G3

Study Material - 3
INDIAN
GEOGRAPHY
AGRICULTURE, MINERALS &
INDUSTRIES
1
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Chapter 8
AGRICULTURE
India is predominantly an agrarian society as more than half of

its population still depend upon agriculture and allied activities for
livelihood. M.S.Swaminathan, the father of Green Revolution in India
rightly stated that If Agriculture goes wrong, nothing else will have
a chance to go right in India.
Till 1971, about 80 per cent of Indias population lived in rural
areas and depended directly or indirectly on agriculture which
contributed about 45 per cent of GDP. The relative importance of
agriculture has reduced considerably due to the rapid development
of other sectors such as mining, manufacturing, transport and trade
and services.
GDP contribution of Agriculture and Allied sectors 17% (201415), while about 50 per cent of the total wokforce is employed
in agricultural sector. Agriculture is an important source of raw
material for industrial production and also serves as a huge market
for industrial products like fertilizers, farm equipments, etc.
Agriculture includes cultivation of crops, animal husbandry,
horticulture, pisciculture, sericulture, silviculture, floriculture, etc.
Being located in the tropical and sub tropical latitudes, the greater
part of agricultural land in India can produce two or more than
two crops in a year. The states of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, West Bengal,
Gujarat and Maharashtra are key contributors to Indian agriculture.
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Indian Geography
"" India ranks second worldwide in farm output.
"" India is the largest producer of milk, jute and pulses in the world
and also has the worlds second largest cattle population with
170million animals in 2011.
"" India is the second largest producer of rice, wheat, sugarcane,
cotton and groundnuts, as well as the second largest fruit and
vegetable producer, accounting for 10.9% and 8.6% of the world
fruit and vegetable production respectively.
"" India is also the second largest producer and the largest
consumer of silk in the world, producing 77,000tonnes in 2005.
"" India exports agriculture products, such as Basmati rice, wheat,
cereals, spices, fresh fruits, dry fruits, beef meat, cotton, tea,
coffee and other cash crops particularly to the Middle East,
Southeast and East Asian countries. It earns about 10 percent
of its export earnings from this trade.
Salient Features of Indian Agriculture
1. Subsistence agriculture: Most part of India has subsistence
agriculture. The farmer owns a small piece of land grows crops
with the help of his family members and consumes almost entire
farm produce with little surplus to sell in the market.
2. Growing population and Urbanisation: When looking at the
present need of food grains there is an additional requirement of
20-25 mn hectares of land to cope with the increasing demands
by 2020. Moreover there is a rising trend in urbanization.
This requires more land for urban settlements at the expense
of agricultural lands. Hence the best way is to increase the
productivity of existing land under cultivation.
3. Importance of Animals: Complete mechanization of Indian
agriculture is still a distant goal. Animals will continue to
dominate the agricultural scene of India for several years to
come.
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Chapter 8 | Agriculture
4. Dependency on Monsoon: Indian agriculture is said to be

a gamble in the hands of monsoon. Any temporal or spatial
variation in the amount of rainfall received by an agricultural
land significantly affects the productivity.
5. Diversity of Crops: Both the temperate and tropical crops are
successfully grown in India.
6. Predominance of Food Crops: More than two third of the
total cropped area is devoted to the cultivation of food crops.
7. Insignificant place to fodder crops: Although India has
largest population of livestock in the world, only four percent of
the cropping area is devoted to permanent pastures and other
grazing lands.
8. Seasonal pattern: India has three major crop seasons
i. Kharif: starts with onset of monsoon and continuous till the
beginning of winter. Major crops grown in this season are
rice, maize, Jowar, Bajra, cotton, sesamum, groundnuts and
pulses such as moong, urad, dal,etc.
ii. Rabi: starts at the beginning of winter and continue till the
end of winter. Major crops of this season are wheat, barley,
Jowar, gram and oil seeds such as linseed, rape and mustard.
iii. Zaid: summer cropping season in which crops like rice, maize,
groundnut, vegetables and fruits are grown.
Farming in India
Types of farming are practiced in India are,
1. Subsistence farming:
"" Majority of farmers in large parts of the country, practice
subsistence farming. Farmers cultivate small and scattered
holdings with the help of draught animals.
"" Modern farm implements are practically absent. Farmers are
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Indian Geography
too poor to purchase fertilizers and high yielding varieties of
seeds as a result of which the productivity is low.
"" Facilities like electricity, irrigation and credit are badly lacking.
"" As such, the farmer and his family members consume the entire
farm produce and do not have any surplus farm production to
sell in the market.
"" The main emphasis is on food crops although some other crops
such as sugarcane, oilseeds, cotton, jute, tobacco also occupy
important place in some areas.
2. Wet Farming:
"" This type of farming is practiced in areas receiving rainfall more
than 200 cm.
"" It includes Central and Eastern part of Himalayan region, West
Bengal, Malabar Coast, Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Tripura
and Manipur.
"" Rice, Jute and Sugarcane, etc. are grown without irrigation.
3. Dry Farming:
"" This type of farming is practiced in areas receiving rainfall less
than 75 cm.
"" No irrigation facility is available in these regions and cultivation
is rainfall dependent.
"" Ragi, bajra, moong, gram and guar are grown here.
"" Rajasthan, Maharashtra, parts of Madhya Pradesh, Southern
Haryana, part of Gujarat and Karnataka fall under this category
of farming. In such areas, farmers adopt subsidy activities such as
dairy, cattle farming to supplement their meagre farm incomes
4. Rainfed farming:
"" Growing crops on natural precipitation without irrigation is
termed as rainfed agriculture.
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"" The climate is largely semi-arid and dry sub-humid with a short
(occasionally intense) wet season followed by long dry season.
"" In India, almost 60% of the net sown area is rainfed.
"" Rainfed crops account for 48% area under food crops and 68%
under non-food crops.
"" About 85% of pulses, millets, 80% of horticulture, 80% of oil
seeds, 66% of cotton and 50% of cereals are cultivated under
rainfed conditions.
"" Green Revolution bypassed the less-favored rainfed areas leading
to neglect and isolation.
"" National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA) was established in
2006 to give focused attention on rainfed areas.
Differences between Rainfed and Dryland Agriculture:
Components
Dryland farming
Rainfed farming
Rainfall
< 750 mm
> 750 mm
Moisture
Shortage
Enough / Sufficient
Regions
Arid and semi arid
Humid and sub humid
Cropping system Single crop or intercropping Inter cropping or double cropping

Constriants
Wind and water erosion
Water erosion
5. Irrigated Farming:
"" This type of agriculture can be practiced in areas where water
for irrigation is available from nearby water sources like rivers,
streams, ponds or from underground sources by constructing
canals, tanks or wells.
"" States like Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, north western
Tamil nadu and the deltas of peninsular rivers come under this
category.
"" Water intensive crops like rice, wheat, sugarcane, etc are grown here.
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Indian Geography
6. Plantation agriculture:
"" Large capital input, vast estates, managerial ability, technical
know-how, sophisticated farm machinery, fertilizers, good
transport facilities, and a factory for processing the produce
are some of the outstanding features of plantation agriculture.
"" There are plantations of rubber, tea, coffee, cocoa, banana,
spices, coconut, etc.
"" This type of agriculture is practiced mainly in Assam, subHimalayan region, West Bengal, and in the Nilgiri, Anaimalai
and Cardamom Hills of the south.
7. Commercial Farming:
"" Under this farming, the farmers raise crops mainly for the
market. Under this system, generally those crops are grown
which are used as raw materials for industries. Cultivation of
sugarcane in Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra; cotton in Gujarat,
Maharashtra and Punjab; and Jute in West Bengal are some of
the examples of this farming.
8. Contract Farming :
"" It is viewed as an important tool to increase private corporate
involvement in agro-processing. In this system, companies
engaged in processing/ marketing of agriculture products
enter into contract with the farmers. They provide the farmers
necessary facilities and buy back the products with a rate
specified in advance. Such type of farming is said to be getting
popular among farmers especially in Punjab.
9. Eco-Farming or Organic Farming :
"" This farming avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides,
growth regulator and livestock feed additives. This type of
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farming rely on crop rotation, crop residues, animal manure, offfarm organic wastes and biological pest control to maintain soil
productivity. A few farmers from Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Pondicherry and Punjab are adopting this
type of agriculture.
10. Shifting agriculture:
"" This is a type of agriculture in which a piece of forest land is
cleared mainly by tribal people by felling and burning of trees
and then crops are grown there.
"" After 2-3 years when the fertility of the soil in the cleared land
decreases, it is abandoned and the group shifts to some other
piece of land.
"" The process continues and the farmers again shift to the first
piece of land after a gap of 10-15 years.
"" Dry paddy, buck wheat, maize, small millets, tobacco and
sugarcane are the main crops grown under this type of agriculture.
11. Nomadic Herding
"" This is practiced in arid and semi arid regions of Rajasthan and
in the hills of Jammu and Kashmir.
"" The herdsmen along with their livestock are moving from place
to place in search of water, food and fodder.
"" Sheep, Camel, Yak, Goats, etc are most commonly reared.
"" These animals provide milk, meat, wool, hides, etc to the
herdsmen.
Problems of Indian Agriculture

1. Small and fragmented land-holdings:
"" The average size of holding was 2.28 hectares in 1970-71 which
was reduced to 1.82 hectares in 1989-81 and 1 .50 hectares in
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Indian Geography
1995-96. The size of the land holdings decreased further with
the infinite sub-division of the land holdings.
"" Sub-division and fragmentation of the holdings is one of the
main causes of our low agricultural productivity and backward
state of our agriculture.
"" A lot of time and labour is wasted in moving seeds, manure,
implements and cattle from one piece of land to another.
Irrigation becomes difficult on such small and fragmented fields.
"" The only solution to this problem is the consolidation of holdings
which means the reallocation of holdings which are fragmented,
the creation of farms which comprise of only one or a few parcels
in place of multitude of patches formerly in the possession of each
peasant. But unfortunately, this plan has not succeeded much.
"" The other solution to this problem is cooperative farming in
which the farmers pool their resources and share the profit.
2. Seeds:
"" Good quality seeds are out of reach of the majority of farmers
especially small and marginal farmers mainly because of
exorbitant prices of better seeds.
"" In order to solve this problem, the Government of India
established the National Seeds Corporation (NSC) in 1963 and
the State Farmers Corporation of India (SFCI) in 1969.
"" Thirteen State Seed Corporations (SSCs) were also established
to augment the supply of improved seeds to the farmers.
"" High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP) was launched in
1966-67 as a major thrust plan to increase the production of
food grains in the country.
"" The role of seed industry is not only to produce adequate
quantity of quality seeds but also to achieve diversity to suit
various agro-climatic zones of the country.
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3. Manures, fertilizers and Biocides:

"" Indian soils have been used for growing crops over thousands
of years without caring much for replenishing. This has led
to depletion and exhaustion of soils resulting in their low
productivity.
"" It has been estimated that about 70 per cent of growth in
agricultural production can be attributed to increased fertilizer
application. Thus increase in the consumption of fertilizers is a
barometer of agricultural prosperity.
"" However, there are practical difficulties in providing sufficient
manures and fertilizers in all parts of the country because of
the remoteness of habitation of poor peasants.
"" It has been felt that organic manures are essential for keeping
the soil in good health. The country has a potential of 650 million
tonnes of rural and 160 lakh tonnes of urban compost which is
not fully utilized at present. The utilization of this potential
will solve the twin problem of disposal of waste and providing
manure to the soil.
4. Irrigation:
"" Although India is the second largest irrigated country in the
world after China, only one-third of the cropped area is under
irrigation.
"" Irrigation is the most important agricultural input in a tropical
monsoon country like India where monsoon rainfall is uncertain,
unreliable and erratic.
"" India cannot achieve sustained progress in agriculture unless
and until more than half of the cropped area is brought under
irrigation. Large tracts still await irrigation to boost the
agricultural output.
"" However, care must be taken to safeguard against ill effects
of over irrigation especially in areas irrigated by canals. Large
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Indian Geography
tracts in Punjab and Haryana have been rendered useless (areas
affected by salinity, alkalinity and water logging) due to faulty
irrigation.
5. Lack of mechanization:
"" In spite of the large scale mechanization of agriculture in some
parts of the country, most of the agricultural operations in
larger parts are carried out by human hand using simple and
conventional tools and implements like wooden plough, sickle,
etc.
"" It results in huge wastage of human labour and in low yield
per capita labour force. Some progress has been made for
mechanizing agriculture in India after Independence. Need
for mechanization was specially felt with the advent of Green
Revolution in l960s.
6. Soil erosion:
"" Large tracts of fertile land suffer from soil erosion by wind and
water. This area must be properly treated and restored to its
original fertility by preventing further erosion.
7. Agricultural Marketing:
"" Agriculture marketing still continuous to be in a bad stage in
rural India. In the absence of sound marketing facilities, the
farmers have to depend upon local traders and middlemen for
the disposal of their farm products which are sold at throw
away prices.
"" In order to meet his requirements and pay his (agricultural)
debt, the farmer is forced to sell produce at whatever price is
offered to him.
"" In order to save the farmer from the clutches of the middle
men and money lenders, the government has come out with
regulated markets (mandis) through APMC Act. These markets
generally introduced a system of competitive buying, help in
eradicating malpractices, endure the use of standardized weights
134
and measures and evolve suitable machinery for settlement of

disputes. But even these markets could not achieve the desired
goals because of their restrictive nature, which forbids free
decision making to both farmers and traders.
Keystone
The Rural Credit Report Survey rightly remarked that the
producers in general sell their produce at an unfavourable place and
at an unfavourable time and usually they get unfavourable terms
8. Inadequate storage facilities:
"" Storage facilities in rural areas are either totally absent or
inadequate. Under such conditions the farmer is compelled to
sell his produce immediately after the harvest at the prevailing
market prices which are very low.
"" Scientific storage is, therefore, very essential to avoid losses and
to benefit the farmers and the consumers alike.
"" At present the Food Corporation of India (FCI), The Central
and State Warehousing Corporation are the principle agencies
engaged in the warehousing and storage facilities.
9. Inadequate transport:
"" One of the main handicaps with Indian agriculture is the lack
of cheap and efficient means of transportation.
"" Even now, there are lakhs of villages which are not well
connected with market centers. Most roads in the rural areas
are kutcha and become useless in the rainy season.
"" Under these circumstances, the farmers cannot carry their
produce to the main market and are forced to sell it in the local
market at low prices.
"" Linking each village by all weather road is a gigantic task and
it needs huge sums of money to complete this task.
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Indian Geography
10. Scarcity of capital:
"" Agriculture, like all other industries, requires capital. The role
of capital input is becoming more and more important with the
advancement of farm technology.
"" The main suppliers of money to the farmer are the moneylenders, traders and commission agents who charge high rate of
interest and purchase the agricultural produce at very low price.
"" Rural credit scenario has undergone a significant change and
institutional agencies such as Central Cooperative Banks, State
Cooperative Banks, Commercial Banks, Cooperative Credit
Agencies and some Government Agencies are extending loans
to farmers on easy terms.
AGRICULTURAL REGIONS
1. Rice Jute Tea Region
Rice regions include lowlands, valleys, and river deltas in the
states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Meghalaya, West
Bengal, Orissa, northern and eastern parts of Jharkhand and
Chhattisgarh, and Tarai regions of UP. Jute is mainly grown in the
Hugli basin of West Bengal. Tea is mainly grown in Assam, Darjeeling
and Jalpaiguri districts of West Bengal, Tripura, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
and Karnataka.
2. Wheat and Sugarcane Region
Wheat region comprises Bihar, UP, Punjab, Haryana, Western
MP and north eastern Rajasthan. The main wheat belt of India
extends over Punjab, Haryana, Ganga Yamuna doab of UP and
north eastern Rajasthan. Sugarcane is mainly grown in UP, parts of
Bihar and Maharashtra.
3. Cotton Region
It spreads on the regur or black cotton soil area of the Deccan
Plateau.
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Fig. Agricultural Regions of India
4. Maize and Coarse Crops Region

Western Rajasthan, Northern Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh are
included in this region. Agriculture is possible only with the help of
irrigation. Maize is mainly grown in the Mewar region where Wheat
and ragi are also produced. In the southern part, rice, cotton and
sugarcane are grown.
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Indian Geography
5. Millets and Oil seed Region
This region includes areas of poor soils and broken topography in
Karnataka plateau, parts of Tamil Nadu, southern Andhra Pradesh
and eastern Kerala.
6. Fruits and Vegetable Region
This region extends from Kashmir Valley in the west to Assam in the East.
AGRO CLIMATIC ZONES IN INDIA
In 1989, the Planning Commission divided India into following
15 Agro-climatic regions.
Agro-Climatic Zones of India
6
5
14
2
4
8
13
3
7
9
10
12
11
1. Western Himalayan
2. Eastern Himalayan
3. Lower Gangetic Plains
4. Middle Gangetic Plains
5. Upper Gangetic Plains
6. Trans Gangetic Plains
7. Eastern Plateau & Hills
8. Central Plateau & Hills
9. Western Plateau & Hills 15
10. Southern Plateau & Hills
11. East Coast Plains & Hills
12. West Coast Plains & Hills
13. Gujarat Plains & Hills
14. Western Dry Region
15. Islands
Fig. Agro-Climatic Zones of India
138
I The North-Western Himalaya
IX The Western Plateau and hills
II The North-East Himalaya
X The Southern Plateau and hills
III The Lower Ganga Plain
XI The East Coast Plains and hills
IV The Middle Ganga Plain
XII The West Coast Plains and
V The Upper Ganga Plain
Ghats
VI The Trans Ganga plain (Punjab plains) XIII The Gujarat Plains and hills
VII The Eastern Plateau and hills
XIV The Western Dry Region
VIII The Central Plateau and hills
XV The Islands
LAND USE PATTERN IN INDIA

All-India Land Utilisation as a Share of Total Geographical Area (Per Cent)
Land use classification
195051 196061 197071 198081 199091 200001 200405 200809 200910
Forests
12.3
16.4
19.4
20.5
20.6
21.2
21.3
21.3
Non-agricultural-uses
2.8
4.5
5.0
6.0
6.4
7.2
7.5
7.9
21.3
8.0
Barren and- unculturable land
11.6
10.9
8.6
6.0
5.9
5.3
5.3
5.1
5.1
Permanentpasturesand-othergrazingland
2.0
4.2
4.0
3.6
3.5
3.2
3.2
3.1
3.1
Land under- miscellaneoustree, crops and- groves
6.0
1.4
1.3
1.1
1.2
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
Culturable- wasteland
7.0
5.8
5.3
5.1
4.6
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.9
Fallow land
8.6
6.9
6.0
7.5
7.1
7.6
7.8
7.4
8.0
Net sown area
36.1
40.5
42.7
42.6
43.5
43.0
42.8
43.2
42.6
Notes: Net sown area represents the total area sown with crops and orchards, with
the area sown more than once in the same year counted only once; Barren and
unculturable land includes all land covered by mountains and deserts, which cannot
be brought under cultivation except at an exorbitant cost; Culturable wasteland
includes land available for cultivation, but not cultivated for the last 5 or more years.
Highlights from the Agricultural Census 2010-11:

The below observations have been sourced from Agricultural
Census 2010-11.
"" There are 138.35 million (13.8 Crore) operational land holdings
in India. In comparison to 2005-06, there was an increase of 7%
in number of these holdings. Out of these 12.78% land holdings
belong to women.
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Indian Geography
"" The average size of operational holding in India is 1.15 ha.
85.01% operational land holdings in India are small and marginal
(below 2.00 ha). 14.29% are semi-medium and medium; 0.7%
are large land holdings.
"" Highest number of operational land holdings in India is in Uttar
Pradesh, followed by Bihar, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh.
Lowest land holdings in India are in Chandigarh. However, in
terms of operated area, the largest contribution comes from
Rajasthan followed by Maharashtra. Chandigarh constituted the
lowest number of operational holdings as well as the operated
area in the country in 2010-11.
Types of Landholdings in India
"" Operational Land Holdings include only those units which are
used either in farm production or farm production + livestock
and poultry products (primary) and/or pisciculture or for livestock
and poultry products (primary) and/or pisciculture only.
"" Maximum number of operational land holdings in India is
marginal holdings (1 hectare or less).
"" According to Census 2011, 67 per cent of holdings were classified
as marginal (less than 1 hectare) and 18 per cent were classified
as small (1-2 hectares).
"" Large holdings were estimated to be only 0.7%.
Number of land holdings in India
Year
Marginal Small Semi medium

(<1 ha) (1-2 ha)
(2-4 ha)
Medium
(4-10 ha)
Large
(>10 ha)
All
1970-71
36200
13432
10681
7932
2766
71011
2005-06
83694
23930
14127
6375
1096
129222
2010-11
92826
24779
13896
5875
973
138348
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GREEN REVOLUTION
Green Revolution has its origin in the findings of a new dwarf
variety of wheat seed by Dr. Norman Earnest Borlaug. He was in
charge of Wheat Development Programme in Mexico in the 1950s and
was the genetic architect of the dwarf wheat. His efforts at breeding
a suitable dwarf variety was crowned with success by l951 in Mexico
and the country became self sufficient in food by 1956.
In India, the seeds of green revolution were first tested in the
drought year of 1964-65. They were introduced to the Indian scientists
by Dr. Borlaug in 1963. These seeds were planted in different soils
in Delhi, Ludhiana, and Kanpur. The yield was over 4,000 kg per
hectare which was about four times the yield of local varieties. These
varieties were released for general cultivation after experimentation,
multiplication and demonstrations by Indian scientists in about 100
different farmers fields. High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP)
was introduced in the Kharif season of 1966. The production of food
grains in 1967-68 was 25 per cent higher than that of 1966-67. This
increase was more than the increase recorded in the preceding 16
years of plan period. This unprecedented increase in production was
nothing less than a revolution and it was termed as Green Revolution.
Keystone
Green Revolution is the term used for the spectacular growth in the
food production, particularly in the wheat and the rice, as a result of
the new agricultural strategy introduced in 1967-68. This strategy
was in the form of a package programme woven around new high
yielding verities of seeds and included other inputs, such as chemical
fertilizers and pesticides, assured water supply, supply of electricity
at subsidized rates, improvement of rural infrastructure, credit and
marketing facilities on cooperative basis, a system of support prices
and buffer stockings
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Indian Geography
Unfortunately Green revolution left its impact only in certain
states like Punjab, Haryana, and Western UP in respect of wheat
production and Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in respect of rice
production.
Components of the Green Revolution
1. High Yielding Varieties (HYV) of seeds
2. Irrigation (a) surface and (b) ground
3. Use of fertilizers (chemical)
4. Use of Insecticides and Pesticides
5. Command Area Development (CAD)
6. Consolidation of land holdings
7. Land reforms
8. Supply of agricultural credit
9. Rural electrification
10. Rural Roads and Marketing
11. Farm Mechanization
12. Agricultural Universities
Impacts of Green Revolution
"" Increase in Agricultural Production: The introduction
of Green Revolution in 1967-68 has resulted in phenomenal
increase in the production of agricultural crops especially in
food grains. From 1967 onwards, the Green Revolution aimed,
at bringing about a Grain Revolution. Among the food grains,
it is the wheat crop which drew maximum benefit from Green
Revolution. The production of wheat increased by more than
three times between 1967-68 and 2003-04 while the overall
increase in the production of cereals was only two times. On
account of this reason, it is said that the Green Revolution in
India is largely the Wheat Revolution.
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"" Prosperity of Farmers: With the increase in farm production

the earnings of the farmers also increased and they became
prosperous. This has, especially, been the case with, big farmers
having more than 10 hectares of land.
"" Reduction in import of food grains: The main benefit of
Green Revolution was the drastic reduction in the import of
food grains. India became self sufficient in food grains and has
sufficient stock in the central pool. Sometimes, food grains are
exported also.
"" Capitalistic Farming: Big farmers having more than 10
hectares of land have tended to get the maximum-benefit from
Green Revolution technology by investing large amount of
money in various inputs like HYV seeds, fertilizers, machines,
etc. This has encouraged capitalistic farming.
"" Ploughing back of profit: The introduction of Green
Revolution helped the farmers in raising their level of income.
Wiser farmers invested their surplus income for improving
agricultural productivity. This led to further improvement of
agriculture.
"" Industrial Growth: Green Revolution brought about large
scale farm mechanization which created demand for different
types of machines like tractors, harvesters, threshers, diesel
engines, electric motors, pumping sets, etc. Besides, demand
for chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, weedicides, etc
also increased considerably. Consequently, industries producing
these items progressed by leaps and bounds. Moreover, several
agricultural products are used as raw materials in various
industries. These industries are known as agro-based industries.
Textile, sugar, vanaspati, etc. are some outstanding examples
of agro based industries.
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Indian Geography
Demerits of Green Revolution
1. Inter-Crop Imbalances: The effect of Green Revolution is
primarily felt on food grains. Although all food grains including
wheat, rice, Jowar, Bajra and maize have gained from the Green
Revolution, it is Wheat which has benefited the most. It has
wrested areas from coarse cereals, pulses and oilseeds. The HYV
seeds in latter crops have either not been developed so far at all,
or they are not good enough for farmers to risk their adoption.
Consequently, their cultivation is fast becoming uneconomic
and they are often given up in favour of wheat or even rice. The
result is that an excess of production in two main food grains
and shortages in most others today prevail side by side. This
culminated in wide spread nutritional imbalances among the
people, especially the children. Mal nourished children often
lack immunity to fight communicable diseases and grow up as
unhealthy citizens. Major commercial crops like cotton, jute, tea
and sugar are also almost untouched by the Green Revolution.
2. Regional Disparities: Green Revolution technology has given
birth to growing disparities in economic developments at inter
and intra regional levels. The fruits of Green Revolution were
mostly utilized by areas of Punjab, Haryana, and western U P in
the north and Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in the south. It
has hardly touched the eastern region including Assam, Bihar,
West Bengal, and Orissa and arid and semi arid areas of western
and southern India.
3. Increase in Interpersonal Inequalities: It has been
observed that it is the big farmer having 10 hectares or more
land, who benefited the most from Green Revolution because he
has the financial resources to purchase farm implements, better
seeds, fertilizers and can arrange for regular supply of water to
the crops. As against this the small and marginal farmers do not
144
have the financial resource to purchase these farm inputs and

are deprived of the benefits of Green Revolution Technology. In
short, Green Revolution has made the rich richer and rendered
the poor poorer resulting in wide-spread social and economic
tensions.
4. Unemployment: Except in Punjab, and to some extent in
Haryana, farm mechanization under Green Revolution has
created widespread unemployment among agricultural laborers in
the rural areas. The worst hit is the poor and the landless people.
Bringing Green Revolution in Eastern India (BGREI)
Bringing Green Revolution in Eastern India also called as Second
Green Revolution is a change in the agricultural production necessary
to feed and sustain the growing population in the country. BGREI
was launched by the government in 2010-11, which got a further
impetus after an additional allocation of Rs. 1000 crore, along with
creation of agricultural institutions in the east. BGREI focuses on
the seven eastern states including eastern UP, Bihar, West Bengal,
Jharkhand, Assam, and Odisha to bring the second Green Revolution
through sustainable farm practices using water management and
conservation.
At present, the production of pulses in the country is very low.
Pulses, being a basic source of protein should be available to the poor
at affordable prices, which can eliminate the nutritional imbalance
prevailing among the poor. Rain fed areas could not achieve much
from the first Green Revolution, where as they account for about 60%
of countrys total grain production. So, second Green Revolution aims
at harnessing the maximum potential of the eastern states through
sustainable agricultural practices which can bring a balance between
the food grain production and ecological sustainability.
145
Indian Geography
Evergreen Revolution
Dr. M S Swaminathan, the father of Green Revolution in India,
is calling for an Evergreen Revolution that includes increasing
productivity in perpetuity without ecological harm, by laying stress
on the organic agriculture which meant cultivation without use of
chemical pesticides and green agriculture which meant conservation
agriculture with the help of integrated pest management, integrated
nutrient supply and integrated natural resource management. Agro
forestry system involving fertilizer trees is another component of
evergreen revolution. It also includes adoption of mixed farming and
climate resilient farming by the farmers. It has also laid emphasis on
Pulses as they enrich soil with atmospheric nitrogen fixation and is
a good source of income for farmers involved in rainfed agriculture
as well as is a good source of protein for poor people.
WHITE REVOLUTION
The white revolution refers to the huge increase in milk supply
through concerted efforts on a cooperative level. In 1998-99, India
attained an anticipated yield of about 75 million tonnes of milk,
making the country the largest milk producer in the world. The
dairy sector is now the largest contributor in the agricultural sector
to the nations GDP.
Operation Flood
In 1965, the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) was
set up to promote, plan and organize dairy development through
cooperatives. These cooperatives were envisaged as democratic
institutions owned and managed by rural producers and were
sensitive to the producers demands. Basically, Anand model of dairy
development in Gujarat was to be replicated in other parts. These
cooperatives were also to provide consultancy services and set up
dairy plants on a turnkey basis.
146
The NDDB launched Operation Flood in 1970 with commodity

gift from the European Economic Community, which included
skimmed milk powder and butter oil. Proceeds from the sale of
these products were used to finance the operation. A multi-tiered
cooperative structure was established under the operation with
Primary Village Cooperative Societies at the base, District Unions
at the district level, and State Federations at the state level and the
National Cooperative Dairy Federation of India as the apex body for
milk cooperative societies
Operation Flood is considered to be the worlds largest dairy
development programme. Under this programme professionals were
employed at every level, particularly in marketing and application,
and science and technology. The central plan of the programme was
to link the rural producers with urban consumers.
Operation Flood has helped dairy farmers, direct their own
development, placing control of the resources they create in their
own hands. A National Milk Grid, links milk producers throughout
India with consumers in over 700 towns and cities, reducing seasonal
and regional price variations while ensuring that the producer gets
a major share of the price consumers pay.
The bedrock of Operation Flood has been village milk producers
cooperatives, which procure milk and provide inputs and services,
making modern management and technology available to members.
Operation Floods objectives included:
"" Increase milk production (a flood of milk)
"" Augment rural incomes
"" Fair prices for consumers
Gujarat-based co-operation Anand Milk Union Limited, often
called Amul, was the engine behind the success of the programme,
and in turn became a mega company based on the cooperative
147
Indian Geography
approach. Tribhuvandas Patel was the founder Chairman of Amul,
while Varghese Kurien was the chairman of NDDB at the time when
the programme was implemented.
Operation Flood was implemented in three phases.
Phase I
Phase I (19701980) was financed by the sale of skimmed
milk powder and butter oil donated by the European Union (then
the European Economic Community) through the World Food
Programme. NDDB planned the programme and negotiated the
details of EEC assistance.
During its first phase, Operation Flood linked 18 of Indias
premier milk sheds with consumers in Indias major metropolitan
cities: Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. Thus establishing
mother dairies in four metros.
Phase II
Phase II (19811985) increased the milk sheds from 18 to 136;
290 urban markets expanded the outlets for milk. By the end of
1985, a self-sustaining system of 43,000 village cooperatives with
42.5 lakh milk producers were covered. Domestic milk powder
production increased from 22,000 tonnes in the pre-project year to
140,000 tonnes by 1989, all of the increase coming from dairies set up
under Operation Flood. In this way EEC gifts and World Bank loan
helped promote self-reliance. Direct marketing of milk by producer
cooperatives increased the sale of milk by several million litres a day.
Phase III
Phase III (19851996) enabled dairy cooperatives to expand
and strengthen the infrastructure required to procure and market
increasing volumes of milk. Veterinary first-aid health care services,
feed and artificial insemination services for cooperative members were
extended, along with intensified member education.
148
Operation Floods Phase III consolidated Indias dairy cooperative

movement, adding 30,000 new dairy cooperatives to the 42,000
existing societies organized during Phase II. Milk sheds peaked to
173 in 1988-89 with the numbers of women members and Womens
Dairy Cooperative Societies increasing significantly.
Outstanding results of Operation Flood
1. The milk production in India increased from a level of 17 MT
in 1950-51 to about 71MT in 1997-98.
2. The per capita availability of milk increased to about 204gm per
day in 1997-98 from a level of 107gm per day in 1970.
3. Imports of milk solids have ended. India has also started
exporting milk products to some countries now.
4. Dairy industry and infrastructure have been expanded and
modernized. A milk grid has been activated to offset regional
and seasonal imbalances in milk production.
5. Nine million small farmers in 70,000 villages are earning jointly
an incremental income of more than Rs 200 crore. 62 per cent
of the milk procurement for operation flood comes from small
marginal farmers and the land less.
6. Most of the dairy needs are met indigenously.
7. Genetic improvement of milch animals has been made possible
by cross breeding.
Criticism of White revolution
Some critics of the project argue that the emphasis on foreign
cow breeds has been instrumental in the decimation of Indian breeds.
Foreign breeds give higher yields, but require more feed and are not
suited to Indian conditions. Critics also argue that the focus on the
dairy sector during this period came at the expense of development,
research, and extension work in other areas of Indian agriculture.
149
Indian Geography
Moreover, the developed countrys heavy subsidies on dairy
products pose an obstruction to the Indian Dairy growth. The
distortion of global dairy prices due to heavy subsidies by the
European Union and the U.S.A, besides other developed countries, has
rendered Indian Dairy products non- competitive in the international
market.
Problems of Dairy Industry in India
1. Because of small holdings and scattered milk production,
the collection and transportation of milk, in good quality, to
markets is difficult. This leads to an inefficient utilization of
milk products.
2. Because of unhygienic production, handling conditions and high
temperatures, the quality of milk is affected adversely.
3. Because of inadequate marketing facilities, most of the
marketable surplus is sold in the form of ghee which is the least
remunerative of all milk products.
4. Crude methods for milk collection and production are used,
which have low productivity.
5. The Indian cows and buffaloes are generally low yielding and
non-descript because of the lack of healthy cattle feed and fodder,
tropical heat and diseases. Indian cattle, though account for 15
Per cent of the worlds cattle population, contribute only 3.2 per
cent to cow milk pool.
It has been observed that the milk production-per animal is
higher where balanced mixed farming is practiced, and the best
milch animals are found where there is prosperous agriculture, where
fodder, cereal, oilseed by-products and crop residue are available and
where the pressure on land is comparatively lower.
150
BLUE REVOLUTION
The term Blue revolution is used to describe the adoption of
a package of methods by which fish and marine production has
been increased substantially in India since independence. The Blue
Revolution in India started in 1970 during the Fifth five year plan
when Central government sponsored Fish Farmers Development
Agency (FFDA). India is currently the sixth largest fish producer in
the world and second in inland fish production. Fish and fish products
are also rapidly becoming major export items.
Fishing in India contributed over 1 percent of Indias annual
gross domestic product in 2008. Fishing in India employs about 14.5
million people.
There has been an increase in the total fish production from
0.75 million tonnes in 1950&51 to 6.2 million tonnes in 2002-03.
Currently, the mechanized sector contributes about 67 per cent of
the total catch while the motorized sector contributes 20 per cent
and the non-mechanized 13 per cent.
To harvest the economic benefits from fishing, India is adopting
exclusive economic zone, stretching 200 nautical miles (370 km)
into the Indian Ocean, encompasses more than 2 million square
kilometers. In the mid-1980s, only about 33 percent of that area was
being exploited. According to estimates, the production potential
beyond 50 m depth in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is 1.7
million tonnes in which 0.74 million tonnes are of pelagic variety,
0.65 million tonnes of demersal and 0.29 million tonnes are oceanic
species. In addition, about 100 million tonnes mesopelagics can
be exploited in the areas beyond the EEZ in the Arabian Sea. For
further augmentation of production, the Murari Committee recently
recommended 100 per cent indigenous deep sea operations as well
as joint ventures where Indian companies will have greater equity
participation.
151
Indian Geography
Currently, India exports nearly 55 categories of marine products
to South-East Asia, Europe and the US. In value terms our earnings
from marine products have sharply increased from Rs 2 crore at the
time of independence to Rs 6,793 crore in 2002-03. The first initiative
for developing the inland fish production was taken during the Fifth
Plan when the Central government sponsored the Fish Farmers
Development Agencies (FFDAs) in order to popularize the concept of
fish rearing in tanks and ponds. FFDAs have covered almost 3,86,000
hectares of water area under intensive fish cultivation. The fish yield
was only about 50 kg per hectare in the 1970s. The Brackish Water
Fish Farmers Development Agencies (BFADs) were set up, with a
view to develop brackish water aquaculture. The Government of India
has launched several schemes for the development of fisheries sector.
Leading fish producing states in India, 20142015
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
State
Andhra Pradesh
Gujarat
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
Maharashtra
West Bengal
Uttar Pradesh
Bihar
Karnataka
Total production (metric tonnes)

1,010,830
721,910
667,330
559,360
556,450
349,480
325,950
319,100
297,690
Strategic Issues and Bottlenecks

"" Lack of information about the physio-chemical properties of the
marine waters and their impact on marine organisms
"" Lack of awareness about Major hydro-meteorological phenomena
like monsoon, upwelling and drifting ocean currents and their
influence on the migration of species in water
"" Lack of knowledge regarding the significance of oxygen-minimum
layer in the Arabian Sea in relation to phytoplankton blooms, red
tides, mortality of species, and nature of trophic levels.
"" Lack of resource models for forecasting production.
152
Sustainable Agriculture in India

Sustainable agriculture may be defined as any set of agronomic
practices that are economically viable, environmentally safe, and
socially acceptable. The organic agriculture focuses on living soil,
on optimizing the use of biological process and on avoiding the use
of synthetic chemicals and fertilizers.
With increasing use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, the
conventional agriculture is major source of pollution of inland
water bodies and coastal seas. There has been growing criticism of
conventional agriculture for its side effects, the external costs which
impact communities, the environment, and human health.
The limited success of green revolution has been a mixed bag
in that it has given rise to new set of problems: Overuse of water
and fertilizers; excess use of water resulted in water logging and
salinization whereas excess of fertilizers and pesticide cause pollution
of water bodies and contamination of ground water. India has the
largest area of irrigated land (56 million hectares) of which about
one-third land is already degraded and 7 million hectare have been
abandoned.
Locally sustainable systems tend to be more resource
conservative and tend to rely less on external inputs and more on
internal ecosystem services.
Need for Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable agriculture can be compared with traditional
production systems and conventional modern agriculture (such as
Green Revolution technologies) across three dimensions: ecological,
economical and social.
Ecological Sustainability
Soil Fertility: A continuous fall in soil fertility is a major problem
153
Indian Geography
in many parts of India. Sustainable agriculture improves fertility
and soil structure and prevents erosion, so would be an answer to
this problem
Water: Irrigation is the biggest consumer of fresh water, and
fertilizer and pesticides contaminate both surface and groundwater.
Sustainable agriculture increase the organic matter content of the
topsoil, so raising its ability to retain and store water that falls as rain.
Biodiversity: Sustainable agricultural practices frequently involve
mixed cropping, thereby increasing the diversity of crops produced
and raising the diversity of insects and other animals and plants in
and around fields.
Pollution: Sustainable agriculture reduces or eliminates the use
of hazardous chemicals; instead it controls pests with a variety of
biological and agronomic measures and the use of natural substances.
Landscape: Inappropriate agricultural practices and forestry causes
erosion, landslides, flooding, clogs irrigation channels, and reduces
the ability of the land to support the local population. Rehabilitating
ecologically damaged areas needs huge investments. Sustainable
agriculture avoids these problems by improving productivity,
conserving the soil, avoiding expansion of farming into unsuitable
areas and preserving rural jobs.
Climate: Conventional agriculture contributes to the production
of greenhouse gases in various ways: by reducing the amount of
carbon stored in the soil and in vegetation, through the production
of methane in irrigated fields, and through energy-intensive activities
such as the production of artificial fertilizers. Adopting sustainable
agriculture would reduce these impacts significantly.
Economic Sustainability
Export vs. local orientation: Focusing on exports alone involves
hidden costs: in transport, in assuring local food security, etc. Policies
154
should treat domestic demand and in particular food security as

equally important to the visible trade balance.
Debt: The Green Revolution raised Indias grain output significantly,
but a vast number of small-scale farmers ran into a debt trap due to
crop loss aggravated by lack of concern from the government.
Niche markets: Organic agriculture is one of the strongest ways
to farm in an environmentally sustainable way. The demand for
certified organic products is increasing quickly, opening opportunities
to expand sales of such products and to explore niche markets.
Employment: Farming is the main source of employment for
rural people. Trends towards specialization and mechanization may
increase narrowly measured efficiency, but they reduce employment
on the land. Sustainable agriculture, with its emphasis on small scale,
labour-intensive activities, helps overcome these problems.
Social Sustainability
Inclusiveness: Development cannot be sustainable unless it reduces
poverty for the broad masses of people in India. The government
must find ways to enable the rural poor to benefit from agricultural
development.
Political unrest: Gaps between the haves and have-nots feed
a feeling of social injustice among those who feel neglected and
excluded from development opportunities, as well as from better off
sympathizers. The result is climate favourable to political opposition
and even violence.
Local acceptance: Sustainable agricultural practices usually are
based on local social customs, traditions, norms and taboos, so local
people are more likely to accept them and adapt them to their own
needs.
Indigenous knowledge: Sustainable agricultural practices often
rely on traditional knowhow and local innovation. Local people have
155
Indian Geography
a wealth of knowledge about their environment, crops and livestock.
Rather than ignoring or replacing this knowledge, sustainable
agricultural development seeks to build on it and enrich it with
appropriate information from outside.
Gender: In traditional agriculture, women traditionally bear the
heaviest burdens in terms of labour. In modern conventional farming,
too, men often benefit the most: they control what is grown and how
the resulting income is spent. Sustainable agriculture attempts to
ensure that the burdens and benefits are shared more equitably
between men and women.
Food security: Traditional farming techniques often fail to
produce enough food, or enough variety of food for a balanced diet.
Conventional modern farming focuses on a few commodities, so people
still do not have a balanced diet. Sustainable agriculture improves
food security by improving the quality and nutritional value of the
food, and by producing a bigger range of produce throughout the year.
Participation: Traditional society in India is raven by wealth and
caste distinctions. Introducing conventional farming innovations
tends to exacerbate these: the rich and higher-caste tend to benefit,
while the poor and lower-caste are left out. Sustainable agricultural
interventions consciously target the less well-off, and empower them
so they can organize and speak with their own voice, so promoting
dialogue and democracy.
Conclusion
The conditions for development of sustainable agriculture are
becoming more and more favourable. New opportunities are opening
the eyes of farmers, development workers, researchers and policy
makers. Conditions for farming will continue to change, the key to
sustainable agriculture is the capacity of farmers and all other actors
in agricultural development, as well as the wider society, to learn,
experiment, adapt and cooperate in an effective way.
156
List of various revolutions related to Agriculture
Revolution Name
Blue Revolution
Brown Revolution
Gray Revolution
Green Revolution
Pink Revolution
Silver Revolution
White Revolution
Yellow Revolution
Black Revolution
Golden Fiber Revolution
Golden Revolution
Grey Revolution
Red Revolution
Round Revolution
Silver Fiber Revolution
Silver Revolution
Evergreen Revolution
Product
Fisheries
Leather
Housing Development
Agriculture
Drugs & Pharmaceuticals
Egg Production
Dairy Development
Oil Seed
Petroleum
Jute
Horticulture
Fertilizer
Meat & Tomato Production
Potato
Cotton
Egg/Poultry
Over all Agriculture Development
IRRIGATION
Irrigation in India helps improve food security, reduce dependence
on monsoons, improve agricultural productivity and create rural
job opportunities. Dams used for irrigation projects help produce
electricity and transport facilities, as well as provide drinking water
supplies to a growing population, control floods and prevent droughts.
The contribution of groundwater to total food grain production
of the country is significant, as more than 50 percent of the irrigated
area is using groundwater and in several districts it is more than 80
percent.
"" Major types of Irrigation practiced in India are,
99 Inundation canal/ Perennial canal
99 Well/ Tube well
99 Tank
157
Indian Geography
"" Inundation canals are taken out from the rivers. These canals
do not have any kind of weir at their head to regulate the flow
of water from the river. During rainy season, the river gets
flooded and the flood water overflows into these canals. Many
canals of these types are found on the Sutlej-Ganga plains and
Brahmaputra valley.
"" The perennial canals get the supply of water either from the river
directly or through the reservoirs of the river projects. In order
to supply water throughout the year, reservoirs are constructed
for storing water. From these reservoirs, water can be supplied
to the fields whenever there is a demand for it. So this system
of irrigation ensures supply of water in all season. This type of
perennial canal is found mostly in Punjab, U.P., and Tamil Nadu.
"" Wells are mainly found in U. P., Bihar, Tamil Nadu, etc. There
are various types of wells shallow wells, deep wells, tube wells,
artesian wells, etc. Deep wells are more suitable for the purpose
of irrigation as water from them is available throughout the year.
"" Tube-wells are also used for irrigation purposes. Tube wells are
mostly used in U.P., Haryana, Punjab, Bihar and Gujarat. In
Rajasthan and Maharashtra, artesian wells are now supplying
water to agricultural lands. In artesian wells, water level remains
at a high-level because of the natural flow of water due to high
pressure.
"" Tank irrigation system is greatly adopted in the States of Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka. In Northern India also,
tanks are constructed for storing water. From all these tanks,
water is carried to the fields through canals. In many places,
rain-water harvesting systems are installed and water is stored
in large artificialreservoirs to be used for agricultural purposes.
158
Fig.: Sources of Irrigation
Irrigation Trends
"" At present, India has the highest irrigated area in the world with
almost one fifth of worlds net irrigated area (57 Mha).
"" There has been a steady increase in the irrigation potential from
groundwater, the use of which has gone up from 6.5 mha in 1951
to 35.38 mha in 1992 and 54.61 mha in 2002.
159
Indian Geography
Irrigation Potential & Utilization up to 2000-02 (Mha)
Source
Ultimate Irrigation Potential (UIP)
Potential Created (PC)
MMI
58.47
37.05
MI-Surface
17.37
13.66
MI-Groundwater
64.17
54.61
MI-Total
81.54
68.27
Total
140.00
105.32
"" However, the potential irrigation relies on reliable supply of

electricity for water pumps and maintenance, and the net
irrigated land has been considerably short. According to 20012002 Agriculture census, only 56 million hectares of land was
actually irrigated in India. The total arable land in India is 160
million hectares. According to the World Bank, only about 35%
of total agricultural land in India was reliably irrigated in 2010.
"" Indias irrigation is mostly groundwater well based. At 39 million
hectares (67% of its total irrigation), India has the worlds largest
groundwater well equipped irrigation system.
"" Canal irrigated area increased by 3.5 Mha during the last four
decades.
"" On the other hand, tank irrigated area declined by 5.5 Mha.
"" Tank irrigated area has fluctuated during this period especially
in the marginal and small farm holdings. However, tank
irrigation has expanded at an annual rate of 1.38 per cent in
the marginal farm category and just by 0.1 per cent in the case
of small farm category. In all other farms, with a holding size
of more than 2 ha, tank irrigated area has declined and annual
rate of decline varied from 0.9 per cent to 3.1 per cent.
160
Table: Source wise development of Irrigated Area in India (Mha)
Year
Canal Tank Ground Water Others
1950-1 8.30
Net Irrigated
Area (NIA)
Gross Irrigated
Area (GIA)
3.61
5.98
2.97
20.58
22.56
1960-1 10.37 4.56
7.29
2.44
24.66
27.98
1970-1 12.84 4.11
11.89
2.27
31.10
38.20
1980-1 15.29 3.18
17.70
2.55
37.72
49.78
1990-1 17.45 2.94
24.70
2.93
48.02
63.20
2002-3 16.34 2.26
34.50
2.73
55.85
78.33
"" Despite the limited expansion of tank irrigated area, its role in
promoting equity cannot be ignored since share of small and
marginal farm holdings in the total farm holdings in the tank
command area is very high as of now. Hence, deteriorating
tank infrastructure will adversely affect the performance of
the tanks and thereby affecting the overall equity of irrigation
development. This is more so, since tank irrigation is still an
important source of irrigation in several southern states.
"" Overexploitation of groundwater resources has caused
99 Continuous decline in water level,
99 Drying of shallow wells,
99 Deterioration of groundwater quality,
99 Seawater intrusion into coastal aquifers and
99 Increase in cost of energy required to lift water from greater
depths.
"" In most of the canal-irrigated areas of the country, a substantial
component of the water applied to fields percolates below the
root zone and contributes to the groundwater potential. Based
161
Indian Geography
on the total length of main canals and distributaries, the total
possible recharge in India due to canal seepage is estimated to
be 5.463 mha-metres per year.
Multipurpose river valley projects
These projects have wider applications like electricity generation,
irrigation, flood control, drought control, navigation, recreation,
silt control, pisci-culture, soil conservation, promote dairy farming,
animal husbandry, etc.
Eg:

Damodar River Valley Project in West Bengal and Jharkhand

Mayurakshi project in West Bengal
Hirakud project in Odisha
Kosi project in Bihar
Bhakra nangal project in Punjab
Year wise Net Sown Area, Irrigated Area and Cropping Intensity
Year
Net sown Gross sown Net irrigated Gross irrigated

Cropping
area (mha) area (mha) area (mha)
area (mha)
intensity
(A)
(B)
(D)
(E)
G = (B/A)*100
195051
118.7
131.9
20.9
22.6
111.1
196061
133.2
152.8
24.7
28.0
114.7
197071
140.9
165.8
31.1
38.2
117.7
198081
140.3
172.6
38.7
49.8
123.1
199091
143.0
185.7
48.0
63.2
129.9
200001
141.4
185.3
55.1
76.2
131.1
200102
140.7
188.3
56.9
78.4
133.8
200203
132.5
175.6
53.9
73.4
132.5
200304
140.8
190.1
57.0
78.2
135.0
200405
141.2
191.5
59.2
81.2
135.7
200506
141.5
193.0
60.4
83.9
136.4
200607
139.9
193.2
61.7
86.5
138.1
200708
140.9
195.8
62.3
87.3
139.0
200809
141.4
195.1
63.2
85.4
138.0
162
State wise Cropping Intensity and Irrigated area
States
Cropping
intensity
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu & Kashmir
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Odisha
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttarakhand
West Bengal
All-India
126.1
129.8
139.4
139.6
121.6
126.3
125.4
179.7
179.0
154.5
155.7
123.7
132.2
139.0
129.7
100.0
120.4
103.5
126.6
160.3
188.0
129.9
109.8
114.9
104.4
151.8
164.8
184.1
139.0
Share of gross
Net irrigated
irrigated area in
area as a share of
total cropped
agricultural land
area
29.1
12.8
2.4
52.2
23.9
17.9
28.4
80.8
12.8
29.6
3.3
24.3
16.7
37.1
15.0
21.1
5.4
2.5
11.2
30.3
97.1
25.2
5.9
35.1
19.7
68.2
22.9
54.8
34.1
46.3
19.9
2.4
60.6
26.5
20.8
41.7
86.0
19.2
40.8
10.1
29.4
16.5
32.2
19.6
21.7
25.8
10.0
29.1
36.7
97.0
36.4
8.8
55.9
35.1
75.5
45.6
56.9
44.6
Share of net
irrigated area in
net sown area
43.2
25.7
2.8
61.1
28.2
26.1
36.2
84.2
19.2
42.0
9.2
30.1
18.6
43.7
18.2
21.7
24.7
9.7
24.1
38.4
98.2
37.7
8.3
56.6
21.8
79.7
45.1
59.2
44.2
Notes: Cropping intensity is obtained by dividing the gross cropped area by the net
area sown expressed in percentage; Net irrigated area is the area irrigated through
any source in a year; Gross irrigated area is the total area under crops irrigated once
or more than once a year, counted as many times the area is irrigated; Total cropped
area is the total area sown once and/or more than once in a particular year and
counted as many times as there are sowings in a year; Net sown area is the total area
sown with crops, with the area sown more than once in the same year counted only
once; Agricultural land consists of net area sown, current fallows, fallow lands other
than current fallows, culturable waste land and land under miscellaneous tree crops.
163
Chapter 9
MINERALS
Minerals generally occur in the Earths crust in the form of

ore. It is mined, extracted, processed and utilised for the economic
benefits of the society. India has significant reserves of minerals but
their distribution is highly uneven.
Mineral Belts of India
Mineral Belt
States covered
Minerals found
Chottanagpur belt
Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha,

Chhattisgarh, West Bengal
Coal, Mica, Manganese, Chromite,

Ilmenite, Bauxite, Iron, Copper,
Dolomite, china clay, Limestone
Midland belt
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,

Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra
Manganese, Bauxite, Mica, Copper,

Graphite, Limestone, Lignite and
Marble
Southern belt
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil nadu
Gold, Iron ore, Chromite,

Manganese, Lignite, Mica, Bauxite,
Gypsum, Asbestos, Dolomite,
Ilmenite, Limestone
Western belt
Copper, Lead, Zinc, Uranium, Mica,

Rajasthan, Gujarath, Maharashtra Manganese, Asbestos, precious
stones, mineral oil and natural gas
Iron ore, Ilmenite, Zircon, Monazite,
Garnet, Bauxite, Mica, Limestone
South western belt Goa, Karnataka, Kerala
Himalayan belt
Copper, Lead, Zinc, Bismuth, Bauxite,

Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Antimony, Nickel, Cobalt, Tungsten,
Assam
precious stones, gold, silver, gypsum,
limestone, dolomite
Indian ocean belt
Continental shelf region of

Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal
164
Mineral oil, natural gas
Chapter 9 | Minerals
Mineral Map of India
Fig. Mineral Map of India
METALLIC MINERALS
1. Iron: India stands first in iron ore reserves in Asia. Iron ore is
mainly distributed in the peninsular India.
165
Indian Geography
Varieties of Iron Ore:
"" Magnetite: The best quality iron ore containing 72% of pure Iron.
"" Haematite: Contains 60-70% of pure Iron
"" Limonite: Contains 40-60% of pure Iron
"" Siderite: Contains less than 40% of pure Iron
Iron Ore Mines in India
State
Mines
Type of Iron
Production
Karnataka
Chikmangalur(Bababudan Hills,
Kudremukh), Bellary(Sandur)
Haematite,
Magnetite
25%
Odisha
Cuttack, Keonjhar, Sundargarh

(Baonaigarh), Koraput,
Mayurbhanj(Badampahar)
Haematite
22%
Chhattisgarh
Bastar(Bailadila), Durg(Dalli-Rjhara)
20%
Goa
North Goa
Haematite
Magnetite,
Haematite
Jharkhand
Bonai Ragne, Singhbhum, Naomandi,

Daltenganj, Hazaribagh, Ranchi,
Gurumahisani
Magnetite,
Haematite
16%
14%
"" India is the fourth largest producer of Iron ore in the world.
"" Karnataka is the largest producer of Iron ore in the country.
"" Jharkhand, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka
and Goa account for over 95 per cent of the total reserves of India.
"" Jharkhand has the largest reserves accounting for about 25 per
cent of the total reserves of India, followed by Orissa (21%),
Karnataka (20%), Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh (18%)
and Goa (11%).
"" India is the fifth largest exporter of Iron ore in the world.
"" About 50-60% of total production in the country is exported to
countries like Japan, South Korea, EU nations; Japan being the
biggest buyer accounting for 3/4th of the total exports.
"" Major ports handling iron ore export are Vishakhapatnam,
Paradip, Marmagao and Mangalore.
166
Fig. Iron Ore reserves in India
2. Manganese: It is used for smelting of Iron and also for making

alloys containing Manganese.
"" India has second largest manganese reserves after Zimbabwe.
"" India is the fifth largest producer of Manganese in the world.
167
Indian Geography
"" Manganese reserves in India are found in Odisha (44%),
Karnataka (22%), Madhya Pradesh (13%), Maharashtra(8%)
among others.
"" As of 2011-12, Maharashtra is the leading producer of Manganese
followed by Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
"" Nagpur-Bhandara districts of Maharashtra and BalaghatChhindwara districts of MP are important regions for Manganese
production.
"" Japan is the largest buyer of Indian manganese accounting for
two-thirds of the total exports.
3. Copper: It is widely utilised by electrical industry for
manufacturing wires and other electrical equipments. It is also
added with gold to impart strength.
"" Major share of Copper production comes from Madhya
Pradesh(58%), Rajasthan(32%) and Jharkhand(11%).
"" Major copper mining centres are at Singhbhum (Jharkhand),
Malanjkhand(MP), Khetri-Singhana and Alwar(Rajasthan),KhoDariba and Delwara-Kirovli.
4. Bauxite: It is the ore of Aluminium.
"" Major producers of Bauxite are Kalahandi and Koraput belt
of Odisha (36%), Gujarath (20%), Maharashtra (13%) and
Jharkhand (13%).
"" NALCO, BALCO and HINDALCO are major companies engaged
in mining of Bauxite in the country.
5. Gold: Indias share in the world gold production is less than
one percent.
"" Karnataka is the leading producer of gold accounting for 99% of
total production and the rest comes from Jharkhand.
"" Major gold fields in India: Kolar (Karnataka), Hutti (Karnataka),
Ramgiri (Andhra Pradesh).
168
Fig. Metallic mineral reserves in India
Other metallic minerals:

"" Diamond is found in Panna belt of Madhya Pradesh, RaichurGulbarga districts of Karnataka.
"" Silver is produced from Zawar mines of Udaipur district of Rajasthan.
"" More than 99% of Zinc production comes from Zawar area of
Udaipur district of Rajasthan.
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Indian Geography
"" Galena, the ore of lead, is produced from Rajasthan (94%).
"" Odisha has the largest reserve of Nickel.
NON METALLIC MINERALS
India produces a large number of non-metallic minerals although
only a few of them have assumed as much industrial and economic
importance than that of metallic minerals. Non metallic minerals
are used in a large variety of industries; the major industries being
cement, fertilizers, electricals, etc.
Fig. Non-metallic mineral reserves in India
170
1. Mica
"" Micas insulating properties have made it a valuable mineral in
electrical and electronics industry.
"" It can withstand high voltage and has low power loss factor.
"" India contributes about 60 per cent of worlds total production.
"" Andhra Pradesh is the largest mica producing state of India.
"" The mica belt in Andhra Pradesh lies in Nellore district.
"" The Mica belt in Rajasthan extends from Jaipur to Udaipur.
"" The main centres of mica production in Bihar and Jharkhand
are Kodarma, Dhorhakola, Domchanch, Dhab, Gawan, Tisri,
Chakai and Chakapathal.
"" India is not only the largest producer but also the largest
exporter of mica in the world. In spite of the threat from
synthetic mica, certain grades of Indian mica remains vital to
the worlds electrical industries.
"" Most of the exports are routed through the ports of Kolkata
and Vishakhapatnam. Japan (19%), the USA (17%), U.K. (7%),
Norway (7%), Russia, etc. are the main buyers purchasing about
80 per cent the total mica exported from India.
Distribution of Mica in India (2002-03)
State
Andhra Pradesh
Rajasthan
Jharkhand
Bihar
India
Production
(Tonnes)
883
190
133
11
1,217
Percentage of all
India production
72.56
15.61
10.93
0.90
100.00
Value in Rs.
millions
256.50
21.46
29.95
0.92
308.83
2. Limestone
"" Limestone is used for a large variety of purposes. Of the total
consumption, 75 per cent is used in cement industry, 16 per
171
Indian Geography
cent in iron and steel industry and 4 per cent in the chemical
industries. Rest of the limestone is used in paper, sugar,
fertilizers, glass, rubber and ferromanganese industries.
"" Over three-fourths of the total limestone production in India
is from six states viz., Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh and Tamil Nadu.
"" In Madhya Pradesh, large deposits of limestone occur in the
districts of Jabalpur, Satna, Betul, Sagar, Damoh and Rewa.
"" Rajasthan has about 6 per cent of the reserves and accounts
for over 16 per cent of the total limestone production in India.
Distribution of Limestone in India (2002-03)
State
Production in
lakh tonnes
Percentage of all
India production
Value in Rs. lakh
Madhya Pradesh
Rajasthan
Andhra Pradesh
Gujarat
Chhattisgarh
Tamil Nadu
237.58
236.24
232.80
157.40
136.67
127.18
16.32
16.23
15.99
10.81
9.39
8.74
26,266.95
24,886.26
21,962.51
14,134.93
16,812.91
8,688.58
3. Asbestos
"" The name Asbestos denotes two different minerals, namely,
Ampibole and Chrysotile.
"" Chrysotile accounts for 80% of asbestos of commercial use.
"" Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of Asbestos in India.
4. Dolomite
"" Limestone with more than 10% Magnesium is called Dolomite.
"" True Dolomite has about 45% Magnesium.
"" Dolomite is used in Iron and Steel industry (more than 90%),
followed by Fertilizer (4%), Glass (2%) and steel (1%).
172
"" Chhattisgarh is the leading producer of Dolomite (28%), followed

by Andhra Pradesh (23%), Odisha (13%) and remaining 36% by
other states.
5. Gypsum
"" Gypsum is mainly used in making Ammonia sulphate fertilizer
and in cement industry.
"" Bulk of production of Gypsum comes from Rajasthan (99%)
and the remaining 1% from Jammu and Kashmir and Gujarat.
ATOMIC MINERALS
1. Uranium
"" Uranium deposits occur in Jaduguda of Singbhum and
Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand, Gaya district of Bihar and
Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh.
"" India accounts for only 2% of world Uranium production.
2. Thorium
"" It is found in the Monazite sands of Placer deposits of coastal
regions.
"" Although Monazite sands are found in east and west coast, the
largest concentration is on the Kerala coast.
"" Thorium is also extracted from Thorianite.
"" Kerala, Jharkhand, Bihar, Tamil nadu and Rajasthan are the
major producers of Thorium.
3. Beryllium
"" Beryllium oxide is used as moderator in nuclear reactors.
"" India has sufficient reserves of Beryllium.
4. Lithium and Zirconium
"" Lithium is a light metal which is distributed in the states of
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
173
Indian Geography
"" Zirconium is found in Kerala coasts and in alluvial deposits of
Ranchi and Hazaribagh of Jharkhand.
National Mineral Policy, 2008
The main objectives of the policy includes,
"" Use of state-of-the-art technology for exploration.
"" Zero-waste mining.
"" Transparency in allocation of concessions.
"" Independent Mining Administrative Tribunal.
"" Auction of Ore bodies prospected at public response.
"" A framework for sustainable development to take care of biodiversity issues.
174
Chapter 10
INDUSTRIES
Industrial sector contributes around 26% of Indian GDP and

employs 22% of total workforce. According to the World Bank,
Indias industrial manufacturing GDP output in 2015 was 6th largest
in the world on current US dollar basis. The Indian industrial
sector underwent significant changes as a result of the economic
liberalisation in India i.e., economic reforms of 1991, which removed
import restrictions, brought in foreign competition, led to the
privatisation of certain government owned public sector industries,
liberalised the FDI regime, improved infrastructure and led to an
expansion in the production of fast-moving consumer goods.
First Industrial policy was launched in the year 1948. The
Industrial Policy Resolution, 1956 is called the Magna Carta
or semi-constitution of Indian Industrial Development.
Achievements in the Industrial sector since Independence
"" There has been a substantial diversification in the industrial
base with consequent ability to produce wide range of industrial
products.
"" Self-reliance has been achieved in basic and capital goods.
"" The rise of public sector in the industrial field is a very significant
development. During the 1st five year plan, there were only 5
public sector enterprises (PSEs) whereas by 2010, there were
249 central PSEs.
175
Indian Geography
"" In an effort to bring balanced regional development, PSEs were
established in remote areas of the country.
"" Besides large scale industries, focus was also given to small,
medium and cottage industries as these industries are labour
intensive and can improve employment scenario in the country.
Shortfalls of Industrial Development in India
"" Lack of Infrastructure: Infrastructure bottlenecks like energy
crisis, inadequate power supply and costly transportation, poor
state of affairs of storage facilities, etc inhibited the growth of
manufacturing sector.
"" Shortage of Industrial raw material
"" Higher cost of production and low quality of goods
"" Regional Concentration: Efforts to bring balanced regional
development have not made much headway due various political,
administrative and social factors.
"" Industrial Policy Resolution 1956 aimed at reducing regional
imbalances, but contrary to this, the actual operation of this
policy resulted in increased regional inequalities.
"" Government failed to develop those sectors that were reserved
for government.
"" Licensing policy involved excessive state interference along with
red tapism.
National Manufacturing Policy, 2011
"" Manufacturing sectors share in Indias GDP has been stuck
at 16% since 1980s. The policy aims to increase the share of
manufacturing in the countrys GDP from the current 16% to
25% by 2022.
"" The National Manufacturing Policy aims to create 100 million
additional jobs in the next decade.
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Chapter 10 | Industries
"" The policy envisages establishment of National Investment

and Manufacturing Zones (NIMZ) equipped with world-class
infrastructure that would be autonomous and self-regulated,
developed in partnership with the private sector.
"" The policy has envisaged fiscal sops to boost manufacturing.
"" Small & Medium enterprises to be reimbursed for technology purchase.
"" Industrial training and skills development programmes.
"" Flexible labour laws and simplified & expeditious exit mechanism
for sick units.
"" Relaxation in environmental regulations.
"" Financial and tax incentives to small and medium enterprises.
"" Incentives to states for infrastructure development.
"" Incentives for Green Manufacturing.
"" Rationalization of business regulations to reduce burden of
procedural and regulatory compliance on businesses.
"" Increased focus on employment intensive industries, capital
goods industry, industries with strategic significance and those
in which India enjoys a competitive edge and the SME (Small
and Medium Enterprises) sector.
National Investment and Manufacturing Zone (NIMZ)
"" NIMZs will be developed as integrated industrial townships
with state-of-the art infrastructure and land use on the basis of
zoning; clean and energy efficient technology; necessary social
infrastructure; skill development facilities, etc., to provide
a productive environment to persons transitioning from the
primary sector to the secondary and tertiary sectors.
"" Each National Investment and Manufacturing Zones to have
5,000 hectares.
177
Indian Geography
"" Land will be selected by State Governments. Preference would
be given to uncultivable land.
"" Both state and central Government would fund trunk
infrastructure.
"" There will be easy exit policy and single window clearance in
these zones.
"" NIMZs would be managed by SPVs (Special Purpose Vehicles)
which would ensure master planning of the Zone; pre-clearances
for setting up the industrial units to be located within the zone
and undertake such other functions as specified in the various
sections of this policy.
"" In sum, the NIMZs would be large areas of developed land,
with the requisite eco-system for promoting world class
manufacturing activity.
"" Proposed NIMZ:
99 Ahmedabad-Dholera (Gujarat)
99 Shendra-Bidkin (Maharashtra)
99 Manesar-Bawal (Haryana)
99 Khushkhera-Bhiwadi-Neemrana (Rajasthan)
99 Dighi Port Area (Maharashtra)
99 Dadri-Noida-Ghaziabad (Uttar Pradesh)
99 Pithampur-Dhar-Mhow (Madhya Pradesh)
AGRO BASED INDUSTRIES
Textile Industry
The textile industry plays predominant presence in the Indian
economy. The textile industry continues to be the second largest
employment generating sector in India. It offers direct employment
to over 35 million in the country.
178
A. Cotton Textiles
Cotton accounts for a major portion of the total fabric produced.
The first successful cotton textile mill was set up at Mumbai by Parsi
entrepreneurs.
Geographical Distribution:
The following factors favoured the development of cotton
textiles industry at and around Mumbai:
1. Location of port facilitated import of capital goods, chemicals,
etc., and the export of finished goods.
2. Mumbai got progressively well connected through rail and road
links with cotton growing areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra in
the interior.
3. The humid coastal climate favoured textile-making without
breaking the thread.
4. Development of chemical industry around Mumbai made
available the necessary inputs.
5. Availability of capital and financial resources helped the industry
grow.
6. Cheap labour was available for the industry.
Ahmedabad grew as another cotton textile centre. The size of
cotton mills is small here, but they produce high quality goods. The
raw materials for the industry come from cotton growing areas of
Maharashtra and Gujarat.
Since cotton industry is not a weight losing industry, it does not
make much difference if either raw material or the finished product
is transported. Hence, the industry tends to be located at sites with
favourable transport links with the market. The most notable feature
of the distribution of cotton textiles industry is that even within a
state, it tends to get localised within particular areas and regions.
179
Indian Geography
Fig: Cotton industries in India

STATE
Major Areas
Maharashtra
Mumbai, Sholapur, Kolhapur, Pune, Jalgaon, Akola, Sangli and Nagpur
Gujarat
Ahmedabad, Surat, Vadodara, Bharuch, Bhavnagar, Nadiad, Porbandar,

Rajkot and Navsari
Tamil Nadu
Coimbatore, Tirupur (has some of Asias largest garment manufacturing units),

Chennai, Tirunelvelli, Madurai, Tuticorin, Salem, Virudhnagar and Pollachi
Andhra Pradesh Dharmavaram, Venkatagiri, Anantapur, Secunderabad, Vijayawada, Guntur

Karnataka
Bengaluru, Hassan, Harihar, Mangalore and Belgaum
Uttar Pradesh
Kanpur, Etawah, Modinagar, Moradabad, Bareiley, Hathras, Agra, Meerut

and Varanasi
Madhya Pradesh Indore, Gwalior, Mandsaur, Dewas, Ujjain, Nagda, Bhopal, Jabalpur and Rajnandgaon
Rajasthan
Kota, Jaipur, Sriganganagar, Bhilwada, Bhavanimandi, Udaipur and Kishengarh
West Bengal
Kolkata, Howrah, Serampore, Shyamnagar, Murshidabad and Saikia
180
The Indian cotton textiles industry has a complex three-tier

structure:
1. Handspun and hand woven khadi sector,
2. Intermediate, labour intensive sector of handlooms and
powerlooms,
3. Mill sector, which is large scale, capital intensive and
sophisticated.
99 The bulk of the cotton cloth comes from handloom and
powerloom sector.
99 The decentralised powerloom sector plays a great role in
meeting the clothing needs of the country.
99 The cotton textiles industry in India is the single largest
organised industry. It gives employment to a large number
of workers and supports a number of ancillary industries.
Partition had created problems for supply of raw material,
because 22 per cent of the cotton growing area went to
Pakistan. This deficit was gradually made up through imports
and by expansion of area under long staple cotton.
99 One-third of the looms in the country are in the states of
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and Uttar Pradesh.
Three-fourths of the looms produce cotton, while the rest
produce silk, staple fibre, wool, composite fabric, artificial
silk and synthetic fabrics.
Problems of Cotton Textiles Industry:
1. There is shortage of raw material, particularly of long staple cotton.
2. The industry faces constant threats of sickness and consequent
closure, on account of (i) uncertainty of raw material, (ii) low
productivity of machine and labour; (iii) increasing competition
from power-loom sector; (iv) lack of modernisation; (v)
management problems.
181
Indian Geography
3. A majority of the spindles and looms are of the olden type. India
has the lowest percentage in the world of automatic looms to
total loomage.
4. There is a danger of loss of foreign markets due to (i) continued
increase in cost of production, (ii) development of cotton textiles
industry in other developing countries, (iii) protectionist policies
abroad.
5. Inadequacy of power and machinery is another problem of the
industry.
The increase in number of closed mills is indicative of a structural
transformation in the textiles sector. The weaving mills in the
organised sector are losing ground to the decentralised sector or the
powerlooms, on account of greater cost-effectiveness of the latter.
B. Woollen Textiles:
The first woollen textiles mill was set up in 1876 at Kanpur,
because Kanpur was the principal depot for the British Indian Army.
But the industry did not flourish because of a short winter and long
summer in India leading to an inadequate demand. Also, the textiles
produced were of poor quality. After independence, there was rapid
development of the industry mainly as an export oriented industry.
The woollen textiles industry in India is partly a cottage industry
and partly a factory industry.
The organised sector has three sub-sectors:
i. Woollen (superior yarn for fabrics and hosiery);
ii. Worsted (medium quality goodsblankets, tweeds, suitings, etc.);
iii. Shoddy (for blankets).
182
Geographical Spread:
Most of the woollen textiles mills are situated in Punjab along the
Amritsar-Gurdaspur-Ludhiana belt, and at Patiala and Dhariwal. The
concentration in Punjab is due to its proximity to the high demand
region in northern India in general and the hilly areas in particular.
Also, Punjab is close to the sheep-rearing regions of Jammu and
Kashmir (where the Bakerwals are associated with sheep-rearing)
and Himachal Pradesh (where the Gaddis rear sheep).
Fig. Synthetic Textile locations in India
183
Indian Geography
Other areas include:
State
Uttar Pradesh
Rajasthan
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Karnataka
Jammu and Kashmir
Major areas
Kanpur, Agra, Mirzapur
Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bikaner
Gwalior Gujarat Jamnagar, Ahmedabad, Vadodara
Mumbai
Bengaluru
Srinagar
Problems of the Industry:

1. The size of the mills is small and productivity is low.
2. Nearly half the capacity remains idle for want of adequate rawwool. Also, the wool is of poor quality.
3. Obsolete technology is still in use.
4. There is stiff competition from terry wool and synthetic yarnwool mix items.
C. Silk Textiles:
Sericulture is a labour- intensive industry. It provides
employment to nearly 55 lakh people, most of them being small and
marginal farmers, or working in tiny and household industry mainly
in the hand reeling and hand weaving sections.
This sector of the Indian industry got great patronage during
the medieval period. The famous Silk Route passed through India,
and Indian silk found markets worldwide. India is the second
largest producer of natural silk, after China, and is the only country
producing all varieties of natural silk. The demand for Indian silk
dress materials and scarves comes from the USA, Europe, Kuwait,
Saudi Arabia and Singapore.
However, the competition from Japan, China and Italy has
resulted in shrinking markets, and the problem has been further
compounded by introduction of artificial silk and synthetic fibres,
which provide stiff competition, as they are cheaper and easy to
maintain.
184
Geographical Spread:
Karnataka produces most of the silk in the country. Major silk
producing centres in the state are Tumkur, Dodballapur, Bengaluru
and Mysore. Assam has received a geographical indication for
the production of muga silk. Sualkuchi in the Kamrup district
is considered the silk village of Assam. Dibrugarh, Sibsagar and
Jorhat are other famous silk centres. In Kashmir, silk weaving is
an important industry in and around Srinagar. The Kashmiri silk is
known for its fine texture.
Fig: Silk Industries in India
185
Indian Geography
State
Tamil Nadu
Major Areas
Dharmapuri, Salem, Coimbatore, Tirunelveli
Andhra Pradesh
Karimnagar, Warangal, Mahbubnagar, Kurnool,

Ongole, Adilabad
Maharashtra
Chhattisgarh
Uttar Pradesh
Bihar
West Bengal
Chandrapur
Raigarh
Varanasi, Mirzapur
Katihar, Bhagalpur Jharkhand Ranchi
Malda, Murshidabad, Bankura
D. Synthetic Textiles:
Although weaving of synthetic fibres began around 1920, the first
rayon plant was set up at Rayonpuram, Ernakulam, in Kerala. The
raw materials used in manufacturing of synthetic textiles, include
cellulose pulp which produces viscose or acetate rayon yarns, and
petrochemicals such as naphtha, caprolactum which produce nylon,
polyester, terelene and acrylic yarns.
The handlooms and the powerlooms were the first to use synthetic
yarn; weaving mills came later. Now, most of the synthetic fibre is
produced by cotton weaving mills. During the last four decades, the
capacity and production of synthetic textiles industry has gone up by
more than 100 times. With the growth of petrochemicals, more raw
materials are available and there is scope for growth in production.
Also, because of paucity of raw cotton, the mills are going in for
blended materials. But, high prices of synthetic fibres are a problem.
Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Delhi, Surat, Kolkata, Amritsar and
Gwalior are the centres of synthetic textile industry.
E. Jute textiles:
The first modern jute mill was set up at Rishra near Kolkata in
1855. It was powerloomed in 1859 and included both spinning and
weaving. After independence, this sector made rapid progress as an
export-oriented industry. But a peculiar problem arose due to the
186
partition of the country, 80 per cent of the jute growing areas went
to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), while all the mills remained in
India. Imports from Bangladesh were not possible due to political
reasons. This problem was overcome to a large extent by extending
the area in India under jute and mesta.
The jute products include gunny bags, canvas, pack sheets, jute
webs, hessians, carpets, cordage and twines. Now, jute is also being
used in plastic furniture, insulation, bleached fibres to blend with
wool, and is being mixed with cotton to make carpets and blankets.
The socio-economic significance of the jute sector stems not
merely from the contribution it makes to the national exchequer as
earnings from exports and through taxes and levies, but also from
the sizeable employment it provides in the agricultural and industrial
sectors.
Besides providing a livelihood to millions of farmers, most of
them small and marginal, and employment to some 2 lakh workers,
the jute sector also provides indirect employment to a considerable
number of people. India tops in production of raw jute and jute goods
and second in export of jute goods.
Geographical Location: Nearly 90 per cent of the manufacturing
capacity is located in a narrow belt about 100 km long and 3 km wide
along river Hooghly.
The concentration in the Hooghly region is because of the
following reasons:
i. Soil and agronomic conditions suit jute cultivation here.
ii. The East India Companys initial efforts in and around Kolkata
were of great advantage for the industry.
iii. This belt is well connected through waterways and rail with the
jute growing areas.
iv. There is ample availability of water for jute processing.
187
Indian Geography
v. There is close proximity to coal producing areas of Bihar and
Orissa. Also, power is readily available from the Damodar Valley
Corporation.
vi. The presence of the port and a humid climate favoured the industry.
Import of machinery and export of finished products were easy.
vii. Capital and financial services were easily available.
viii. Ready market in the vicinity promoted sales.
ix. Cheap labour was easily available.
Fig. Jute mills along the Hugli river
In the recent past, there has been a slight dispersal of the industry
to Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh because of the increasing
demand for gunny bags in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, due to rapid
development of sugar and cement industry.
188
Problems of the Industry:

1. The industry is facing stiff competition from modern packing
material from the West, bulk handling capacities developed in
the West, and development of jute substitutes like sisal (East
Africa), caroa (Brazil), linseed fibre (Russia and Argentina) and
the Manila hemp.
2. Newly established factories and improved machines in
Bangladesh are posing a tough competition.
3. There is shortage of raw material. To overcome this problem,
acreage is being expanded in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
and Kerala. New hybrid varieties like JRO-632, JRO-753 are
being grown.
4. Obsolete machinery, shortage of power and industrial sickness
affect production.
Thus, what is required is modernisation and diversification of
production, reduction of costs, etc along with suitable government
policies to support the jute farmers.
Sugar Industry
Sugar production is known in India since ancient times, but
modern sugar industry in the country developed in first decade of
the twentieth century. Indian sugar industry is the second largest
agro- based industry in India.
The basic raw material is sugarcane, which has some specific qualities:
i. It is a weight losing raw material;
ii. It cannot be stored for long, because in that case, it loses the
sucrose content;
iii. It cannot be transported over long distances, because that results
in higher production costs and in drying up of sugarcane.
189
Indian Geography
Because of these considerations, the sugar factories tend to be
located near the sugarcane cultivation area. And since the harvesting
is done in a particular season, the crushing is confined to a limited
period, and the sugar factories keep lying idle for the rest of the
period. This restricts sugar production.
Geographical Distribution:

Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu account for
about 70 per cent of the total production of sugar in the country.
190
Uttar Pradesh:
There are two beltsone in western Uttar Pradesh and the
other in eastern Uttar Pradesh. The western belt includes Meerut,
Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Bijnor and Moradabad, and the eastern
belt includes Gorakhpur, Deoria, Basti and Gonda.
Bihar:
There is an extension of the eastern Uttar Pradesh belt, which
includes Darbhanga, Saran, Champaran and Muzaffarpur.
The reasons for concentration of sugar industry in Uttar Pradesh
and Bihar are
i. Fertile alluvial soil, rich in lime and potash;
ii. Level topographysuitable for irrigation;
iii. Abundant water for washing and processing;
iv. Sugar industry is relatively independent of coal and electricity,
because bagasse is enough to run steam;
v. Densely populated market in the surrounding regions, coupled
with excellent transport links;
vi. Availability of cheap labour;
vii.Cultivation is done in compact blocks, which ensures ready
availability of fresh cane to factories.
State
Maharashtra
Punjab
Karnataka
Tamil nadu
Major Areas
Nasik, Pune, Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur, Sholapur
Phagwara, Dhuri
Munirabad, Shimoga and Mandya
Nalikupuram, Pugulur, Coimbatore and Pandyarajpuram
Andhra Pradesh
Nizamabad, Medak, west and east Godavari,

Visakhapatnam and Chittoor
Odisha
Madhya Pradesh
Bargarh and Rayagada

Sihor
191
Indian Geography
Reasons for shifting of sugar industry from North India to
Peninsular India
Over the period, sugarcane industry is gradually shifting from
north Indian states to states in Peninsular India. Some of the
important reasons are as follows:
1. The production of sugarcane per hectare is higher is Peninsular
India. In fact, sugarcane crop grows well in the tropical climate
of south India.
2. The sucrose content is higher in the tropical variety of sugarcane
grown in the south.
3. The crushing season in south India is longer than in north India.
4. In south India most of the mills have modern machinery.
5. Most of the mills in Peninsular India are in cooperative sector,
where profit maximization is not the sole objective.
In spite of the tropical climate, good irrigation and transportation
facilities, there is not overall comparable growth in the peninsula,
because (i) other cash crops are more lucrative, which include cotton,
groundnut, tobacco, coconut etc.; (ii) cost of production is higher in
Maharashtra, because of high irrigation rates and costly manuring
practices; (iii) the peninsular sugarcane is not grown in compact
blocks, as in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Problems of Sugar Industry:
1. There is a paucity of good quality sugarcanethe Indian
sugarcane has low sucrose content and gives poor yields.
2. The high costs of production are due to
i. uneconomic nature of production;
ii. short crushing season;
iii. heavy excise duties;
iv. manipulation of stocks and hoarding, etc.
3. Small, uneconomic units with obsolete technology are still
functioning.
192
Vegetable Oil Industry

Vegetable oil is a major source of fat in Indian diet and a widely
used cooking medium. Vanaspati is hydrogenated vegetable oil.
Different regions use different raw materials for oil, depending on
the technology used.
There are mainly three types of technologies used:
(i) Ghani:
This is used mainly in the rural areas and uses local materials
like coconut (in Kerala), groundnut (in Gujarat) and mustard (in
Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Rajasthan).
(ii) Intermediate Technology:
This is used by the factories located in towns, and uses regionspecific raw materials.
(iii) Sophisticated Technology:
This is used by units located in large towns. The acquisition of raw
materials is from a larger area and the units cater to a larger market.
The vegetable oil industry is widely scattered and the sizes of the
units differ from location to location. Maharashtra has the largest
number of vanaspati units, followed by Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, West
Bengal, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan and Punjab.
New emerging raw materials for edible oil include sunflower,
safflower, soyabean, cottonseed, rice bran, etc.
Tea Industry
Tea cultivation in India first started in the mid- 19th century
in Darjeeling, Assam and the Nilgiris. Nearly 98 per cent of the tea
production comes from Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Karnataka. Some tea is also grown in Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal
Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura.
193
Indian Geography
The tea estates are generally set upon cleared hill slopes, while in
Assam, tea cultivation is done in the lowlands, above the flood level.
The production of tea has more than doubled since independence
mainly through increase in yield by improved varieties and optimum
use of inputs.
The tea industry provides direct gainful employment to more
than one million workers mainly drawn from the backward and
socially weaker sections of the society. It is also a substantial foreign
exchange earner and provides significant contribution to the state
and central exchequer. Tea plantations in India are mainly located in
rural, hill and backward areas of northeastern and southern states.
Coffee Industry
Coffee was first grown in Bababudan Hills in Karnataka
during the 17th century, but on a plantation scale, it was cultivated
in Chikmaglur (Karnataka) in 1826. Later, coffee cultivation was
extended to Wayanad, Shevaroy and the Nilgiris.
Among the plantation crops, coffee has made significant
contribution to the Indian economy in the last few decades. Although
India contributes only a small percentage of the world production,
Indian coffee has created a niche for itself in the international market,
particularly Indian robustas, which are highly preferred for their good
blending quality. Arabica coffee from India is also well received in
the international market.
More than half of the countrys coffee production comes from
Karnataka, of which 80 per cent comes from Coorg and Chikmagalur.
Hasan is the third largest producer in the state. In Kerala, coffee is
produced in Wayanad (Palghat region), Kozhikode and Cannanore. In
Tamil Nadu, coffee comes from the Nilgiris, Annamalai (Coimbatore
region) Shevaroy hills (Salem district), Palani hills, Tirunelveli and
Madurai. Small quantities come from Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and
the north-eastern states.
194
Leather Goods Industry

The importance of this sector lies in wide dispersal, vast
employment and export potential. Hides and skins are the basic raw
materials which come from pelts of cattle and large animals and
small ones like goat and sheep. India has a large livestock population.
West Bengal and Tamil Nadu are the largest producers of cattle
hides and Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal of the goat skin. Rajasthan
and Madhya Pradesh also produce substantial quality hides. Major
footwear production centres in the country include Kanpur, Agra,
Lucknow, Kolkata, Chennai, Mumbai, Bengaluru and Jaipur.
Leather is a highly labour-oriented industry in India, and
has been identified as one of the major thrust areas for export. It
is one of the traditional industries of India spread over organised
and unorganised sector. The small-scale, cottage and artisan sector
account for over 75 per cent of the total leather production. India
has traditionally a rich advantage in this industry both in terms of
raw material and skilled manpower. People employed in this sector
are predominantly from the minorities and disadvantaged sections
of the society.
The leather industry has made significant strides during the
1990s and early twentieth century.
FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRIES
Food processing Industry is seen as a potential source for driving
rural economy as it brings synergy between Industry and Agriculture
sector. Indian food processing industry is widely recognized as a
sunrise industry having huge potential for uplifting agricultural
economy, creation of large scale processed food manufacturing and
food chain facilities, and the resultant generation of employment
and export earnings.
Indias food processing sector covers a wide range of products
fruit and vegetables; meat and poultry; milk and milk products,
alcoholic beverages, fisheries, plantation, grain processing and other
consumer product groups like confectionery, chocolates and cocoa
products, Soya-based products, mineral water, high protein foods etc.
195
Indian Geography
Setting up of a dedicated ministry i.e., Ministry of Food
Processing Industries (MoFPI) shows the significance of this sector
as driver of growth. Two nodal agencies, Agricultural & Processed
food products Export Development Authority (APEDA) and Marine
Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA), were formed for
promoting exports from India.
Why Food processing Industry considered sunrise industry?
"" India ranked sixth in the World in exports of agricultural
products in 2013.
"" Major industries constituting the food processing sector are
grain milling, sugar, edible oils, beverages, fruits & vegetables
processing and dairy products.
"" The contribution of the food processing sector to the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) in 2012-13 amounts to INR 845.22
Billion. Indias food processing sector has grown at an average
rate of 8.4% during last five years ending 2012-13.
"" The share of food processing sector in GDP of manufacturing
sector was 9.8% in 2012-13.
"" Investment in fixed capital in registered food processing sector had
grown annually at 18.8% during last five years ending 2012-13.
"" The number of registered food processing units has increased
from 36,881in 2011-12 to 37,175 in 2012-13, marking a growth
rate of 0.80%.
"" Food Processing Industry is one of the major employment
intensive segments contributing 13.04% of employment
generated in all Registered Factory sector in 2012-13.
"" Food is the biggest expense for an urban and rural Indian
household constituting share of 38.5% and 48.6% of the total
consumption expenditure of households in 2011-12 respectively.
196
Indias position in world production

"" Largest producer of milk in the world (105 million tonnes per annum)
"" Largest livestock population(485 million tonnes per annum)
"" Second largest producer of fruits & vegetables (150 million
tonnes per annum)
"" Third largest producer of food grain (230 million tonnes per annum)
"" Third largest producer of fish (7 million tonnes per annum)
"" 4mn tonnes of spices
"" Poultry population was 489mn
Despite this huge production, the value addition is much low
resulting in large scale wastage. Value addition in case of fruits and
vegetables is only 2.2%, 35% in milk, and 21% in meat. Average
Value addition is only 26%. This shows the wide potential for Food
processing industry to grow in India.
Food processing industries assure
"" Increased rural incomes
"" Reduce wastages
"" Ensure value addition
"" Increase shelf life
"" Promote crop diversification
"" Generate employment opportunities
"" Generate export earnings
"" Reduce inter-sectoral imbalances.
Segments in Food processing sector:
"" Primary processed food
99 It comprises of packaged fruits and vegetables, milk, flour,
rice, spices, etc. It constitutes around 62% in value terms of
the processed foods.
197
Indian Geography
"" Value Added food
99 It includes processed fruits and vegetables, juices, jam and
jelly, etc and holds 38% of total processed foods.
FDI in Food Processing Sector:
100% FDI is allowed under automatic route in food processing
industry and food infrastructure including food parks, distillation &
brewing of alcohol, cold storage chain and warehousing.
Policy Initiatives:
"" Food processing is recognised as a priority sector in the new
manufacturing policy in 2011.
"" Setting up of Mega Food Parks for facilitating establishment
of strong food processing infrastructure backed by efficient
supply chain.
"" Scheme for Cold chain, Value addition and Preservation
Infrastructure.
"" Modernization of abattoirs.
"" Government had announced setting up of special fund of INR
2,000 Crore in the financial year 2014-15 in NABARD for
extending affordable credit to designated food parks and the
individual processing units in the designated food parks at
concessional rates. The fund is being continued in 2015-16.
"" Reserve Bank of India has classified loan to food & agro-based
processing units and Cold Chain under Agriculture activities for
Priority Sector Lending (PSL) subject to aggregate sanctioned
limit of INR 100 Crore per borrower. It will ensure greater flow
of credit to entrepreneurs for setting up of food processing units
and attract investment in the sector.
MEGA FOOD PARKS
"" Mega Food Park Scheme is the flagship program of the Ministry
of Food Processing Industries, Government of India. Mega Food
198
Park Scheme proposes a demand driven model with strong

backward and forward linkages and sustainable supply chain.
"" The scheme provides for creating infrastructure for farm level
primary processing centre-cum-cold chain in identified clusters,
processing of intermediate products, collection centre-cum-cold
chains, centralized infrastructure to take care of processing
activities, which require cutting edge technologies and testing
facilities, besides the basic infrastructure for water supply,
power, environmental protection systems, communication etc.
"" 42 mega food parks being set up with an allocated investment
of INR 98 Billion.
METALLURGICAL INDUSTRIES
Industries which use minerals as the raw material are called
mineral based industries. Iron and steel industry is the most
important among these industries.
Engineering, cement, chemical and fertilizer industries are also
important mineral based industries.
A. IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
"" Iron and steel industry is a basic industry and its products serve
as a raw material for a number of other industries.
"" Although iron and steel manufacturing activity in India is
very old, modern iron and steel industry started with the
establishment of Bengal Iron and Steel Works at Kulti in West
Bengal in 1817.
"" Tata Iron and Steel Company was established at Jamshedpur
in 1907. This was followed by Indian Iron and Steel plant at
Burnpur in 1919.
"" All the three plants were established in the private sector. The
first public sector iron and steel plant, which is now known
as Visvesvarayya Iron and Steel works, was established at
Bhadrawati in 1923.
199
Indian Geography
Fig. Major Iron and Steel plants in India
"" The iron and steel industry made rapid progress after
independence. The production capacity has increased in all the
existing units.
"" Three new integrated steel plants were established at Rourkela,
Bhilai and Durgapur. Bokaro steel plant was established under
public sector in 1964. Bokaro and Bhilai plants were set up
200
with the collaboration of the former Soviet Union. Durgapur

steel plant was set up in Collaboration with United Kingdom
while Rourkela plant was established with the help of Germany.
Vishakhapatnam and Salem plants were set up afterwards.
"" At the time of independence, India produced only a small
quantity of iron and steel. Production of finished steel in the
country was only 10-lakh tonnes in 1950-51 which has increased
to 23.8 million tonnes in 1998-99.
"" The major iron and steel plants of India are situated in the
states of Jharkhand, West Bengal, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
"" Besides there are about 200 mini steel plants in India with a
capacity of 6.2 million tonnes per annum. Mini steel plants
produce steel from scrap or sponge iron.
"" These units constitute an important component of iron and steel
industry in the country.
COMPANY
PLANTS
INDALCO
Alupuram, Eloor (Kerala), Hirakud(Odisha)
HINDALCO
Renukoot (UP)
BALCO
Korba (Chattisgarh), Ratnagiri (Maharashtra)
NALCO
Damanjodi, Angul (Odisha)
B. ALUMINIUM SMELTING INDUSTRY

"" India is endowed with rich Bauxite reserve of 2300 MT (6.7% of
the world) and ranks 5th in World Bauxite reserve base.
"" It was in the year 1938 that the country saw for the first time,
Aluminium production at Alupuram Reduction Works of the
Indian Aluminium Company.
"" By 1967, there were 5 smeltors; one each at Jaykay nagar,
Alupuram, Hirakud, Renukoot and Mettur.
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Indian Geography
"" The Indian Aluminium Company Ltd. is an integrated plant
having 3 units at different places for the production of Aluminium,
reduction if alumina into aluminium and fabrication of aluminium
ingots into sheets.
"" Aluminium is extracted from Bauxite at Muri in Jharkhand.
"" The Hindustan Aluminium Corporation Ltd.(HINDALCO) is
located at Renukoot near Mirzapur, UP and the Bharat Aluminiun
Company (BALCO) has setup two units at Korba and Ratnagiri,
to utilize Bauxite ores of Amarkhandak in Madhya Pradesh and
of Udaigiri Dhangarvadi region in Maharashtra respectively.
"" BALCO came into being in 1965, NALCO in 1981.
"" Aluminium Companies with highest sales in descending order:
HINDALCO, NALCO, INDAL and MALCO.
C. COPPER SMELTING
"" The indigenous mining activity of copper is primarily done by
Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL).
"" In 1924, the Indian Copper Corporation (ICC) was set up in
Ghatsila, Jharkhand. In 1972, it was taken over by Hindustan
Copper Limited (HCL).
"" At present, HCL is the sole producer of primary Copper in India.
"" The Khetri Copper Mines erected to extract the Khetri and
Singbhum ores is set up by HCL.
"" The Malanjikhand Copper project in Madhya Pradesh is the first
large sized open cast mine.
"" Other Copper smelting projects:
99 Rakha Copper project
99 Dariba Copper project
99 Chandmari Copper project
202
PETRO-CHEMICALS INDUSTRY
"" Petro-chemicals industry is one of the fastest growing industries
of India. This industry has revolutionised the industrial scene
by providing the products which are substituting the traditional
raw materials like wood, glass and metals. Its products meet
various needs of the people at the low cost.
"" Petro-chemicals are derived from petroleum or natural gas. We
use a variety of products from morning till evening made from
petrochemicals Toothbrushes, toothpaste, combs, hairpins,
soap cases, plastic mugs, garments, radiocaes, ball point pens,
detergents, electric switches, lipstick, insecticides, bags, bed
covers, and foam are some of the goods made from petro-chemicals.
"" Indian Petro-Chemical Corporation has set up a huge petrochemical complex near vadodara producing a wide range of
products. Besides Vadodara, Gandhar, and Hazira in Gujarat
and Nagathone in Maharashtra are other important centres of
petro-chemical industry. India is self sufficient in the production
of petro-chemicals.
"" Crude oil has no value unless it is refined, while refining crude
oil, thousands of products like kerosene, diesel, lubricants and
raw material for petro-chemical industry are derived. India has
at present 18 refineries.
FERTILIZER INDUSTRY
"" India is the third largest producer and consumer of Fertilizers
in the world.
"" Now, India is the third largest producer of Nitrogenous fertilizers
in the world. The country has achieved 75 percent self sufficiency
in production capacity of Urea.
"" With respect to Phosphatic fertilizers, India has developed 50%
indigenous capacity.
"" Entire requirement of Potash is met through imports.
"" Gujarat has more than 14% of countrys total installed capacity
followed by Tamil nadu (11%) and UP(9%).
203
Indian Geography
State wise Nitrogenous Fertilizer production
State
Gujarat
Uttar Pradesh
Maharashtra
Tamil nadu
Andhra Pradesh
Odisha
% Production
Over 25
17
11
9
3.5
3
State wise Phosphatic Fertilizer production
State
Gujarat
Tamil nadu
Odisha
Andhra Pradesh
Maharashtra
Uttar Pradesh
% Production
Over 25
16
11.6
11
7
3.4
INDUSTRIAL REGIONS
Hugli Industrial Belt
"" The mouth of river Hugli presents ideal conditions for the
development of an inland river port as nucleus for development
of Hugli Industrial region.
"" Kolkata-Haora forms the nucleus of this region. It is very
well- connected by the Ganga and its tributaries with the rich
hinterland of Ganga-Brahmaputra plains.
"" Besides navigable rivers, roads and the railways provided
subsequent links to the great benefit of Kolkata port.
"" Coal and iron ore mines in Chotanagpur plateau, tea plantations
in Assam and northern parts of West Bengal and the processing
of deltaic Bengals jute led to the industrial development in this
region.
204
Fig. Industrial Regions in India
"" Besides this, cheap labour was available from the thickly
populated states of Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand and eastern part
of U.P.
"" Frist Jute mill was established in Rishra in 1855.
"" Kolkatas industries have established by drawing in the raw
205
Indian Geography
materials from adjoining regions and distributing the finished
goods to consuming points. Thus, the role of transport and
communication network has been as important as the favourable
locational factors in the growth of this region.
"" Paper, engineering, textile machinery, electrical, chemical,
pharmaceuticals, fertilizers and petrochemical industries have
also developed in this region.
"" The major centres of this industrial region are Kolkata,
Haora, Haldia, Serampur, Rishra, Shibpur, Naihati, Kakinara,
Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Budge Budge, Birlanagar,
Bansbaria, Belgurriah, Triveni, Hugli, Belur, etc.
"" Decline in Jute industry has led to slowing down in industrial
growth of the region.
Chota Nagpur Industrial Region
"" Chotanagpur plateau extends over Jharkhand, Northern Orissa
and Western part of West Bengal.
"" The birth and growth of this region is linked with the discovery
of coal in Damodar Valley and iron ore in the Jharkhand-Orissa
mineral belt. As both are found in close proximity, the region is
known as the Ruhr of India.
"" Besides raw materials, power is available from the dam sites in
the Damodar Valley and the thermal power stations based on
the local coal.
"" The Kolkata region provides a large market for the goods
produced in the Chotanagpur region. It also provides the port
facility to the region.
"" The Tata Iron and Steel Company at Jamshedpur, Indian
Iron Steel Co., at Bumpur-Kulti, Hindustan Steel Limited at
Durgapur, Rourkela and Bokaro are the important steel plants
located in this region.
206
"" Important centres of this region are Ranchi, Dhanbad, Chaibasa,

Sindri, Hazaribagh, Jamshedpur, Daltonganj, Garwa and Japla.
Vishakapatnam Guntur Industrial Region
"" This industrial region extends from Vishakhapatnam district to
Kurnool and Prakasham districts and covers most of the coastal
Andhra Pradesh. The industrial development of this region
mainly depends upon Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam
ports.
"" Developed agriculture and rich mineral resources in the
hinterlands of these ports provide solid base to the industrial
growth in this region.
"" Coal fields of the Godavari basin are the main source of energy.
"" Hindustan Shipyard Ltd. set up at Vishakhapatnam, set up in
1941 is the main focus.
"" Petroleum refinery at Vishakhapatnam facilitated the growth
of several petrochemical industries.
"" Vishakhapatnam has the most modern iron and steel plant
which have the distinction of being the only plant in India having
coastal location. It uses high quality iron ore from Bailadila in
Chhattisgarh.
"" One lead-zinc smelter is functioning in Guntur district. The
other industries of this region include sugar, textiles, paper,
fertilizers, cement, aluminium and light engineering.
"" The important industrial centres of this region are Vishakhapatnam,
Vijaywada, Vijaynagar, Rajahmundry, Kurnool, Elum and Guntur.
"" Recent discovery of natural gas in Krishna- Godavari basin is
likely to provide much needed energy and help in accelerated
growth of this industrial region.
207
Indian Geography
Gurgaon Delhi Meerut Industrial Region
"" It is one of the fastest growing regions of India. It consists of
two industrial belts adjoining Delhi. One belt extends over AgraMathura-Meerut and Saharanpur in U.P. and the other between
Faridabad-Gurgaon- Ambala in Haryana.
"" The region is located far away from the mineral and power
resources, and therefore, the industries are light and market
oriented. The region owes its development and growth to hydroelectricity from Bhakra-Nangal complex and thermal power from
Harduaganj, Faridabad and Panipat.
"" Sugar, agricultural implements, vanaspati, textile, glass,
chemicals, engineering, paper, electronics and cycle are some of
the important industries of this region. Software industry has
developed recently here.
"" Agra and its adjoining areas have glass industry.
"" Mathura has an oil refinery with its petro-chemical complex.
One oil refinery has been set up at Panipat also.
"" Gurgaon has Maruti car factory as well as one unit of the IDPL.
Faridabad has a number of engineering and electronic industries.
Ghaziabad is a large-centre of agro-industries. Saharanpur and
Yamunanagar have paper mills.
"" Modinagar, Sonipat, Panipat and Ballabhgarh are other
important industrial nodes of this region.
Gujarat Industrial Region
"" The nucleus of this region lies between Ahmedabad and
Vadodara as a result of which it is also known as AhmedabadVadodara industrial region. However, this region extends upto
Valsad and Surat in the south and Jamnagar in the west.
"" The region corresponds to the cotton growing tracts of the
208
Gujarat plains and the development of this region is associated

with the location of textile industry since 1860s.
"" This region became important textile region with the decline of
cotton textile industry in Mumbai.
"" Ahmedabad is nearer to the sources of raw material as well as the
marketing centres of the Ganga and Sutlej plains. Availability
of cheap land, cheap skilled labour and other advantages helped
the cotton textile industry to develop.
"" This major industrial region of the country, mainly consisting
of cotton textile industry, is expanding at a much faster rate in
providing a greater factory employment.
"" The discovery and production of oil at a number of places in the
Gulf of Khambat area led to the establishment of petrochemical
industries around Ankleshwar, Vadodara and Jamnagar.
Petroleum refineries at Koyali and Jamnagar provide necessary
raw materials for the proper growth of petrochemical industries.
"" The Kandla port provides the basic infrastructure for imports
and exports and helps in rapid growth of industries in this region.
"" Other industries include heavy and basic chemicals, dyes,
pesticides, engineering, diesel engines, textile machinery,
pharmaceuticals, dairy products and food processing.
"" The main industrial centres of this region are Ahmedabad,
Vadodara, Bharuch, Koyali, Anand, Khera, Surendranagar,
Surat, Jamnagar, Rajkot and Valsad.
Mumbai Pune Industrial Region
"" This region extends from Thane to Pune and in adjoining
districts of Nashik and Solapur. Industries have grown at a
rapid pace in Kolaba, Ahmednagar, Satara, Sangli and Jalgaon
districts also.
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Indian Geography
"" The seeds of its growth were sown in 1774 when the island-site
was obtained for construction of Mumbai port. The opening of
the first railway track of 34 kms between Mumbai and Thane
in 1853, opening of the Bhor and Thal Ghats respectively to
Pune and Nashik and that of Suez Canal in 1869 led to the
development of Mumbai.
"" The growth of this industrial region is fully connected with the
growth of cotton textile industry in India. Cotton was cultivated
in the black cotton soil area of the Narmada and Tapi basins.
"" Cheap labour-force came from the hinterland, the port facilities
for export-import and communication links with the peninsular
hinterland made Mumbai the Cottonopolis of India. With the
development of cotton textile industry, the chemical industry
developed too.
"" Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum field and erection of
nuclear energy plants added additional magnetic force to this
region. Now the industrial centres have developed, from Mumbai
to Kurla, Kolaba, Thane, Ghatkopar, Ville Parle, Jogeshwari,
Andheri, Thane, Bhandup, Kalyan, Pimpri, Pune, Nashik,
Manmad, Solapur, Ahmednagar, Satara and Sangli.
"" Other industries include engineering goods, leather, oil
refineries, petrochemicals, synthetic and plastic goods,
chemicals, drugs, fertilizers, electricals, electronics, software,
ship-building, transport and food industries.
"" Mumbai, the nucleus of this industrial region, is facing the
current limitation of space for the expansion of the industry.
Dispersal of industries is essential to bring about decongestion.
Bangalore Tamilnadu Industrial belt
"" Spread in two states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, this
region experienced the fastest industrial growth in the post210
independence era. Till 1960, industries were confined to

Bangalore district of Karnataka and Salem and Madurai districts
of Tamil Nadu. But now they have spread over all the districts
of Tamil Nadu except Viluppuram.
"" This region is a cotton-growing tract and is dominated by the
cotton-textile industry. In fact cotton textile industry was the
first to take roots in this region. But it has large number of silkmanufacturing units, sugar mills, leather industry, chemicals,
rail wagons, diesel engines, radio, light engineering goods, rubber
goods, medicines, aluminium, cement, glass, paper, cigarette,
match box, machine tools, etc.
"" Cheap hydroelectric power is available from Mettur,
Sivasamudram, Papanasam, Pykara and Sharavati dams.
"" Cheap skilled labour and proximity to vast local market as well as
good climate have also favoured the concentration of industries
in this region.
"" Coimbatore has grown rapidly mainly owing to its industrial
growth based on Pykara power, local cotton, coffee mills,
tanneries, oil presses and cement works. Coimbatore is known
as Manchester of Tamilnadu because of its large-scale cotton
textile industry.
"" The establishment of public sector units at Banglore like
Hindustan Aeronautics, Hindustan Machine Tools, Indian
Telephone Industry and Bharat Electronics etc. has further
pushed up the growth of industries in the region.
"" Madurai is known for its cotton textiles. Visvesvarayya Iron and
Steel Works is located at Bhadravati.
"" The other important centres of this region are Sivakasi,
Tiruchirapalli, Madukottai, Mettur, Mysore and Mandya.
Petroleum refinery at Chennai and Narimanam and Iron and
steel plant at Salem are recent developments.
211
Indian Geography
Kollam Thiruvananthapuram Industrial Region
"" This is comparatively small industrial region and spreads
over Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Aluva, Ernakulam and
Alappuzha districts of south Kerala. The region is located far
away from the mineral belt of the country as a result of which
the industrial scene here is dominated by agricultural products
processing and market oriented light industries.
"" Plantation agriculture and hydroelectricity provide the industrial
base to this region. The main industries are textiles, sugar, rubber,
match box, glass, chemical fertilizers, food and fish processing,
paper, coconut coir products, aluminium and cement.
"" Oil refinery set up in 1966 at Kochi provides solid base to
petrochemical industries. Important industrial centres are
Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Aluva, Kochi, Alappuzha and
Punalur.
Besides the above mentioned eight major industrial regions, India
has 13 minor industrial regions and 15 industrial districts.
Their names are mentioned below:
Minor Industrial Regions:
"" Ambala-Amritsar in Haryana-Punjab.
"" Saharanpur-Muzaffamagar-Bijnaur in Uttar Pradesh.
"" Indore-Dewas-Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh.
"" Jaipur-Ajmer in Rajasthan.
"" Kolhapur-South Kannada in Maharashtra-Karnataka.
"" Northern Malabar in Kerala.
"" Middle Malabar in Kerala.
"" Adilabad-Nizamabad in Andhra Pradesh.
"" Allahabad-Varanasi-Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh.
212
"" Bhojpur-Munger in Bihar.

"" Durg-Raipur in Chhattisgarh.
"" Bilaspur-Korba in Chhattisgarh.
"" Brahmaputra Valley in Assam.
Industrial Districts
"" Kanpur
"" Bhopal
"" Aligarh
"" Hyderabad
"" Lucknow
"" Kota
"" Agra
"" Jalpaiguri
"" Pumia
"" Nagpur
"" Cuttack
"" Jabalpur
"" Gwalior
"" Gorakhpur
""Bareilly
213

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Study Material - 3

India is predominantly an agrarian society as more than half of

4. Dependency on Monsoon: Indian agriculture is said to be

Arid and semi arid

Humid and sub humid

Cropping system Single crop or intercropping Inter cropping or double cropping

Wind and water erosion

Problems of Indian Agriculture

3. Manures, fertilizers and Biocides:

and measures and evolve suitable machinery for settlement of

Fig. Agricultural Regions of India

4. Maize and Coarse Crops Region

Fig. Agro-Climatic Zones of India

IX The Western Plateau and hills

II The North-East Himalaya

X The Southern Plateau and hills

III The Lower Ganga Plain

XI The East Coast Plains and hills

IV The Middle Ganga Plain

XII The West Coast Plains and

V The Upper Ganga Plain

XIV The Western Dry Region

VIII The Central Plateau and hills

LAND USE PATTERN IN INDIA

195051 196061 197071 198081 199091 200001 200405 200809 200910

Barren and- unculturable land

Land under- miscellaneoustree, crops and- groves

Net sown area

Highlights from the Agricultural Census 2010-11:

Marginal Small Semi medium

"" Prosperity of Farmers: With the increase in farm production

have the financial resource to purchase these farm inputs and

The NDDB launched Operation Flood in 1970 with commodity

Operation Floods Phase III consolidated Indias dairy cooperative

Total production (metric tonnes)

Strategic Issues and Bottlenecks

Sustainable Agriculture in India

should treat domestic demand and in particular food security as

Fig.: Sources of Irrigation

Ultimate Irrigation Potential (UIP)

Potential Created (PC)

"" However, the potential irrigation relies on reliable supply of

Canal Tank Ground Water Others

1960-1 10.37 4.56

1970-1 12.84 4.11

1980-1 15.29 3.18

1990-1 17.45 2.94

2002-3 16.34 2.26

Damodar River Valley Project in West Bengal and Jharkhand

Net sown Gross sown Net irrigated Gross irrigated

Minerals generally occur in the Earths crust in the form of

Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha,

Coal, Mica, Manganese, Chromite,

Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,

Manganese, Bauxite, Mica, Copper,

Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil nadu

Gold, Iron ore, Chromite,

Copper, Lead, Zinc, Uranium, Mica,

South western belt Goa, Karnataka, Kerala

Copper, Lead, Zinc, Bismuth, Bauxite,

Indian ocean belt

Continental shelf region of

Mineral oil, natural gas

Mineral Map of India