MATB253 LINEAR ALGEBRA

CHAPTER 1
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND MATRICES
(3 weeks)

Contents
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations.....................................................................
1.2 Gaussian Elimination..................................................................................................
1.3 Matrices and Matrix Operations...................................................................................
1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations...................................................................................
1.5 Elementary Matrices and a Method for Finding A1...........................................................
1.6 Further Results on Systems of Equations and Invertibility..................................................
1.7 Diagonal, Triangular, and Symmetric Matrices................................................................
1.8 Application to Graph Theory......................................................................................

1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations

Linear algebra is the branch of mathematics concerned with the study of vectors, vector
spaces (or linear spaces), linear transformations, and systems of linear equations in finite
dimensions. Vector spaces are a central theme in modern mathematics; thus, linear algebra is
widely used in both abstract algebra and functional analysis. Linear algebra also has a
concrete representation in analytic geometry and it is generalized in operator theory. It has
extensive applications in the natural sciences and social sciences, since nonlinear models can
often be approximated by a linear model.
In mathematics and linear algebra, a system of linear equations is a set of linear equations
such as
x1 4 x2 x3 6
3 x1 x2 2 x3 7
2 x1 2 x2 3 x3 3

A standard problem is to decide if any assignment of values for the unknowns can satisfy all
three equations simultaneously, and to find such an assignment if it exists. The existence of a
solution depends on the equations, and also on the available values (whether integers, real
numbers, and so on).
There are many different ways to solve systems of linear equations, such as substitution,
elimination, matrix inversion and determinants. However, one of the most efficient ways
is given by Gaussian elimination (matrix)
In general, a system with m linear equations and n unknowns can be written as
a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn b1
a21 x1 a22 x2 ... a2 n xn b2
M
M
am1 x1 am 2 x2 ... amn xn bm

where x1 , x2 ,..., xn are the unknowns and the numbers a11 , a12 ,..., amn are the coefficients of
the system.
We can collect the coefficients in a matrix as follows:

If we represent each matrix by a single letter, this becomes Ax b where A is an mn

matrix, x is a column vector with n entries, and b is a column vector with m entries. GaussJordan elimination applies to all these systems, even if the coefficients come from an
arbitrary field.

a11
a
A 21
M

am1

a12
a22
M
am1

K
K
L
K

a1n
a2 n
,
M

amn

x1
x
2 ,
M

xn

b1
b
2

bm

If the field is infinite (as in the case of the real or complex numbers), then only the following
three cases are possible (exactly one will be true).
For any given system of linear equations:

the system has no solution (the system is over determined)

the system has a single solution (the system is exactly determined)

the system has infinitely many solutions (the system is underdetermined).

A system of equations that has at least one solution is called consistent; if there is no solution
it is said to be inconsistent.
A system of the form Ax 0 is called a homogeneous system of linear equations. The set of
all solutions of such a homogeneous system is called the nullspace of the matrix A.
Example 1
a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn 0
a21 x1 a22 x2 ... a2 n xn 0
M

am1 x1 am 2 x2 ... amn xn 0

x1 x2 ... xn 0

If the system is homogeneous and

If the system is homogeneous and at least one xi 0 then we have a nontrivial solution.

Because of a homogeneous linear system always has the trivial solution; there are only 2

then we have a trivial solution.

possibilities for its solution.

(a)

The system has only the trivial solution

(b)

The system has infinitely many solutions in addition to the trivial solution.
(Howard, 2005)

Theorem
A homogeneous system of linear equations with more unknowns than equations has
infinitely many solutions.

Augmented Matrices
Linear Equations

matrix form Ax=b

Augmented Matrix
a11
a
21
M

am1

a12
a22
M
am1

L
L
L
K

a1n
a2 n
M
amn

b1
b2

bm

Elementary Row Operation

An elementary row operation (ERO) on a matrix A is one of the following:
1. Multiply a row by a nonzero constant, c
2. Switching two rows
3. Add c times of one row to another row

cRi Ri
Ri Rj
cRi + Rj Rj

Elementary row operations are used to reduce an augmented matrix or matrix to row echelon
form (REF) or reduced row-echelon form (RREF). Reducing the matrix:
1. to a row echelon form is called Gaussian elimination;
2. to a reduced row-echelon form is called GaussJordan elimination.

Gaussian elimination is an efficient algorithm for solving systems of linear equations. An

extension of this algorithm, GaussJordan elimination, reduces the matrix further to reduced
row echelon form.
In mathematics, GaussJordan elimination is a version of Gaussian elimination that puts
zeros both above and below each pivot element as it goes from the top row of the given
matrix to the bottom. (http://en.wikipedia.org).

1.2 Gaussian Elimination

Reducing the augmented matrix of a system to a row-echelon form which must has the
following properties:
1. If a row does not consist entirely of zeros, then the first nonzero number in the row is
1. We call this a leading 1.
2. If there are any rows that consist entirely of zeros, then they are grouped together at
the bottom of the matrix
3. If any two successive rows that do not consist entirely of zeros, the leading 1 in the
lower row occurs farther to the right than the leading 1 in the higher row.
4. In a reduced row-echelon form, each column that contains a leading 1 has zeros
everywhere else.

Example 2
In each part, determine whether the matrix is in row echelon form, reduced row echelon form
or neither.

1 0 0

0 1 1
(a)

(d)
0

0
0

(g)

2
1

0 0 1
1
0

0
0

1 2
0 1
0 0
0 0

0
0
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
0

3
1
1
0

0
0
1
0
0

1 2 1
0 0 0

0
(b)
2
0
2

0
0

(e)

3
0

1 4

(c)

1 0 0 0 2

0 1 0 0 3
0 0 2 0 2

0 0 0 1 1

0 1 0 3
0 0 1 1

0 0 0 1

(f)

7
2

1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0

0 0 0 0

1 0 0

0 1 0
(h)

0 0 1

2
1

1 0 0

0 1 0
(i)

0 1 1

2
1

Example 3
Suppose that the augmented matrix for a system of linear equations has been reduced by row
operations to the given reduced row-echelon form. Then solve the system.

(a)

1 0 0

0 1 0
0 0 1

2
4

(b)

1 0 0 4 1

0 1 0 2 6
0 0 1 3 2

x1 5 ,

x2 2 ,

x3 4

x3 3 x4 2 , x2 2 x4 6 , x1 4 x4 1 .

Since the 4th column has no leading 1, x4 is assigned as a parameter. Thus, x 4 t .

x3 2 3t , x2 6 2t , x1 1 4t
.

(c)

1 6 0 0 4 2

0 0 1 0 3 1
0 0 0 1 5 2

0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0

0 1 0

(d)

0 0 0

2
4

use first 3 rows to solve the system of linear equation

means no solution

Solutions of Linear Systems

Elimination Methods : Gaussian Elimination and Back Substitution

Example 4
Solve the system by Gaussian Elimination

x1 2 x2 3x3 5
2 x1 5 x2 3x3 3
8 x3 17

1. x1

Solution
Gaussian Elimination

1 2 3 5 R2 R2 2 R 1 1 2 3 5

1 2 3 5

0 1 3 7

0 1 3 7
2 5 3 3
1 0 8 17 R3 R3 R1 0 2 5 12 R3 R3 2 R2 0 0 1 2
1 2 3 5

R3 0 1 3 7
R3
1 0 0 1 2
Back Substitution
x1 2 x2 3 x3 5

x2 3 x3 7

x 2 7 3(2) 1
x1 5 2(1) 3(2) 1
x1 1 ,

2 x1 2 x2 2 x3 4
3 x1 2 x2 x3 3
2. 4 x1 3 x2 2 x3 3
Solution

x2 1

x3 2

x3 2

2 2 4
R
R1 1 2

2
1 3

3
2 3

R2 R2 3R1 1

0
R3 R3 4 R1 0

x1 1x2 x3 2
x2

1
2

1 1 2

5
4 3

7
6 5

R3 R3 R2

1
3

4
3
2
5
5

1 2

1 3
2 3

R2
1
5
0

R3
R3
7 0

R2

,
,

x2 1

x3 2

Example 5
Solve the system using Gauss-Jordan elimination method.

x1 2 x2 3 x3 5
2 x1 5x2 3x3 3

Solution

1 2

4 3
5 5
6 5
7 7
1 1 2

4 3
1
5 5
0
1 2

4
3
x3
,
x3 2
5
5
3 8 5
x2 1
5 5 5
x2

Gauss - Jordan Elimination

(a) Consider the linear system x1

1 2
1

4 3
0

5 5

35

2 4 R3
R3 0
2

35 35

x1 1 2 2 , x1 2 1 2 1
x1 1 ,

8 x3 17 .

1 2 3 5 R2 R2 2 R 1 1 2 3 5

1 2 3 5

0 1 3 7

0 1 3 7
2 5 3 3
1 0 8 17 R3 R3 R1 0 2 5 12 R3 R3 2 R2 0 0 1 2
1 2 3 5 R1 R1 3R 3 1 2 0 1 R1 R1 2 R2 1 0 0 1

0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
R3 0 1 3 7
R3

0 0 1 2
1 0 0 1 2 R2 R2 3R 3 0 0 1 2
x1 1 ,

x2 1

x3 2

2 x1 2 x2 2 x3 4
3 x1 2 x2 x3 3
(b) Consider the linear system 4 x1 3 x2 2 x3 3 .

Solution
2

3
4
1

0
0

2 2 4

2
1 3
3
2 3

1
1 1 2 R2 R2 3R1
R1 R1

2 3
2
1 3

4
3
2 3 R3 R3 4 R1

R
1 1
R2 2 1 1 1 2
1 1 2

5
4 3

5
4 3 0 1
0 1

5 5
7
6 5
R3
R3 R3 R2
6 5
R3
0 0
7 0 1

7 7

1 1 1 2

4 3
0 1

5 5
35
0 0 1 2
R3
R3

2
x1 1

3
5

4
35

R1 R1 R3 1 1 0 0 R1 R1 R 2 1 0 0 1

0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 2
4 0 0 1 2
R2 R2 R3
5

x2 1

Homogeneous Linear Systems

1
4
5
2
35

x3 2

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Example 6
x y z0
x 2 y z 0
(a) Solve 3 x 4 y z 0
Solution

1 1 1 0 R2 R2 R 1 1 1 1 0 R3 R3 R2 1 1 1 0

1 2 1 0
0 1 2 0
0 1 2 0

3 4 1 0 R3 R3 3R 1 0 1 2 0

0 0 0 0 many solutions
Since last row is entirely zero entries, the homogeneous system has nontrivial solution (many
solutions)

x1 x2 x3 0 and

x2 2 x3 0

Let x3 t
x2 2t 0

x2 2t

x1 2t t 0 x1 3t
x1 3t

x2 2t

x3 t

x 2 y 5z 0
3 x 2 y 2 z 0

Solve 4 x 4 y 5 z 0

(b)

Solution

5 0 R2 R2 3R 1 1 2 5 0

0 4 13 0
3 2 2 0
4 4 5 0 R3 R3 4 R 1 0 4 15 0

R2

R2

1 2

4
0

R3
R3
2 0

1
0

5 0

13 0
2 0

13
5 R2 R2 R3
1 2 0 0 R1 R1 2 R 2 1 0 0 0
0
4
13

0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0

4
0 0 1 0
0 R1 R1 5 R3 0 0 1 0
1

Therefore the system has exactly one solution

1.3 Matrices and Matrix Operations

Matrix

R3 R3 R2 1 2

0 4

0 0

x1 0,

x2 0,

x3 0 (Trivial solution)

11

Matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or, more generally, a table consisting of

abstract quantities that can be added and multiplied.

The numbers in the array are called the entries in the matrix

Matrices are used to describe linear equations, keep track of the coefficients of linear
transformations and to record data that depend on two parameters.

Matrices can be added, multiplied, and decomposed in various ways, making them a
key concept in linear algebra and matrix theory.

Definitions and notations

The horizontal lines in a matrix are called rows and the vertical lines are called
columns.

A matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m-by-n matrix (written mn) and m
and n are called its dimensions.

The dimensions of a matrix are always given with the number of rows first, then the
number of columns.

The entry of a matrix A that lies in the i -th row and the j-th column is called the i, j
entry or (i , j)-th entry of A. This is written as aij or (A)ij. The row is always noted
first, then the column.

We often write Amn to define an mn matrix A with each entry in the matrix [aij]mxn
called aij for all 1 i m and 1 j n
(Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org)

A matrix where one of the dimensions equals one is often called a vector, and
interpreted as an element of real coordinate space.

A 1 n matrix (one row and n columns) is called a row vector, and an m 1 matrix
(one column and m rows) is called a column vector.

Example 7

12

2
1

1
0

2

4

or

Row vector

3
1

Column vector

A square matrix is a matrix which has the same number of rows and columns.

A square matrix of order n and the entries a11, a22, . . . , ann are the main diagonal of A.

The unit matrix or identity matrix In, with elements on the main diagonal set to 1
and all other elements set to 0, satisfies M In=M and In N=N for any m-by-n matrix
M and n-by-k matrix N.

1 0 0
I 3 0 1 0
0 0 1

Example 8: if n = 3:
Operations on Matrices

Definition
Two matrices are defined to be equal if they have the same size and their corresponding
entries are equal.

In matrix notation, if A = [aij] and B = [bij] have the same size, then A = B if and only if
(A)ij= (B)ij

Example 9
a
3

2
a 1,

b 8,

c 0,

2
1
b
1 5
0

d 3,

1
d

e
e 2

c
1
f

2
8

and

f 1

Addition and Subtraction

Given m-by-n matrices A and B,
their sum A + B is the m-by-n matrix computed by adding corresponding entries
(A + B)ij = (A)ij + (B) ij
= a ij + b ij
their difference A B is the m-by-n matrix computed by subtracting corresponding
entries (A B)ij = (A)ij (B)ij

13

= a ij b ij
Example 10
(a) Addition
2
3

1 5

1
3

0
1

(b) Subtraction
0 2
1
3
1 3

2 1 5

1 2 3
4 5 6

7 8 9

2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9

2 2 1
7 6 3

5 7 14

2 5
1 4 9
9 9 4
0

Scalar Multiples
If A is any matrix and c is any scalar, then the product cA is the matrix obtained by
multiplying each entry of the matrix A by c. The matrix cA is said to be a scalar multiple of
A. In matrix notation, if A = aij, then (cA)ij = c(A)ij = caij .
Linear combination

Example 11
1
3 2

0
3
4

1
2
0 2 1

1
0

c1A1 + c2A2 + . . . + cnAn

1
3
0 5 3

2 6
5
4
3

0
2

6
0
1 7

0
25

8
5

28

9
5
15

Multiplying Matrices

Multiplication of two matrices is well-defined only if the number of columns of the

left matrix is the same as the number of rows of the right matrix.

If A is an m-by-n matrix and B is an n-by-p matrix, then their matrix product AB is

the m-by-p matrix (m rows, p columns) given by

14

Example 12
5 0
2 1
(2)(3) (1)(1) (2)(1) ( 1)(2)

0 2 3 1
(0)(3) (2)(1) (0)(1) (2)(2)
2 4

1 2

1 3

5
(1)(3)

(1)(

3)
(1)(1)

3)(2)
0

Matrix Products as Linear Combination

a11
a
A 21
M

am1

a12 K
a22 K
M L
am1

a1n
a2 n
,
M

amn

x1
x
2
M

xn

Then

a
a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn
a11

12

a1n
a

a
a
a x a22 x2 ... a2 n xn
Ax 21 x1 22 x2 L 2 n xn 21 1
M

M
M
M
M

a m1
am1 x1 am 2 x2 ... amn xn
am1

amn

1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations

Properties of Matrix Arithmetic
Assuming that the sizes of the matrices are such that the indicated operations can be
performed, the following rules of matrix arithmetic are valid. A, B, C are matrices and a, b,
c are any constant.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

A+B=B+A
A + (B + C) = (A + B) +C
A(BC) = (AB)C
A (B + C) = AB + AC
(B + C) A = BA + CA
A (B C) = AB AC
(B C) A = BA CA

(Commutative law for addition)

(Associative law for addition)
(Associative law for multiplication)
(Left distributive law)
(Right distributive law)

15

(h) a (B + C) = aB + aC
(i) a (B C) = aB aC
(j) (a + b)C = aC + bC
(k) (a b)C = aC bC
(l) a(bC) = (ab) C
(m)(BC) = (aB)C = B(aC)

Zero Matrices

0 0
0 ,
0 0

0 0 0
0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

Properties of Zero Matrices

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

A+0=0+A=A
A A= 0
0 A = A
A0 = 0 ; 0A = 0

1 0

0 1

I2 =

Identity Matrices

1 0 0
I 3 = 0 1 0
0 0 1

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0

I4 =
0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

Theorem
If R is the reduced row-echelon form of an n n matrix A, then either R has a row of zeros
or R is the identity matrix In.

Inverse of A
Definition
If A is a square matrix, and if a matrix B of the same size can be found such that
Example 14
AB = BA= I, then A is said to be invertible and B is called an inverse of A.

2 3

and B

5 8

Consider A
Solution

8
5

3
2 . Find AB and BA.

16

2 3

5 8

AB

8 3
1 0

5 2
0 1

1 0
8 3 2 3
.

0 1
5 2 5 8

BA

Note: A 1 = B and B 1 = A

Method of finding inverse of 2 2 invertible matrixes

Theorem
The matrix

a b

c d

A 1

by the formula

is invertible if ad bc 0 , in which case the inverse is given

d b
1
ad bc c a

Properties of Inverses
1) If B and C are both inverses of the matrix A, then B = C
2) A A1 = A1A = I
3) If A and B are invertible matrices of the same size , then AB is invertible and
(A B)1 = B1A1

Power of a Matrix
Definition
If A is a square matrix, then we define the nonnegative integer powers of A to be
a.
A0 = I
b.

An = A . A . A . . . .A
n factors

(n > 0)

17

c.

An = (A1)n =

A1 . A1 . . . A1
n factors

Laws of Exponents
a.
If A is a square matrix and r and s are integers, then Ar As = Ar+s
b.

( Ar ) s = A r s

c.

If A is an invertible matrix, then: A1 is invertible and (A1 ) 1 = A

d.

If A is an invertible matrix, then: An is invertible and (An ) 1 = (A1 )n for n = 1, 2,

e.

For any nonzero scalar k, the matrix kA is invertible and (kA)1 = (1/k) A1

Transpose of a Matrix

(AT)i j = (A)j i

Definition
If A is any n m matrix, then the transpose of A, denoted by AT, is defined to be the m n
matrix that results from interchanging the rows and columns of A; that is, the first column of
AT is the first row of A, the second column of AT is the second row of A, and so forth.

Example 15
1 0 1
1. 2 3 0
0 4 1

1 2 0
0 3 4

1 0 1

2.

1
2

4
5

3 6

1 2 3

4 5 6

Properties of the Transpose

If the sizes of the matrices are such that the stated operations can be performed, then
(a) ((A)T)T = A
(b) (A+B)T = AT + BT and (A B)T=AT BT
(c) (k A)T= k AT , where k is any scalar
(d) (AB)T= BT AT

18

Invertibility of a Transpose
Theorem
If A is an invertible matrix, then AT is also invertible and (AT)1 =(A1)T
Example 16
Let

3 4
2 3
B

2 3 and
1 1 . Find

(a) A2
(b) (AT)1
(c) (2B)1
(d) (3B)T
Solution
2

(a )

3 4 17 24
A (A )

2 3 12 17

(b)

(A T ) 1 (A 1 )T

(c )

(2B) 1

(d )

(3B )T 3

1 2

3 2

4 3

1 1 1/ 2 3 / 2
B

2
1/ 2 1
2 1 6 3

3 1 9 3

1.5 Elementary Matrices and a Method for Finding A1

Elementary Matrices
Definition
An n n matrix is called an elementary matrix if it can be obtained from the n n identity
. matrix I by performing a single elementary row operation
n

Example 17
I

19

1 0 0
I 0 1 0
0 0 1

1
0

0
1

0
0 .

1 0 1

Row Operations and Inverse Row Operations

Row operation on I
that produces E
Multiply row i by c

Example
0

Interchange rows i and j

[I] R1 = 3R1

[E]

[I] R 3 R 2

[E]

Add c times row i to row j [I] R1 = R1 +2R3 [E]

Row operation on E
that reproduces I

Example

Multiply row i by 1/c

[I] R1 = 1/3 R1 [E1]

Interchange rows i and j

[I] R 2 R 3

Add c times row i to row j

[I] R1 = R12R3 [E1]

To find the inverse of an invertible matrix A, find a sequence of elementary row operations
that reduces A to the identity and then perform this same sequence of operations on In to
obtain A1.
Theorem ROW OPERATIONS BY MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
If the elementary matrix E results from performing a certain row operation on Im and if A
is an m x n matrix, then the product EA is the matrix that results when this same row
operation is performed on A.
Example 18
1 3 0
1 3 0

A 0 1 3
B 0 1 3
2 10 2
0 0 14

and

.
Consider the matrices
Find elementary matrices E1 and E 2 such that E2 E1A B .
Solution
1 3 0

A 0 1 3
2 10 2

1 3 0

0 1 3

0 4 2

R3 = R3 2R1

1 3

0 1

R3 = R3 + 4R2

3 B
14

[E1]

20

1 0 0
I 0 1 0
0 0 1
Thus,
1 0 0
I 0 1 0
0 0 1

R3 R3 4 R2

0 0
0 1 0 E1
2 0 1
1

R3 R3 2 R1

1 0 0
0 1 0 E 2
0 4 1

Theorem
Every elementary matrix is invertible, and the inverse is also an elementary matrix
Theorem EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS
If A is an n x n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent, that is, all true or all false.
(a)
A is invertible
(b)
Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution
(c)
The reduced row-echelon form of A is In
(d)
A is expressible as a product of elementary matrices.
A method for Inverting Matrices
Ek . . . E2 E1 A = I n
A1

A1 = Ek . . . E2 E1 In = Ek . . . E2 E1

A = E11 E2 1 . . . Ek 1 In = E1 1 E2 1 . . . Ek1

Example 19
Let A be a 3 3 matrix such that E3E2 E1A I 3 where
E1 is obtained from I 3 by performing the operation R1 R1 R3
E2 is obtained from I 3 by performing the operation R2 R2 2 R1

E3

is obtained from I 3 by performing the operation R3 R2

Find A and A1 using elementary matrices.

Solution
1 0 0

I 0 1 0 R1 R1 R3
0 0 1

1 0 1
1 0 1

1
0 1 0 E1 E1 0 1 0

0 0 1
0 0 1

21

1 0 0
1 0 0

I 0 1 0 R2 R2 2 R 1 2 1 0 E2
0 0 1
0 0 1

E 2 2

1 0 0

I 0 1 0 R3 R2
0 0 1

1 0 0

E 3 0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 1 1
A E11E2 1E31 0 1 0 2
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
2 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 0
A E3E 2E1 0 0 1
0 1 0
1

1 0 0
0 0 1 E3
0 1 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 1
1 0

1 0 0 1 0
2 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0

1 0
0 0
0 1
1
2
0

0 0
1 0
0 1

0
1
0
1 0
0 1
1 0

1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1

1
2 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 2

Try this

1 1
2 0

0 1

0
1
0

1 0 1
_
0 0 1
_

2 1 2
_
=

_
_
_

_
_
_

Row Operation to find A1

[ A | I ] [ I |A1]

Example 20

1 2 3
A 4 5 6
3 1 2
Find the inverse of
Solution
3 1 0 0
1 2
3 1 0 0

1 2 3 1 0 0

4 5 6 0 1 0
0 3 6 4 1 0 0 3 6 4 1 0
3 1 2 0 0 1
0 5 11 3 0 1

0 0 3 11 5 3

1 2

22

5
3
1 2 0 12 5 3
1 2 0 12

11
0 3 0 26 11 6 0 1 0 26
2
3
3

0 0 3 11 5 3
0 0 1 11
5
1

3
3

16
7

1
3
3
1 0 0

11
0 1 0 26
2
3
3

0 0 1 11
5
1
3
3

16

A 1 26
3

11
3

1
3
16 7 3

11
2 26 11 6
3

3
11 5 3

5
1
3

Showing That a Matrix Is Not Invertible

Example 21

1 6 4
A 2 4 1
1 2 5
Show that A is not invertible
Solution
1

6 4 1 0 0

4 1 0 1 0
1 2 5 0 0 1
1

1 6 4 1 0 0

0 8 9 2 1 0
0 8 9 1 0 1

0 0

0 8 9 2 1 0
0 0 0 1 1 1

4 1

There is a row of zeros. Therefore A is not invertible.

A Consequence of Invertibility (Optional)

23

1 2 5
3 2 2

4 4 5
Let A =
. If A is invertible, then
1. the homogeneous system has only the trivial solution.
x 2 y 5z 0
3 x 2 y 2 z 0
4x 4 y 5z 0
2. the nonhomogeneous system has exactly one solution.
x 2 y 5z 1
3 x 2 y 2 z 2
4 x 4 y 5z 1
3. the linear system is consistent (the linear system has a solution)

x 2 y 5 z b1
3x 2 y 2 z b2
4 x 4 y 5 z b3

1.6 Further Results on Systems of Equations and Invertibility

Basic Theorem
Theorem
Every system of linear equations has no solutions, or has exactly one solution, or has
infinitely many solutions.

Linear Systems by Matrix Inversion

Theorem
If A is an invertible n n matrix, then for each n 1 matrix b , the system of equations
Ax = b has exactly one solution, namely , x = A1b.

Solution of a Linear System Using A1

Write as Ax = b.

Example 22

Find A1 then A1 (Ax) = A1b x = A1b.

24

x y 1
2 x z 10
y2

Consider the system of linear equations

Solution

A=

1 1 0
2 0 1

0 1 0

x = A1b

and A1 =

1 0 1
0 0 1

2 1 2

1 0 1
0 0 1

2 1 2

. Solve using matrix inversion.

(from Example 18)

1 3
10 2
2 4

x = 3, y = 2, z = 4

Solving Two Linear Systems at Once (Optional)

Example 23

Solve the systems

x 2 y z 2

x 2y z 1

2x 5 y z 1

2 x 5 y z 1

3 x 7 y 2 z 1

and

3x 7 y 2 z 0

Solution
Linear system with a common coefficient matrix

1 2 1 2 1
1 2 1 2 1

1 2 1 2 1

1 5 3
2 5 1 1 1
0 9 1 5 3 0 9
3 7 2 1 0
0 1 1 5 3

0 0 10 50 30
1 2 1 2 1
1 2 0 3 2

1 2 0 3 2

0 9 1 5 3
0 9 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 5 3
0 0 1 5 3

0 0 1 5 3
1 0 0 3 2

0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 5 3
x=3

y=0

z=5

Second system x = 2

y=0

z=3

First system

25

Properties of Invertible Matrices

Theorem (Optional)
Let A be a square matrix,
(a) If B is a square matrix satisfying BA = I, then B = A1
(b) If B is a square matrix satisfying AB = I, then B = A1
i. e A A1 = A1A = I

Theorem
Let A and B be square matrices of the same size. If AB is invertible, then A and B must also
be invertible.
Theorem EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS
If A is an n n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent, that is, all true or all
false.
a)
A is invertible
b)
Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution
c)
The reduced row-echelon form of A is In
d)
A is expressible as a product of elementary matrices.
e)
Ax = b is consistent for every n 1 matrix b
f)
Ax = b has exactly one solution for every n 1 matrix b

Determining Consistency by Elimination

Example 24
Find the conditions that the bs must satisfy the system to be consistent.

2 x1 2 x2 2 x3 b1
3 x1 5 x2 x3 b2
(a)

4 x1 7 x2 2 x3 b3

26

Solution

1 1 1
1 1 1 12 b1
2 b1

3
3
5
1
b

0
2
4
b

2
2
1
0 1 2
2

0 1 2
4 7 2 b3
0 3 6 b3 2 b1

1
1 1 1

2 b1

2 b2 3b1
0 1 2

4
0 0 0 b3 2 b1 2b2 3b1
3
4

Therefore

i.e b1 6b2 4b3 0

b1 6b2 4b3

b2

1
2 1

2 b2 3b1
4

b3 2 b1
3

b3 2b1 2b2 3b1

0
3
4

or

b1 4b3
b 6b2
or b3 1
6
4

b1
Thus, one of the conditions for b b2
b1 46 b2
(b)

x1 x2 2 x3 b1
x1 2 x2 3x3 b2
3x1 7 x2 4 x3 b3
Solution

1 1 2 b1
1 1

2
b1
1 1
2
b 1

1 2 3 b2
0 1 5 b1 b2 0 1 5 b1 b2
3 7 4 b3
0 10 2 b3 3 b1

0 10 2 b3 3b1

1 1 2

1 1 2

b1
b1

0 1 5
b1 b2

0
1

1
2

0 0 52 10 b1 b2 b3 3b1
0 0 1 10 b1 b2 b3 3b1

52

Therefore there are no conditions on bs for the linear system to be consistent.

27

1.7 Diagonal, Triangular, and Symmetric Matrices

I

Diagonal Matrix is a square matrix in which all of the entries off the main diagonal
are zero.

d1
0

0
d 2 0 . 0
0 d 3 . .

.
. . .
.
0 0 . . d n
1. A general n n diagonal matrix D can be written as
.
2. A diagonal matrix is invertible iff all of its diagonal entries are nonzero.
0
.
1 d1
0 1d
0
2

.
0 1 d3

.
.
.
0
0
.

3.

. 0
. 0
.
.

.
.
. 1 d n

1
1
i.e the inverse of D is
such that DD D D I .
If D is the diagonal matrix and k is a positive integer, then

d1k

0
k
D .

.
0

d2
0

0
d 3k

.
.

0
.

. d n k

0
k

Example 25
Find a diagonal matrix A that satisfies

9 0 0
A 0 4 0
0 0 1
2

Solution

A ( A 2 ) 1/2

II

0
0
1/ 3
0
1/ 2 0
0
0
1

A square matrix in which all the entries above the main diagonal are zero is called lower
triangular matrix.
A square matrix in which all the entries below the main diagonal are zero is called upper
triangular matrix.
A square matrix that is either upper or lower triangular is called triangular matrix.

Example 26

28

1 2 3
A 0 5 6
0 0 2

1 0 0
B 4 5 0
3 1 2

Upper Triangular

Lower Triangular

1.8 Application to Graph Theory

Theory of directed graphs to mathematically model relations among members of a set using
matrix representations.
Definition: DIRECTED GRAPHS
A directed graph is a finite set of elements { P 1 , P2 , ,Pn } together with a finite collection of
ordered pairs (Pi , Pj ) of distinct elements of this set, with no ordered pair being repeated.

Terms in directed graphs:

1. Vertices elements of the set
2. Directed edges ordered pairs (Pi , Pj )
3. Pi Pj Pi is connected to Pj
Directed graphs can be presented as a line connecting Pi to Pj.
-

Pi Pj is denoted if Pi Pj and Pj Pi
may have separate component of vertices that are connected only among themselves or
may not be connected to any other vertex.

Directed graph having n vertices can be represented by n n matrix called vertex matrix
denoted by M=[mij] is defined for i, j = 1,2,,n as
1 if Pi Pj
mij
0 otherwise
Example 6
P2
(1)

0 1 0
0 0 1

0 1 0

P1

(2)

P3

Fill in the rest of mij entries in the vertex matrix on the right.

29

0 1 0
0 0 1

1
0

1
0 0

0
1 0
(3) Determine the vertex matrix M.

P2

P3

Example 7: Draw the directed graph

(1)
0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1

0 1 0 0

1 0 1 0

(2)

0
1

1
0

1
0
0
1
0

0
0
0
0
1

1
1
0
0
1

0
0
1

1
0

Theorem 11.7.1:
Let M be the vertex of a directed graph and let m ij(r) be the (i,j)-th element of Mr . Then
mij(r) is equal to the number of r-step connections from Pi to Pj.
The number of 1step connections is mij (either 0 or 1). The number of 2step
connections is calculated from the square of the vertex matrix M2.
By listing the rth- step connections:
1 step connection as Pi Pj
2 step connection as Pi Pj Pm
3 step connection as Pi Pj Pm Pn

30
2 ways of 2-step connections

M2 =

1 way of 2-step connections

3 ways of 2-step connections

Example 8
Consider M =

0
1
1
0

1
0
0
1

1
1
0
1

0
0
1

Find 2-step connections from P3 to P2 and 3step connections from P4 to P2.

Solution
0
1
2
M
1

0
2
1
3
M
0

1
0
0
1
0
1
2
0

1
1
0
1
1
1
2
1

0
0
1

0
1
1
0

0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0

1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1

1
1
0
1
1
1
0
1

2 0 1 1
0
0

1 1 1 1
1
0 2 2 0

2 0 1 1
0
1 3 3 1
0
0

2 2 3 1
1
4 0 2 2

1 3 3 1
0

2-step connections from P3 to P2:

3-step connections from P4 to P2:

M 32 2 2
M 423 3

possible ways.
possible ways.

CLIQUES
Definition
A subset S of a directed graph is called a clique if it satisfies the following three
conditions:
The subset S contains at least three vertices
For each pair of vertices Pi and Pj in S, both Pi Pj and Pj Pi are true (Pi Pj )
There is no larger subset of the vertices that satisfies condition (ii) and contains S.
(The subset is a maximal set satisfying condition (ii))

31

Example 9
Cliques
{P1, P3, P4}

P2

P3

DOMINANCE-DIRECTED GRAPHS (TOURNAMENTS)

Definition
A dominance-directed graph is a directed graph such that for any distinct pair of
vertices Pi and Pj , either Pi Pj or Pj Pi but not both. (One way directed)
Theorem
In any dominance-directed graph, there is at least one vertex from which there is a 1-step
or 2-step connection to any other vertex.

Definition
The power of a vertex Pi is the sum of the entries of the ith row of the matrix A = M + M2,
where M is the vertex matrix of the dominance directed graph.

Example 10
0
1

M 0

0
1
Consider

0
0
0
1
0

1
1
0
0
1

1
0
1
0
1

0
1
0

0
0 . Find the power of all vertices P .
i

32

Solution
0
1

M 2= 1

0
0
0
1
0

1
1
0
0
1

0
1

A= M + M2 = 1

1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0

0
1
0

0
0
1
1
0
0
1

Power of P1 is 4
Power of P2 is 9
Power of P3 is 2

0
1

0
1

0
0
0
1
0

1
0
1
0
1

0
1
0

0
0 +

1
1
0
0
1
0
1

1
0

1
0
1
0
1

0
1
0

0
0 =
1 0
0 2
1 0
0 1
1 1

0
1

1
0

1
0
1
0
1

1
3
0
0
2

0
0
0

1
0 =

0
2
0
1
1
0
2

1
1

0
0
0

1
0

1
3
0
0
2
1
0
1
1
1

1
3
0
1
2

2
3
1
0
3

0
1
0

1
0 0+1+0+1+0 =2

Power of P4 is 4
Power of P5 is 7

Exercise:

0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0

M
0 1 0 1

0
1
1
0

1. Let
(i) Draw the directed graph D
(ii) Find the number of 1-step and 2-step connections from P1 P2.
2.

Construct a vertex-matrix of the dominance-directed graph shown and find the power of
the vertex P1 and P5.

33

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0

M 1 1 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
3. Let
be the vertex matrix of a directed graph D.
Draw the directed graph D.
Find the number of 2-step connections from P4 to P1.
Determine all clique(s) of D.
Summary
Type
Example
Number of
solutions
Type of
solutions

2x2 systems of linear Equations (A2x2X= b)

Intersecting
Parallel
Coincident

2x 3y 1

2x 3y 1

2x 3y 1

x 2y 8

2x 3 y 7

4x 6 y 2

no points of
intersection
No solution
(Inconsistent
System)

Infinitely many
points of intersection
Infinitely many
solutions
(Consistent
System)

One point of
intersection
A unique
solution
(Consistent
System)

2x2 homogeneous systems of linear Equations (A 2x2X=0)

Type
Intersecting
Coincident
Example
2x 3y 0
2x 3 y 0

x 2y 0
Number of
solutions
Type of
solutions

One point of intersection

A trivial solution
(Consistent System)

4x 6 y 0
Infinitely many points of
intersection
Non-trivial solution
(Consistent System)

a1

a2

b1

c1

d1

b2

c2

d2

a b c d
3
3
3
Consider a general 3x3 system has the augmented matrix form 3
for
variables x, y and z. Reduce the form using the elementary row operations to the form
a b c d

0 e f g
0 0 h i

. In this form, the system can be easily solved as follows:

If h 0 we can determine z i h uniquely, and likewise y and x from the other two

rows. Thus, we arrive at a unique solution.

If h 0 and i 0 . The last row reads 0z i which is absurd. Thus, there is no
solution.
If h 0 and i 0 . The last row is all zeros. Consequently, there are infinitely many
solutions which can be written in terms of a free variable called parameter. For
example, let z t we can write y and x in terms of t, and t .

34
*************************** END OF TOPIC 1 ******************************