shown in Fig. 3.25b, horizontal weld forces F1 and a vertical weld force F2 combine to
resist the 27.1 kips acting with an eccentricity of 2 in. from channel web. One may assume
the forces F1 carry the moment and the force F2 carries the shear. Such an approach will
give

The strength requirement is low so that intermittent weld (say several 1 in. segments)
would be acceptable. Weld should be made on both sides of stiffener so as to avoid
eccentricity with respect to the plane of the stiffener.
(e) Connection to the column flange. The sum of the forces F1 must be carried by a fillet
weld connecting the channel flange to the column flange, indicated in Fig. 3.25 by the force
F3.

The length available for weld is the flange width of the W14 x 84; i.e., about 12 in. Using
1/4 in. weld, the length required to be welded is

Use 4 in. of 1/4 in. fillet weld to carry force F3.


The shear to be carried by weld along the channel web is 81.2 kips. Using 1/4 in. fillet, the
length of weld required is

Use 1/4 in. continuous fillet weld along the channel web to connect to the column flange.
This example has been presented to illustrate some of the reasoning that may be used to
design the welds for a column base. The stiffened channel arrangement represents but
one of many possible and commonly used means of transmitting the bolt forces into the
column. When only one or two anchor bolts are required on each side, often angles are
used as anchor bolt sleeves with their toes welded directly to the column flange. Frequently
wing plates are used in various positions to better distribute the loads over the base plate.

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PROBLEMS FOR EXERCISE


3.1

What is the maximum allowable reaction the W14 x 30 may safely transmit to the
seat angle B? What size should be used for angle A and what is its function?
Assume a bearing-type connection with threads excluded from the shear plane.

Fig. for prob 3.1


3.2

Design an unstiffened seat angle to support a W 10 x 22 beam on the web of a W


12 x 65 column. The beam reaction is 22 kips. There is no beam on the opposite
side of the web of the column. Use 3/4 in.-diam A325 bolts (bearing-type
connection with threads excluded from shear planes) and A36 steel. Design by
calculations, and do not merely select from AISC Manual. Specify a size for the top
clip angle.

3.3

The split-tee beam connection shown is subject to a moment of 80 ft-kips and an


end reaction of 30 kips, (a) Determine whether the structural tees are adequate,
and if not, increase their size, (b) Determine the number of 7/8 in.-diam A325 bolts
to connect the tees to the column flanges, the tees to the beam flanges, the clip
angles to the column flange, and the clip angles to the beam web. Assume
connections are bearing-type and threads are excluded from shear planes.

Fig. for problem 3.3

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3.4

For the split-tee beam connection with stub beam shown, determine the allowable
moment and shear capacity at the face of the column when 7/8 in.-diam A325 bolts
are used in a bearing-type connection (no threads in shear planes) along with A36
steel.

Fig. for problem 3.4


3.5

Design a split-tee connection as shown in Fig. 3.12c to connect a W16 x 50 beam


to a W14 x 132 column. Use A572 Grade 50 steel and assume the beam's full
flexural capacity is to be developed. The shear is 20 kips under service load.
Use 3/4 in.-diam A325 bolts, or if it seems advantageous use A490 bolts. Use a
bearing-type connection with no threads in the shear planes.

3.6

Redesign the connection of Prob. 3.5 using an end-plate type of connection as


shown in Fig. 3.12d.

3.7

A W14 x 211 of A572 Grade 50 steel has a concentric reaction of 850 kips resulting
from dead load plus wind load. Select a column base plate. The base plate is to be
located in the centre of a 6-ft square concrete footing having fc = 3000 psi.

3.8

Design the smallest size base plate for a W12 x 65 column to carry an axial
compression load of 220 kips. The load is due to dead load plus live load. The base
plate is to be cantered on a 5-ft square footing with concrete having fc = 3000 psi.

3.9

A W14 x 120 column base connection of the type in Fig. 3.25 is subject to a
moment of 320ft-kips and a direct compression of 210 kips. The base plate is 3
in. x 28 in. x 30 in., with N = 30 in. Determine the total force to be resisted by the
anchor bolts, the maximum stress in the concrete, and the maximum bending stress
in the base plate.

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Appendix

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