Foundation Engineering

SPEAKERS:
SAJJAD AHMAD
REG. NO. 2011-MS-CES-26
ABDUL WAHEED
REG. NO. 2012-MS-CEG-12

Course Instructor :
Dr. Aziz Akbar
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Engineering and Technology
Lahore, Pakistan

Contents
Introduction
Principles of Freezing
How Ground Freezing Works

Refrigeration systems
Ground Freezing for Shoring
Applications

 Ground freezing is a process of making water-bearing

strata temporarily impermeable and to increase their

compressive and shear strength by transforming joint water
into ice.

Figure: Ground Freezing

It is the most effective and consistently reliable method of

providing temporary support and preventing groundwater

from flowing into deep excavations.

 No extraneous materials need to be injected and apart from

the contingency of frost heave, the ground normally reverts

to its normal state.

It is applicable to a wide range of soils but it takes

considerable time to establish a substantial ice wall and the

freeze must be maintained by continued refrigeration as
long as required.

Figure: Ground Freezing

 The effectiveness of freezing depends on the presence of water to

create ice, cementing the particles and increasing the strength of

the ground to the equivalent of soft or medium rock.

If the ground is saturated or nearly so it will be rendered

impermeable.

If moisture does not fill the pores, it may be necessary to add

water.

The strength achieved depends on freeze temperature, moisture

content and the nature of the soil.

In rock and clay ice lenses may build up and enlarge fine fissures

so causing increase in permeability after thaw.

Freezing can be particularly effective in stabilizing silts, which

are too fine for injection of any ordinary grouts.

 On freezing, water expands in volume by about 9% which does

not itself impose any serious stresses and strains on the soil
unless the water is confined within a restricted volume. With
water content up to about 30% the direct soil expansion may
be about 3%. Frost heave which may occur in fine silts and
clays, is a slightly different phenomenon.
If there is a flow of water through

the ground to be frozen the

freezing time will be increased by
reason of the continuing supply
of heat energy and, if the flow is
large and the water temperature
high, freezing may be completely
inhibited.

 After the initial freezing has been completed and the frozen

barrier is in place, the required refrigeration capacity is

significantly reduced to maintain the frozen barrier.

Excavation of a large coffer dam to provide access for mining of a crown pillar left above formerly
mined and backfilled slopes. The coffer dam was created using ground freezing techniques.

 There are many ways to freeze the ground, including liquid

nitrogen, brine, carbon dioxide.

Chilled calcium chloride brine circulating through a series of

closed-ended steel pipe in the ground.

The -10F to -20F brine circulates down along the outside pipe
and up through an inside pipe thus freezing the soil around
the pipes

 It is a completely closed and tested system so that no brine

goes into the ground.

The methods of ground freezing are reliable and
environmentally safe (calcium chloride is non-toxic and
sprayed on icy roads in many states).
Through numerous equipment improvements, we can
make ground freezing more efficient than ever and very
cost-effective.
Frozen soil can be nearly as strong as concrete and is
impermeable, making it ideal for shoring and groundwater
cutoff.

There are two widely used methods of providing refrigeration

energy to freeze the ground.
Conventional system
Cryogenic systems

 The conventional system consists of a primary refrigerate gas,

usually ammonia, being compressed and conducting its cold

energy on evaporation to a secondary coolant, usually
calcium chloride brine which is circulated through the freeze
tube system to cool the strata.

The refrigeration plants used for this operation are mounted

on skid units for easy transportation.

In operation the ammonia does not leave the confines of the

skid unit and is protected by a series of safety systems to

protect against failure.
This type self contained of system can operate at

temperatures as low as -40 degrees Celsius and are suitable

for the larger projects where freezing will be carried on for
several weeks.

 Where the construction period is of short duration the

cryogenic system is generally used.

This system uses an expendable refrigerant usually liquid
nitrogen that is applied directly to the freeze tubes where it
evaporates at -196 degrees Celsius and the resultant gas is
exhausted to atmosphere.

Cryogenic systems

 The liquid nitrogen is delivered to site by road tankers

and stored in vacuum insulated vessels of up to 100 tones

capacity.

The system has been successfully used for example at a

tunnel face beneath a river and over 1000 meters from an

access shaft.

 Shallow Excavations (Small Site)

Shallow Excavations (Large Site)

Deep Excavations

Tunneling
Groundwater Cutoff Wall

 Cuts

off groundwater
along sides and bottom to
eliminate dewatering.

Provides

stable shoring
with no internal bracing
or struts.

Batter freeze pipe can be

used to allow heavy

construction traffic along
the top of the wall.

Ground Freezing Shallow Excavations

 Bottom concrete seal can

usually be eliminated.
Appropriate for excavations

up to about 40 feet deep.

Cost-competitive compared

to conventional shoring
(sheet piles, soldier pile
walls).

Ground Freezing Shallow Excavations

 Allows large, shallow

excavations to be
accomplished in the "dry"
with no dewatering.

Freeze pipes are installed

nearly horizontal using

directional drilling
methods.

Completely seals the site

from groundwater.

Ground Freezing Shallow Excavations

 Uplift is controlled by

freezing deeper than the

planned excavation.
Adapts to sites of variable

size and shape with

lengths up to 1,000 feet.
Can also be used to cut off

groundwater beneath
existing structures.
Cost effective to depths of

60 feet or more.

Ground Freezing Shallow Excavations

 Can

be designed to
completely
cut
off
groundwater into the
excavation without a
natural aquitard.

Batter freeze pipe can be

installed at any angle to

accommodate site space
constraints.

Can be modified: vertical

pipes on one side and

batter pipes on the other
side.

Ground Freezing Shallow Excavations

 Uplift is controlled by

freezing deeper than the

excavation depth.
Very cost-effective shoring

method when contaminated

groundwater is present.
Can be effectively used to

depths of 40 feet or more

Ground Freezing Shallow Excavations

 Circular-shape frozen soil wall

provides very strong shoring

without internal bracing.
Has been used on hundreds of

shafts worldwide to depths of

800 feet.
Completely cuts off ground

water to eliminate dewatering.

Generally costs less than other

deep shaft methods (concrete

piles, jet grouting, etc.).

Deep Excavations

 A frozen soil seal can be

created at sites where no

natural groundwater cutoff
is present.
May be used in nearly all

soil and groundwater

conditions.
Deep Excavations

Designed to resist uplift

without expensive tiedowns.

 Because frozen soil has

very low permeability (less

than 10cm/sec) it is very
effective as a groundwater
cutoff.
A frozen soil cutoff can be

used
to
prevent
groundwater from entering
open pit mines, gravel pits,
landfills and other similar
facilities that are below
groundwater.

Groundwater Cutoff Wall

 Eliminates or greatly

reduces the need for

dewatering.
Can also be used to stop the

migration of contaminated
groundwater near streams
or lakes.
Maintenance of a buried

frozen soil cutoff is

relatively inexpensive
making it competitive for
long-term cutoffs.

Groundwater Cutoff Wall

 Provides stable shoring to

allow tunneling in wet,

loose soils or fractured
bedrock.

Effective for cutting

off
ground water into tunnel
excavation.

Frozen soil/rock can be

used as shoring around

unfrozen soil or the entire
soil/rock mass can be
frozen.

Ground Freezing in Tunneling

Frozen soil shoring for an access shaft at Bryn Mawr utility improvement project in Renton

o Frozen soil shoring wall around a 20-foot-deep

excavation along Interstate 405 for retaining a vertical

cut during construction of a large storm water
detention vault.

 The second was a frozen

soil shoring wall around a

10-foot deep basement
excavation for a condo
located in Madison Park
just 8 feet from Lake
Washington.
Both

involved a 4-footthick vertical wall of frozen

soil to provide shoring and
to cut off inflow of
groundwater
into
the
excavation.

 Books:
GROUND FREEZING IN PRACTICE by J.R. Harris
Sites:
http://groundfreezing.net
http://lscryogenics.com
http://refrigeration-engineer.com
http://djc.com (Applications)
http://google.com (Pictures and Figures)