Biology

Unit3
Notes

Question1
Variables
Independent:theoneyoudecideabout
Dependent:theoneyouaremeasuring
Otherstobecontrolled:theonesthatmustnotchangeduringtheexperiment
Tabulation

IVcomesinfirstcolumn.Arrangevaluesinascendingorder.
IViscontrolledbytheexperiment.
DVismeasuredtogivetheresults
DVdependsonIV
Labelallcolumnsandrowsappropriatelyandaccurately
IncludeSIunitsintheheadingsofthecolumnsandrows
Beconsistentwithsignificantfigures/decimalplaces
Youaregenerallyaskedtofindthemeanofthepercentagedifference

Graphs

Axes:IVonxaxisandDVonyaxis
Scale:thecurveshouldcovermorethan50%ofthegraphpaper
Line:joineachpointwithastraightline.Donotextrapolate.
Describethetrendsinthegraph.DONOTmaketheoreticalassumptions.
Makeconclusionsbasedontheexperimentaldata.Refertothehypothesis
beinginvestigated,whilemakingconclusions.
Limitationsaregenuinesourcesoferror.Lookoutforvariableslike
temperature,pH,etc.notbeingcontrolled.Alsocheckiftheexperimenthas
beenreplicated.

Everyexperimenthastwomaincomponents:
1. Controlofvariables/factors
Ensurethatyoucontrolallvariablesandfactorsthatcanaffectyourresults.
Statesensiblevalues,withSIunitsanddescribesensiblewaysofcontrolling
thesevariables.Describethetypeofapparatustouse.
Controllingfactorseffectivelywillimprovethereliabilityofyourresults
2. Makingquantifiablemeasurements
Theresultsofyourexperimentshouldhavenumericalvalues,sothatthedata
canbeanalyzedandresultscanbedrawn.
Usingappropriatemethodandsuitableapparatuscanimprovethe
accuracyofyourresults

Reliability

Whenthevariabilityinreplicatedresultsisveryhigh,thereliabilityislow.This
maybeduetocertainvariablesnotbeingcontrolledoffaultyprocedures.
Rangebarsorerrorbarsonthegraphwillgiveafairindicationofreliability.If
thereisconsiderableoverlapofbetweenerrorbars,thenvariabilityisveryhigh
andreliabilityislow.
Calculatingmeanandrepetitiondoesntimprovereliability
Thenarrownessoftherangeofdatawilltellsyouifitsreliableornot
Resultsthatareclosetogetherwillhaveanarrowstandarddeviation
Themorevariablescontrolled,themorereliable
Repetitionbyotherscientistsincreasesreliability

Accuracy

Accuracycanbedefinedasthedifferencebetweentheactualvaluesandthe
measuredvalues.Ifthedifferenceishigh,thenaccuracyislowandviceversa.
Accuracycanbeimprovedbyusingappropriateapparatusandmethodsofmaking
measurements
Accuracyisgivenbythegapsbetweenreadingsinanexperiment(smallgaps
accurate,biggapslessaccurate)

Technicaltermsthatarecommonlyused
1. Preciseresultsthesearetheresultstakenusingsensitiveinstrumentsthat
measureinsmallincrements
2. Qualitativeaqualitativetesttellsyouwhatspresent
3. Quantitativeaquantitativetesttellsyouhowmuchispresent
Question2
Youmaybeaskedto:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Saywhereinformationshouldbewrittenwithinthereport
CommentontheimplicationsoftheBiologyinthereport
Commentonbibliographicconventions
Commentonhowdataispresented

Bibliography
Makesureyoustate:
1. Theexactnameofaleaflet/book/journal

2.
3.
4.
5.

Giveauthorname
Givedate
Giveexacturl/addressifitsinternet
Giveexactdatesofsitevisits

Howtocheckforvalidity
1.
2.
3.
4.

Lookforbiasasponsermaynotbevalid
CheckthecontributorishereallyaprofessoratHarvard?
Crosschecklookforsameinfofromsomewhereelse
Aretherepeerviews?(propersciencepapersarelookedatbyothersworking
inthesamefield)

Improvinganswers
Howfardoesthedatasupportthestatementsinthepassage?
Lookfordifferences
E.g.datasaysx2orx3improvement
Butstatementsaysx20
Needtosaythatdatadoesnotsupportpassage
Commandworkdiscuss
Bepreparedtogive2sidesofargument
Comparativequestions
E.g.Ratsvs.DaphniaorDrugsvs.Acupunctures
Usethistypeofkeywordinanswer:
Alternatively
ontheotherhand
incontrast

EffectoncaffeineonDaphniaheartrate
Daphnialacksphysiologicalmethodsofmaintainingaconstantbodytemperature.
Thismeansthatiftheenvironmentaltemperaturechanges,itsbodytemperature
doessotooanditsmetabolicratewillbeexpectedtoriseorfallaccordingly.
Sobodytemperaturemustbekeptconstantduringtheprocedure.
DaphniaisrelativelytransparentanditsheartcanbeseeneasilyunderlowPower
ofthemicroscope
Settinguptheexperiment:
1. Makeuprangeofcaffeinesolutionsofdifferentconcentrationsandacontrol
solutionthathasnocaffeineatallinit
2. Transferonedaphniaintothedimpleonacavityslide
3. Placetheslideintothestageofalightmicroscopeandfocusonthebeating
heartofthedaphnia
4. PlaceasmalldropofcaffeinesolutionontotheDaphnia
5. Countthenumberofheartbeatsin10secondsandmultiplythisby6to
calculatebeatsperminute(heartrate)
6. Repeatthis10timesusingthesameconcentrationofcaffeinebutadifferent
Daphniaindividualeachtime
7. Dontforgettokeepallfactorsconstant
8. Repeatexperimentusingtheotherconcentrationsofcaffeine
9. Comparetheresultse.g.drawgraph
Ethicalissuesintheuseofinvertebrates
1. Daphniahasreducedawarenessofpainbecauseofthelackofawell
developednervoussystem
2. Itistransparentanditsheartisvisiblewithouttheneedfordissection
3. Daphniaisabundantinnatureandthereisnothreattoitoritsdependent
species(foodchains)
4. Somepeoplefeelthatitisbredforfishfoodandwillthusdieanyway
5. Daphniacanreproduceasexuallyandmaybeclone,thereforethereisnoloss
ofgeneticvariation
6. However,theyarenotgivenconsentandmaybesubjectedtopainful
procedures
7. Itcancausedistressandsufferingtoanylivingorganism(e.g.extreme
temperatures)
Independentvariable:caffeineconcentration
Dependentvariable:heartrateofdaphnia
Othervariablestobecontrolled:
1. Temperature
2. Volumeofsoultions

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Stressofdaphnia
Sizeofdaphnia
Timeofacclimatization
HabitatfromwhichDaphniaisobtained
Oxygenconcentrationofthewatersurroundingthedaphnia

Possibleevaluationissues:
1. EnsuringDaphniaisthesamesize
2. Iflefttoolongundermicroscope,temperatureincreases=increasedheartrate
3. Toohighconcentrationscankilldaphnia
4. Countingofheartbeatcanbeinaccurate

MeasuringthecontentofVitaminCinfruitjuice
Procedure:
1. MakeupseveralVitaminCsolutionsofdifferentknownconcentrations.
Ideally,youneedaboutsixdifferentsolutions
2. AddVitaminCsolutionofaknownconcentration,dropbydrop,to2cm^3of
theDCPIP(blue)solutioninatesttubeusingapipette
3. Shakethetubegentlyaftertheadditionofeachdropandcontinuetoadddrops
untiltheDCPIPsolutionisdecolorized
4. RecordtheexactamountofVitaminCyouadded
5. Repeattheprocedureandcalculatethemeanvolume
6. Repeattheprocedurewiththefruitjuice,containingvitaminCatunknown
concentration
7. Recordthevolumeofjuicerequiredtodecolorize2cm^3ofthesame
concentrationofDCPIPsolution
8. Useresultstomakealinegraph
Note:IfonlyoneortwodropsoffruitjuicearerequiredtodecolorizeDCPIP,dilute
thejuicefivetimesandtryagain
UsetheequationbelowtoestimatetheconcentrationofvitaminCinfruitjuices
concB=(volA*concA)/voulB
volA=volumeofvitaminCsolutioninml
concA=concentrationofvitaminCsolutioninmgml^1
volB=volumeoffruitjuiceinml
concB=concentrationofvitaminCinfruitjuiceinmgml^1
Independentvariable:fruitjuice
Dependentvariable:volumeofjuicerequiredtodecolorize1cm^3ofDCPIP
Othervariablestocontrol:
1. Temperature
2. ConcentrationofDCPIPsolution
3. Shakeeachtubesamenumberoftimes
4. Sameendpointcolour
Possibleevaluationissues:
1. Difficultyincontrollingtemperature

2. Amountofshaking(toomuchaddsoxygenwillslightlyrestoretheDCPIPto
blue)
3. Endpointdifficulttojudge
4. Lossofsolutionwhentransferringfromonebeakertoanother
5. Accuracyofmeasuringequipment

Theeffectoftemperatureoncellmembranes
Procedure:
1. Cut5equalpiecesofbeetrootandrinsethemtoremoveanypigmentduring
cutting(usecorkborertocut)
2. Placethe5piecesinfivedifferenttesttubes,eachwith5cm^3ofwater
3. Placeeachtesttubeinawaterbathatadifferenttemperatureforthesame
lengthoftime
4. Removethepiecesofbeetrootfromthetubes,leavingjustthecolouredliquid
5. Usecolorimeteramachinethatpasseslightthroughtheliquidandmeasures
howmuchofthatlightisabsorbed.Thehighertheabsorbance,themore
pigmentisreleased,sothehigherpermeabilityofthemembrane
Independentvariable:temperatureofwater
Dependentvariable:%transmissionoflightthroughresultingsolution
Othervariablestobecontrolled:
1. Volumeofdistilledwater
2. Timeleftinwater
3. Sizeofbeetrootpiece
4. Storageconditionsandageofbeetroot
5. Numberofbeetrootdiscs
6. Temperatureofwaterbath
Possibleevaluationissues:
1. Difficultyinmaintainingtemperature
2. Accuratereadingofthecolorimeter
3. Accuratesizeofbeetroot
4. Fromthedifferentpartsoftheroot
5. Ensuringthesametimeatthedifferenttemperatures

Theeffectofchangingenzymeconcentrationonrateofreaction
Safety:weareyeprotectionandprotectclothingfromhydrogenperoxide
Equipment:
1. Upsidedownmeasuringcylinder
2. Deliverytube
3. Solutionofhydrogenperoxideandcatalase
Procedure:
1. Setupexperimentswithequipmentaboveitshowshydrogenperoxidebeing
brokendownintowaterandoxygenbytheenzymecatalase
2. Youcanmeasurehowmuchoxygenisgivenoffwithdifferentconcentrations
ofenzyme
3. Measuretheamountofoxygengivenoffinthefirstminuteofthereaction
4. Dividethevolumeofoxygenproducedbytimetaken,togettheinitialrateof
reaction(incm^3/min)
5. Themoreoxygenthatisgivenoffinthefirstminuteofthereaction,thefaster
theinitialrateofreaction
Independentvariable:concentrationofenzyme
Dependentvariable:timetakenforenzymetobreakdownsubstrate
Othervariablestocontrol:
1. Temperature
2. Volumeofenzyme
3. Volumeofsubstrate
4. Concentrationofsubstrate
5. pH
Possibleevaluationissues:
1. Maintainingconstanttemperature
2. Attachingsyringe
3. Inaccuratereadings

4. Reactiontooquicklytoread

Observingmitosis
Method:
1. Cutthetipfromagrowingroot(e.g.broadbean).Shouldbeabout5mmlong.
2. Placeroottiponawatchglassandafewdropsofhydrochloricacid
3. Addafewdropsofstainsothatthechromosomesbecomedarkerandsoeasier
toseeunderamicroscope.(Aceticorcein)
4. Warmthewatchglass(butdontboiltheliquid)bypassingitslowlythrougha
Bunsenburnerflame
5. Placeroottiponamicroscopeslideanduseamountedneedletobreakitopen
andspreadthecellsoutthinly
6. Addafewmoredropsofstainandthenplaceacoverslipoverit
7. Squashthecoverslipdowngently
8. Warmtheslideagainforafewseconds.Thiswillintensifythestain.
9. Nowyoucanlookatallthestagesofmitosisunderalightmicroscope
Possibleevaluationissues:
1. Resolutionofmicroscope
2. Humanerrorincountingnumbersofcells
3. Enoughtimeinthesolutionstoenablesuccessfulmacerationorstaining

Totipotencyandtissueculture
Plantshavestemcellsfoundinareasofgrowth(e.g.rootsorshoots)
Allstemcellsinplantsaretotipotent
Totipotencycanbeshowninplantsusingtissueculture,methodusedtogrow
aplantfromasinglecell.
Method:
1. Asinglecellistakenfromagrowingareaonaplant
2. Thecellisplacedinsomegrowthmedium(e.g.agar)thatcontainsnutrients
andgrowthhormones.Thegrowthmediumissterile,somicroorganismscant
growandcompetewithplantcells
3. Theplantcellwillgrowanddivideintoamassofunspecializedcells.Ifthe
conditions are suitable the unspecialized cells will differentiate into
specializedcells
4. Eventually,thecellswithgrowanddifferentiateintoanentireplant
Possibleevaluationissues:
1. Unwantedpathogensgrowinginthegelasitisagoodsourceofwaterand
nutrients
2. Wrongpartoftheplantcutandinsertedintothegel

Thestrengthofplantfibres
Tensilestrengthmaximumloadthefibrecantakebeforeitbreaks
Method:
1. Attachthefibretoaclampstandandhangaweightfromtheotherend
2. Keepaddingweights,oneatatime,untilthefibrebreaks
3. Recordthemassneededtobreakthefibrethehigherthemass,thehigherthe
tensilestrength
4. Repeat the experiment with different samples of same fibre increases
reliability
5. Thefibresbeingtestedshouldalwayshavethesamelength
6. Allvariablesmustbekeptconstante.g.temperature,humidity
7. Youalsoneedtotakesafetymeasureswhendoingthisexperiment,e.g.wear
gogglestoprotectyoureyesandleavetheareawheretheweightswillfall
clear
Independentvariable:sourceandtypeoffibre
Dependentvariable:massthatcanbeheld
Othervariablestobecontrolled:
1. Lengthoffibre
2. Sizeofeachindividualmass
3. Temperature
4. Humidity
Possibleevaluationissues:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Maintaininglenghtsoffibres
Ensuringconsistencywhentwistingorplaiting
Usingfibresofsameage(astheygetolder,theybecomebrittle)
Extractingwholefibresthatareuseful

Investigatingplantmineraldeficiencies
Method:
1. Take30seedlingsofthesameplant(theyshouldbethesameageandheight)
andplanttheminseparatepots
2. Makeupthreenutrientsbroths(definition:liquidmediumcontainingproteins
andothernutrientsforthecultureofbacteria)containingallessentialminerals,
butvarytheconcentrationofcalciumions.Makeuponebrothwithahigh
concentration,onewithmediumandonewithlowconcentrationofcalcium
ions.
3. Splittheplantsintothreegroups.Eachgroupshouldbegivenonlyofthethree
broths.
4. Recordtheheightsoftheplantsafterseveralweeks.Calculateaverageheight
ofeachgroup
5. Duringtheexperiment,itisimportanttokeepallothervariablesthesame
6. Thegreatertheconcentrationofcalcium,themoreplantsgrowthisshows
thatwhencalciumisdeficientthemoretheplantsgrow
Independentvariable:concentrationofmineral
Dependentvariable:physicalcharacteristicsoftheplant(heightinthiscase)
Othervariablestocontrol:
1. Volumeofmineralsolution
2. Speciesofplant
3. Sizeofcontainer

4. Amountoflightreceived
5. Amountofwaterreceived
Possibleevaluationissues:
1. Ensuringaccuratemeasurementsofsolutions
2. Noairbubblescaughtinxylemofgeranium
3. Possiblemicroorganismsgrowthinnutrientsolution
4. Insufficienttimetoseeaneffect

Effectofgarlicandmintonbacterialgrowth
Someplantshaveantimicrobialpropertiestheykillorinhibitthegrowthof
microorganisms
Method:
1. Takeextractsfromtheplantyouwanttotest.Todothisyouneedtodryand
grindeachplant,thensoaktheminethanol(actsassolvent).Theplantsshould
allbethesamesize,sotheamountofextractisthesame.
2. Filterofftheliquidbit(theethanolcontainingthedissolvedplantextract)
3. Youneedsomebacteriatotesttheplantextractonevenlyspreadasample
ofbacteriaontoanagarplate
4. Dipdiscsofabsorbentpaperintheextract.Thediscsofpapershouldallbethe
samesizesotheyabsorbthesamevolumeofliquid
5. Youalsoneedtodoacontroldiscsoakedonlyinethanol(tomakesureitisnt
theethanolorthepaperthatsinhibitingbacterialgrowth)
6. Placethepaperdiscsontheagarplatemakesuretheyrespreadout
7. Incubatetheplatetoallowthegrowthofbacteria
8. Whenbacteriacantgrowtherellbeaclearpatchinthelawnofbacteria.This
iscalledaninhibitionzone.
9. The size of an inhibition zone tells you how well the antimicrobial plant
extractisworking.Thelargerthezone,themoreeffectivetheplantextractis.
Independentvariable:presenceofgarlicormint

Dependentvariable:zoneofinhibitionaroundthedisc
Othervariablestobecontrolled:
1. Concentrationofplantmaterial
2. Lawnofbacteriaonpetridish
3. Contaminationofpetridishbyothermicrobes
4. Samevolumeofplantmaterialoneachdisc
Possibleevaluationissues:
1. Growthofunwantedmicrobesonagarplatesduetobadaseptictechniques
2. Notshakingextractenoughtoensureenoughactiveingredient
3. Inconsistencywhenaddingplantextracttopaperdiscs
4. Contaminatingcontrols
5. Usingwrongspeciesofbacteriaforlawn