2010 Edition

Electric Motors & Drives

Technical Manual

Through the initiative of:

International Copper Association South East Asia

Institute of Integrated Electrical Engineers of the Philippines, Inc.

PREFACE
This publication deals primarily with small and medium-sized induction
motors which are the most common type of alternating current motor.
They are internationally standardized and are efficiently manufactured in
long production runs. The combination of new materials and more
sophisticated methods for calculation, design and production have made
the modern three-phase induction motor a robust and reliable prime
mover.
This publication was made possible through the initiative and support of
the International Copper Association South East Asia and
administered, executed, and implemented by the Institute of Integrated
Electrical Engineers of the Philippines
All information and data contained in this publication is believed to be
reliable, but all recommendations or suggestions are made without
guarantee. Furthermore, suggestions for use of material supplied shall
not be construed as a recommendation or inducement to violate any law
or infringe any patent.

iii

iv

Table of Contents
Section
Title
Motor Specifications
1.1 Nameplate
1.2 Insulation Class
1.3 Enclosure Type
1.4 Temperature Class
1.5 Mounting
1.6 Manufacturers Identification Number
1.7 Terminal Markings
1.8 Motor Design
1.9 Types of Duty
General Characteristics
2.1 System Nominal Voltage
2.2 Voltage
2.3 Power Factor
2.4 Efficiency
2.5 Speed
2.6 Vibration Characteristics and Balancing
2.7 Bearings
2.8 Torque
Asynchronous Motor Starting Systems
3.1 Starting Methods
3.2 Single-phase Motor Starting
Motor Protection and Coordination
4.1 Motors Protection
4.2 Protection Against Short Circuits
4.3 Protection Against Overload
4.4 Multifunction Relays
4.5 Motor Circuit Breakers
Motor Starter Co-ordination
5.1 Concepts
5.2 Solutions
5.3 Motor Overload Protection
5.4 Terminology

Page
1
3
11
19
30
51
55
67
76
103
104
112
113
118
119
141
170
175
187
193
194
203
212
215
219
220
229
241

Motor Efficiency
6.1 Repair-Replace Decision Model
6.2 Premium Efficiency Motors
Installation, Testing, and Maintenance
7.1 Installation and Maintenance
7.2 Description of Routine Tests
7.3 Recommended Winding Tests
7.4 Other Tests
7.5 Motor Starting Capabilities and Considerations
7.6 Maintenance and Reliability
7.7 Maintenance Programs
7.8 Machinery Condition Monitoring
7.9 Maintenance Planning

vi

246
262
273
309
321
322
323
328
332
334
338

Motor Specifications
1.1 Nameplate
Motor standards are established on a country by country basis.
Fortunately though, the standards can be grouped into two major
categories: NEMA and IEC (and its derivatives).
In North America, the National Electric Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) sets motor standards, including what should go on the
nameplate (NEMA Standard MG 1-10.40 "Nameplate Marking for
Medium Single-Phase and Polyphase Induction Motors").
In most of the rest of the world, the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) sets the standards. Or at least many countries base
their standards very closely on the IEC standards (for example,
Germany's VDE 0530 standard and Great Britain's BS 2613 Standard
closely parallel the IEC 34-1 standard).
The NEMA and IEC standards are quite similar, although they
sometimes use different terminology. Thus, if one understands the IEC
nameplate, it is fairly easy to understand a NEMA nameplate, and viceversa as shown in Fig 1.1A and B.

Fig 1.1A Typical IEC Motor Nameplate

Fig. 1.1B Typical NEMA Motor Nameplate

The nameplate of a motor provides important information necessary for

proper application. For example, Fig. 1.1C AC Induction Motor
nameplate shows a 30 horsepower (H.P.) three-phase (3 PH) AC
Induction motor.

Fig. 1.1C AC Induction Motor Nameplate

The following paragraphs explain some of the other nameplate

information for this motor.
Voltage Source (VOLTS) and Full-load Current (AMPS)
AC motors are designed to operate at standard voltages. This motor is
designed to be powered by a three-phase 460 V supply. Its rated full-load
current is 35.0 amps.
Base Speed (R.P.M.) and Frequency (HERTZ)
Base speed is the speed, given in RPM, at which the motor develops
rated horsepower at rated voltage and frequency. Base speed is an
indication of how fast the output shaft will turn the connected equipment
when fully loaded. This motor has a base speed of 1765 RPM at a rated
frequency of 60 Hz.
Service Factor
Service factor is a number that is multiplied by the rated horsepower of
the motor to determine the horsepower at which the motor can be
operated. Therefore, a motor designed to operate at or below its
nameplate horsepower rating has a service factor of 1.0. A 1.15 service
factor motor can be operated 15% higher than its nameplate horsepower.
1.2 Insulation Class
NEMA
NEMA defines motor insulation classes to describe the ability of motor
insulation to handle heat. The four insulation classes are A, B, F, and H.
All four classes identify the allowable temperature rise from an ambient
temperature of 40 C (104 F). Classes B and F are the most commonly
used.
Ambient temperature is the temperature of the surrounding air. This is
also the temperature of the motor windings before starting the motor,
3

assuming the motor has been stopped long enough. Temperature rises in
the motor windings as soon as the motor is started. The combination of
ambient temperature and allowed temperature rise equals the maximum
rated winding temperature. If the motor is operated at a higher winding
temperature, service life will be reduced. A 10 C increase in the
operating temperature above the allowed maximum can cut the motors
insulation life expectancy in half.
Fig.1.2A shows the allowable temperature rise for motors operated at a
1.0 service factor at altitudes no higher than 3300 ft. Each insulation
class has a margin allowed to compensate for the motors hot spot, a
point at the center of the motors windings where the temperature is
higher. For motors with a service factor of 1.15, add 10 C to the allowed
temperature rise for each motor insulation class.

Fig 1.2A Allowable Temperature Rise

Permitted output at high ambient temperature or high altitude above sea
level.
Motors in their standard versions are intended to operate in an ambient
temperature of 40 C maximum and at not more than 1000 meters above
sea level. If the motors are to be used at higher ambient temperatures or
higher altitudes the rated output must normally be reduced by the
percentage shown in the Table 1.2A.

Table 1.2A Reduction of Rated Output at Higher Ambient Temperature

of Altitudes
Ambient Temperature, OC

40

45

50

55

60

Permitted output, % of rated output

100

96.5

93

90

86.5

79

Altitude above sea level

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Permitted output, % of rated output

100

97

94.5

92

89

86.5

83.5

70

Insulation classes
According to EC 85, insulation is divided into insulation classes. Each
class has a designation corresponding to the temperature that is the upper
limit of the range of application of the insulating material under normal
operating conditions and with satisfactory life. If this upper limit
exceeded by 8 to 10 K (see below), the Life of the Insulation will be
approximately halved.
The correct insulation for the winding of a motor is therefore determined
by both the temperature rise in the motor and the temperature of the
ambient air. If a motor is subjected to an ambient temperature higher
than 40 C, it must normally be derated or an insulating material of a
higher class must be used.
According to international standards, temperature is measured in degrees
Celsius (C), whilst temperature difference is stated in the unit Kelvin
(K). 1 Celsius degree is equivalent to 1 K.

Fig 1.2.B - Temperature Limits According to IEC 85

For class F, for instance, the temperature rise must not exceed 105 K,
provided that the ambient temperature does not exceed +40C. This
applies if the resistance measuring method is used. This involves first
measuring the resistance of the winding at ambient temperature, then
running a temperature-rise test of the motor to determine the temperature
in the winding at rated power, then measuring the resistance of the
winding at the end of the test.
The temperature rise is calculated using this formula:

Where:
t2 = temperature of winding at end of temperature-rise test
t1 = temperature of winding before temperature-rise test
ta = temperature of cooling medium at end of temperature-rise
test
R2 = resistance of winding at end of temperature-rise test
R1 = resistance of winding at temperature t1
Constant = 235 for copper winding: 225 for aluminum winding

What this method determines is the mean temperature rise. This is why
an extra thermal margin of 10 K, for example, is reserved between the
mean temperature of the winding and the temperature at its hottest point.
The graph in Fig.1.2.C illustrates the effect of exceeding the highest
permitted winding temperature on the winding life.

Fig.1.2.C - Effect of Winding Temperature on Life of Insulation

Frame Size
Motor frame dimensions have been standardized with a uniform frame
size numbering system. This system was developed by NEMA and
specific frame sizes have been assigned to standard motor ratings based
on enclosure, horsepower and speed.
The current standardized frames for integral horsepower induction
motors ranges from 143T to 445T. These standards cover most motors in
the range of one through two hundred horsepower. Typical example of
where you can locate the frame is shown in Fig 1.2.D Frame No.

Fig 1.2.D Frame No

The numbers used to designate frame sizes have specific meanings based
on the physical size of the motor. Some digits are related to the motor
shaft height and the remaining digit or digits relate to the length of the
motor.
The rerate, or frame size reduction programs were brought about by
advancements in motor technology relating mainly to higher temperature
ratings of insulating materials, improved magnetic steels and improved
bearings. At the present time, NEMA frame assignments do no exist for
motors larger than 445T and each manufacturer may have different frame
designations for these motors.
One additional suffix that may be used on standard motors in frames
286T and larger is an S inserted after the T. This S stands for short
shaft.
In addition to having a short shaft, the motor will have a small diameter
shaft (U dimension) and the bearing in the drive shaft end of the motor
will be somewhat smaller than the equivalent long shaft motor. Short
shaft motors are intended for use only on direct coupled centrifugal
pumps and other direct coupled loads where there will not be a side pull
(overhung load) exerted on the shaft by V belts.
Table 1.2B NEMA Frame Assignment Three-Phase Motors
OPEN MOTORS GENERAL PURPOSE
NEMA
PROGRAM
HP
1
1.5
2
3
5
7.5
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
200
250

ORIG.

3600
RPM
1952
RERATE

1964
RERATE

ORIG.

1800
RPM
1952
RERATE

1964
RERATE

ORIG.

1200
RPM
1952
RERATE

1964
RERATE

ORIG.

900
RPM
1952
RERATE

1964
RERATE

203
204
224
225
254
284
324
326
364S
364S
365S
404S
405S
444S
445S
504S
505S

182
184
184
213
215
254U
256U
284U
286U
324S
326S
364US
365US
404US
405US
444US
445US

143T
145T
145T
182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284TS
286TS
324TS
326TS
364TS
365TS
404TS
405TS
444TS
445TS

203
204
224
225
254
284
324
326
364
364
365
404
405S
444S
445S
504S
505S

182
184
184
213
215
254U
256U
284U
286U
324U
326U
364U
365US
404US
405US
444US
445US

143T
145T
145T
182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284T
286T
324T
326T
364TS*
365TS*
404TS*
405TS*
444TS*
445TS*

204
224
225
254
284
324
326
364
365
404
405
444
445
504U
505

184
184
213
215
254U
256U
284U
324U
326U
364U
365U
404U
405U
444U
445U

145T
182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284T
286T
324T
326T
364T
365T
404T
405T
444T
445T

225
254
254
284
324
326
364
365
404
405
444
445
504U
505

213
213
215
254U
256U
284U
286U
326U
364U
365U
404U
405U
444U
445U

182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284T
286T
324T
326T
364T
365T
404T
405T
444T
445T

* When motors are to be used with v-belt or chain drives, the correct frame size shown but with suffix letter S omitted.

Table 1.2C Suffixes to NEMA Frames

TEFC MOTORS GENERAL PURPOSE
NEMA
PROGRAM
HP
1
1.5
2
3
5
7.5
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
75
100
125
150

ORIG.

3600
RPM
1952
RERATE

1964
RERATE

ORIG.

1800
RPM
1952
RERATE

1964
RERATE

ORIG.

1200
RPM
1952
RERATE

1964
RERATE

ORIG.

900
RPM
1952
RERATE

1964
RERATE

203
204
224
225
254
284
324
326
365S
404S
405S
444S
445S
504S
505S

182
184
184
213
215
254U
256U
284U
324U
326S
364US
365US
405US
444US
445US

143T
145T
182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284TS
286TS
324TS
326TS
364TS
365TS
405TS
444TS
445TS

203
204
224
225
254
284
324
326
364
365
404
405
444S
445S
504S
505S

182
184
184
213
215
254U
256U
284U
286U
324U
326U
364U
365US
405US
444US
445US

143T
145T
145T
182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284T
286T
324T
326T
364TS*
365TS*
405TS*
444TS*
445TS*

204
224
225
254
284
324
326
364
365
404
405
444
445
504U
505

184
184
213
215
254U
256U
284U
324U
326U
364U
365U
404U
405U
444U
445U

145T
182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284T
286T
324T
326T
364T
365T
404T
405T
444T
445T

225
254
254
284
324
326
364
365
404
405
444
445
504U
505

213
213
215
254U
256U
284U
286U
326U
364U
365U
404U
405U
444U
445U

182T
184T
213T
215T
254T
256T
284T
286T
324T
326T
364T
365T
404T
405T
444T
445T

* When motors are to be used with v-belt or chain drives, the correct frame size shown but with suffix letter S omitted.

The following explanations of the various fame suffixes used on NEMA

frame motors have been compiled for the benefit of EASA members. The
suffixes for NEMA frame motors are the letters that immediately follow
the frame numbers. Notice that more than one suffix may be used on any
given motor.
Note: D dimension (shall height) of a motor or generator in these frame sizes
equals 1 /4 the value of the first two digits in the frame number.

Example: 284 frame: 28/4 = 7, D = 7"

A
B

C
CM

D
E

FC
FD

Industrial direct-current machine.

Carbonator pump motors, (See NEMA MG 1-2006,
18.270 18.281)
Type C face mounting on drive end.
Face mounting dimensions are different from those for the
frame designation having the suffix letter C (The letters
CH are considered as one suffix and should not be
separated.)
Type D flange mounting on drive end.
Shaft extension dimensions for elevator motors in frames
larger than 326T frames.
Face mounting on opposite drive end.
Flange mounting on opposite drive end.
9

G
H

Gasoline pump motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.91.)

Indicates a small machine having an F dimension
larger than that of the same frame without the suffix
letter H. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 4.4.1 and 4.5.1.)
HP or HPH Type P flange-mounted, vertical sotid-shaft motors
having dimensions in accordance with NEMA MG 12006, 18.252. (The letters HP and HPH are considered
as one suffix and should not be separated)
J
Jet pump motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.132.)
JM
Face-mounted, close-coupled pump motor having
antifriction bearings and dimensions in accordance with
Table 1 of MG 1-2006, 18.250. (The letters JM are
considered as one suffix and should not be separated.)
JP
Type C face-mounted, close-coupled pump motor having
antifriction bearings and dimensions in accordance with
Table 2 of MG 1 -2006, 18.250. (The letters MP are
considered as one suffix and should not be separated.)
K
Sump pump motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.78.)
LP or LPH Type P flange-mounted, vertical solid-shaft motors
having dimensions in accordance with MG 1-2008, 18251. (The letters LP and LPH are considered as one
suffix and should not be separated.)
M
Oil burner motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.106.)
N
Oil burner motors. (See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18.108.)
P or PH Type P flange-mounted, vertical hollow-shaft motors
having dimensions in accordance with NEMA MG 12006, 18.238.
R
Drive end tapered shaft extension having dimensions in
accordance with NEMA MG 1-2008, 4.4.2.
S
Standard short shaft for direct connection.
T
Included as part of a frame designation for which standard
dimensions have been established.
U
Previously used as part of a frame designation for which
standard dimensions had been established.
V
Vertical mounting only.
VP
Type P flange-mounted, vertical solid-shaft motors
having dimensions in accordance with NEMA MG 12008, 18.237. (The letters VP are considered as one
suffix and should not be separated.)

10

Wound-rotor crane motors with double shaft extension.

(See NEMA MG 1-2006, 18229 and 18.230.)
Special mounting dimensions, (Dimensional diagram
must be obtained from manufacturer.)
All mounting dimensions are standard except the shaft
extension(s). Also used to designate machines with
double shaft extension.

Note: Manufacturers may use any letter preceding the frame number, but
such a letter will have no reference to standard mounting dimensions.

Suffix letters shall be added to the frame number in the following

sequences:
Suffix Letter
Sequence
A, H
1
G, J, M, N, T, U, HP, HPH, JM, JP, LP, LPH, & VP ..........
2
R, S ..................................................................................... 3
C, D, P, PH . 4
FC, FD
5
V .
6
E, X, Y, Z ............................................................................ 7

Example: T frame motor with a C face mounted vertically with a

nonstandard shaft extension; (Sequences 2.4.8 and 7) 184TCVZ.
Note: This material is reproduced by permission of the National Electrical
Manufacturers Association from NEMA Standards, MG 1-2006, 4.2.2.
It was originally published as EASA Tech Note No. 7 (September 1985)
and reviewed and updated as necessary in November 2007.

1.3

Enclosure Type

The enclosure of the motor must protect the windings, bearings, and
other mechanical parts from moisture, chemicals, mechanical damage
and abrasion from grit. NEMA standards MG1-1.25 through 1.27 define
more than 20 types of enclosures under the categories of open machines,
totally enclosed machines, and machines with encapsulated or sealed

11

windings. The most commonly used motor enclosures are open

dripproof, totally enclosed fan cooled and explosionproof.

Fig. 1.3A Shows location of Enclosure Tag

The Standards for IP Codes apply to the classification of degrees of

protection provided by enclosure for all rotating machines. The
designation used for the degree of protection consists of the letter IP
(International Protection) followed by two characteristic numerals.

12

When the degree of protection is specified by only one numeral, the

omitted numeral is replaced by the letter X. For example, IPX5 or IP2X.
The first Characteristic Numeral indicates the degree of protection
provided by the enclosure with respect to persons and also to the parts of
the machine inside the enclosure.
The Second Characteristic Numeral indicates the degree of protection
provided by the enclosure with respect to harmful effect due to ingress of
water.
The two characteristic numerals signify conformity with the conditions
indicated in Table 1.3.A. Degrees of Protection Indicated by the Two
Characteristic Numerals.

Table 1.3.A - Degrees of Protection indicated by the Two

Characteristic Numerals
FIRST
CHARACTERISTIC
NUMERAL

SECOND
CHARACTERISTIC
NUMERAL

DEGREE OF PROTECTION

DEGREE OF PROTECTION

Non-protected machine

Non-protected machine

Machine protected against solid objects

greater than 2 inches (50 mm)
Machine protected against solid objects
greater than 0. 5 inches (12 mm)
Machine protected against solid objects
greater than 0.1 inches (2.5 mm)
Machine protected against solid objects
greater than 0.04 inches (1 mm)
Dust-protected machine

Machine protected against dripping

water
Machine protected against dripping
water when tilted up to 15o
Machine protected against spraying
water
Machine protected against splashing
water
Machine protected against water jets

6*

Dust-tight machine

Machine protected against heavy seas

Machine protected against the effects of

immersion
Machine protected against continuous
submersion

2
3
4

2
3
4

* Not include in IEC 60034-5, 1991 Standards

Reference: NEMA Standards MG-1 2006, 5.8, Tables 5-1, and 5-2.
IEC International Standard IEC 60034-5, 1991.

13

Classification According to Environmental Protection*

IP CODE

CLASSIFICATION

IP CODE

IP 00

Open Machine

IP 22

IP 10

Semi-guarded machine

IP 44

IP 12

Dripproof machine

IP 54

IP 13

Splash-proof machine

IP 55

* Reference: NEMA Standards MG-1 2006, 1.25, 1.26, and 1.27.

14

CLASSIFICATION
Dripproof guarded machine
Totally enclosed pipe-ventilated
machine
Totally enclosed non-ventilated
machine
Water-proof machine

Open Dripproof.
The open dripproof motor (ODP) has a free exchange of air with the
ambient. Drops of liquid or solid particles do not interfere with the
operation at any angle from 0 to 15degrees downward from the vertical.
The openings are intake and exhaust ports to accommodate interchange
of air. The open dripproof motor is designed for indoor use where the air
is fairly clean and where there is little danger of splashing liquid. Refer
to Fig. 1.3A Open Dripproof (ODP)

Fig. 1.3A Open Dripproof (ODP)

Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC).
This type of enclosure prevents the free exchange of air between the
inside and outside of the frame, but does not make the frame completely
airtight. A fan is attached to the shaft and pushes air over the frame
during its operation to help in the cooling process. The ribbed frame is
designed to increase the surface area for cooling purposes. There is also a
totally enclosed non-ventilated (TENV) design which does not use a fan,
15

but is used in situations where air is being blown over the motor shell for
cooling, such as in a propeller fan application. Refer to Fig. 1.3B
Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC) Motor.

Fig. 1.3B Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC) Motor

Explosionproof
The explosionproof motor is a totally enclosed machine and is designed
to withstand an explosion of specified gas or vapor inside the motor
casing and prevent the ignition outside the motor by sparks, flashing or
explosion. These motors are designed for specific hazardous purposes,
such as atmospheres containing gases or hazardous dusts. For safe
operation, the maximum motor operating temperature must be below the
ignition temperature of surrounding gases or vapors. Explosionproof
motors are designed, manufactured and tested under the rigid
requirements of the Underwriters Laboratories.
Hazardous location motor applications are classified by the type of
hazardous environment present, the characteristics of the specific
material creating the hazard, the probability of exposure to the
environment, and the maximum temperature level that is considered safe

16

for the substance creating the hazard. The format used to define this
information is a class, group, division and temperature code structure.

Class I (Gas or Vapor)

Group:
A - Acetylene
B - Hydrogen and Manufactured Gases
C - Ethyl-Ether, Ethylene and Cyclopropane
D - Gasoline, Hexane, Naphtha, Benzine, Butane, Propane,
Alcohol Lacquer Solvent Vapors and Natural Gas
Division II:
Hazard of fire or explosion is present only as a result of an
accident. Motors may be dripproof or TEFC.
Class II (Dusts)
Group:
E - Metal Dust (Special Seals)
F - Carbon Black, Coal or Coke Dust
G - Flour, Starch or Grain Dust
Division I:
Hazard is always present due to normal conditions. (Dust
suspended in the atmosphere.) Motors must be explosionproof
construction with Underwriters label.
Division II:
Motors may be TEFC or externally ventilated:
(A) Where dust deposits on electrical equipment prevent safe
heat dissipation.
(B) Where deposit or dust might be ignited by arcs or
burning material.
Class III (Fibers)
Fibers those are easily ignitable but not apt to be suspended in the air
to produce mixtures. Examples include rayon, nylon, cotton, saw
dust, and wood chips.
Division II:
Location in which easily ignitable fibers are stored or handled
TEFC enclosure can be used if there is a minimal amount of
fibers or flying in the air.

17

Converting from NEMA enclosure classifications to IEC enclosure

classifications
NEMA enclosure classifications are developed by NEMA and used in
the U.S./American market.
Ingress Protection - IP - ratings are developed by the European
Committee for Electro Technical Standardization (CENELEC)
(described IEC/EN 60529), and specifies the environmental protection
and enclosure provided.
The table below can be used to convert from NEMA Enclosure Types to
IEC Enclosure Types:

18

Continuation of

Note: NEMA standards meet or exceed IEC standards. The conversion

does not work in the opposite direction.

1.4

Temperature class

Combustible gas or vapor and explosion-protected electrical equipment

is divided into temperature classes T1 to T6 with regard to the ignition
temperature of the gas or vapor and the maximum surface temperature of
the equipment. Refer to Table1.4A - Temperature Class.
Ignition temperature, thermal flashpoint, is the lowest temperature of a
surface at which a substance ignites on contact with the surface.

19

Table1.4A - Temperature Class

Hazardous area and zones

Hazardous areas are rooms, spaces or areas in which an explosive gas
mixture may occur under conditions such that electrical equipment,
among other things, may have to meet certain requirements.
Hazardous areas are categorized as zones as follows:
Zone 0 - An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is present
continuously or is present for long periods.
Zone 1 - An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is likely to
occur in normal operation.
Zone 2 - An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is not likely
to occur in normal operation and if it does occur it will
exist for a short period only.

It is important that the mechanical design of installations should be such

that hazardous areas should be few and of small extent. It should also be
an aim to make hazardous areas chiefly Zone 2 areas.

20

Motors for Potentially Explosive Atmosphere

The principle of design of explosion-safe motors.
There are two main principles for explosion protection for electric
motors. One is to design the motor so that no dangerous heat or spark
occurs. This includes the increased safety version, EEx e. The other
method is based on isolating any dangerous heat or spark inside the
motor so as to prevent the ignition of any explosive mixture of gases
outside the motor. This includes the version with flameproof enclosure,
EEx d, and the version with pressurized enclosure, EEx p. These are the
three internationally standardized versions that are suitable for motors to
be installed in Zone 1.
The "non-sparking" version, Exn, according to IEC 79-15 (1987) is
intended for use in Zone 2. IEC 79-15 has not yet been transferred to a
national standard, but this is expected to happen after it has been
converted into a European standard in CENELEC. British Standard BS
5000, Part 16 has a similar version.
Increased safety design, EEx e
The motor must not have any parts that, in normal service, produce arcs
or sparks, or reach a dangerous temperature. Special steps must be taken
in the design to prevent the risk of ignition by arcs or sparks or by
excessively high temperature as a consequence of poor contact,
overloading or the like. The temperature limitation applies to internal and
external surfaces.
The degree of protection of the terminal box must not be lower than IP
54 and any enclosure that contains only insulated parts must have at least
IP 44. However, in the case of motors installed in clean areas and
supervised by trained personnel, IP 23 is permitted for motors complying
with explosion group I, i.e. for use in coal mines, and IP 20 for explosion
group II, i.e. other areas. The requirements to be met by the terminal box
are unchanged, however. The limitation of the field of application must
be stated on the motor.

21

The air gap between rotor and stator is subject to certain minimum
dimensions. There are also minimum dimensions for creepage distance
and the air gap between winding leads and earth.
All connections between live parts must be secured so that they cannot
work loose. Cable bushings and the cable branch in the terminal box are
also subject to certain temperature limits. The motors must have both an
internal and an external earthing screw.
Flameproof enclosure, EEx d
The housing of the motor must be so designed that ignition and
combustion of any explosive mixture inside the housing cannot be
propagated to a similar mixture outside the housing and that the housing
can withstand without damage the explosion pressure thus caused.
The motor need not be hermetically sealed; gas may therefore penetrate
the motor. The permitted temperature inside the motor is limited only by
the insulation class of the motor.
The rated output depends on how hot the outer surface of the motor is
permitted to be with regard to the relevant temperature class. Slip-ring
motors, commutator motors and brake motors can all be made in
flameproof versions.
No external parts may cause sparks.
The motors must have both an internal and an external earthing screw.
Pressurized enclosure, EEx p
In this version the motor must be under a given minimum positive
pressure relative to the surroundings, so that the ambient atmosphere
cannot penetrate the motor in service.
The pressurization can take the form of positive pressure with
compensation for leakage or positive pressure with continuous flushing.

22

Monitoring of the winding temperature is recommended in cases where

the pressurization system is also responsible for cooling the motor.
Before the motor is started, it and its associated ducting for supply and
exhaust air must be flushed through with fresh air or a protective gas for
long enough to ensure that any explosive gas mixture has been reliably
removed. The amount of fresh air or protective gas flushed through must
in any case be equivalent to at least five times the total free volume.
A positive pressure of at least 0.5 mbar relative to the ambient pressure
must be maintained in service. If the positive pressure is lost when the
motor is in service, the motor must be automatically disconnected.
The temperature of the outer surface of the motor must not exceed the
stated figures for the temperature class in question.
The motors must have both an internal and an external earthing screw.

Fig. 1.4A Pressurized Enclosure EEx p

23

Special requirements to be met by motors in increased safety version.

EEx e.
Non-sparking design, Exn
This version to IEC 79-15 is a simpler version than EEx e. in general
terms, a normal squirrel-cage motor may be approved, but, as for EEx e,
there are certain minimum requirements for distances between moving
and stationary parts, air gaps and creepage distances between winding
leads and earth.
The motor must be designed so that sparking cannot occur - "nonsparking" design. The outside temperature of the motor is determined in
normal duty. The temperature rise on starting is not included if duty is
continuous.
The degree of protection must be IP 54 for the terminal box and IP 44 for
those parts of the housing that contain only insulated parts. The motors
must have an internal earthing screw and, if requested, an external
earthing screw as well.
There is no mandatory requirement for a certificate from a testing station.
There are national rules for the installation of version Exn motors in zone
2.
Version Ex N to British Standard BS 5000 Part 16 differs in certain
respects from Exn to IEC 79-15.
Following several years of international engagement by CENELEC,
Comite European de Normalization Electrotechnique, common standards
now apply regarding the design and testing of electrical equipment that is
to be used in explosive atmospheres. These standards are based on the
previously issued IEC Publication 79.

24

Only intrinsically-safe circuits of category EEx ia may be used in Zone

0. Motors are thus excluded.
Motors of category EEx d, EEx e and EEx p may be used in Zone 1.
In Zone 2, equipment permitted in zones 0 and 1 may of course be used.
Under certain conditions the equipment, motors for instance, need not be
of explosion-protected design. An example is shown in Fig. 1.4B. These
conditions are as follows; they must all be met:

The degree of protection of the motors must not be below IP 54.

In service they must not produce a temperature of more than 200
C. This requirement applies to both internal and external parts.
In duties S1 (continuous) and S6 (continuous with intermittent
load), the temperature may briefly exceed 200 C in conjunction
with starting.
The motors must not produce sparks or arcs in service.
They must be placed in a hazard area that has been assigned
temperature class T1 to T3.

25

Fig. 1.4B - Example of classification and the extent of the

hazardous areas in a ventilated tank
Temperature limits, IA/IN and time tE for version EEx e
The increased safety design, EEx e, Is the most common type of
explosion-protected motor. They are subject to certain limits on
temperature and on the relationship between the starting ratio lA/lN
(which is the same as lst/l) and the time tE.
Temperature limits
To prevent the ignition of an explosive atmosphere, no part of the motor
may, during starting, during operation at rated output or at a given
overload, for example at the end of the time tE, have a higher
temperature than that stated in the Table 1.4B - Temperature class and
temperature limit in 0C. The temperature depends on the temperature
class of the motor.

26

Table 1.4B. Temperature Class and Temperature Limit in 0C

The temperature limits also apply to uninsulated conductors such as rotor

bars. However, during starting, it is permissible for the temperature of
the rotor to reach 300C maximum.
To maintain the thermal stability of the insulation of the windings, the
temperature limits in the Table 1.4C must be observed.
Table 1.4C - The Temperature Limits

Limit temperature and maximum temperature rise for insulated winding

to temperature Class B and F, measured by the resistance method.
IA/lN and time tE
If a squirrel-cage motor is to remain secure, the motor protection must be
correctly chosen. Current standards lay down that the rating plate of a
motor and the type testing report must state the ratio IA/lN. IA is the
starting current of the motor and IN its full-load current.
The time tE is, also stated. This is the time taken for the stator or rotor
winding to heat up from normal operating temperature at the highest
permitted ambient temperature to the highest permitted limit

27

temperature, with the rotor locked and the stator winding loaded with the
starting current IA. In other words, the highest permitted surface
temperature for the temperature class or the insulation class of the
winding, the lower of the two being the limit.

Fig. 1.4C Surface temperature for the temperature

class or the insulation class
Where:
0
A
B
C

=
=
=
=

temperature 0 C.
maximum ambient temperature, normally 40 C.
temperature at rated output.
maximum permitted temperature at rated output for the
insulation class.
D = limit temperature at rated output for the insulation class or
the temperature class.
E = temperature rise at rated output.
F = temperature rise in locked-rotor test.
G = heating time during F.
Relationship between IA/lN. and tE

The time tE and the ratio IA/lN must be determined and stated so that
suitable current dependent protection can be chosen to protect the motor
from overheating. The value of tE must be such that, when the rotor is
locked, the motor is disconnected by a current-dependent protection
device before the time tE has expired. Generally this is possible if the
time tE for the motor is longer than the value indicated by the curve for
28

the corresponding IA/lN. Values below the curve are only permitted if
specially adapted current-dependent overload protection that has been
proved effective in tests is used. This protection must be identified on the
rating plate of the motor.

Fig. 1.4D - Minimum values of tE as a function of IA/IN

Fig. 1.4D Minimum values of tE as a function of IA/IN where normal
overload relays are used.

Temperature conditions in the stator and rotor of a squirrel-cage motor

with rated output 1.3 kW at maximum permitted ambient temperature 40
C. The time tE is limited by the temperature rise of the stator winding.

29

In no case must the time tE be shorter than 5 seconds, nor must the ratio
IA/IN be greater than 10. If some form of protection other than currentdependent protection is used (temperature sensors built into the motor for
example), IA/IN and tE are not stated. The rating plate of the motor states
how it is protected against overheating.

Temperature conditions in the stator and rotor of a squirrel-cage motor

with rated output 10 kW at maximum permitted ambient temperature 40
C. The time tE is limited by the temperature rise of the rotor winding.
1.5

Mounting

NEMA Dimensions
NEMA has standardized motor dimensions for a range of frame sizes.
Standardized dimensions include bolt-hole size, mounting base
dimensions, shaft height, shaft diameter, and shaft length. Use of
standardized dimensions allows existing motors to be replaced without
reworking the mounting arrangement. In addition, new installations are
easier to design because the dimensions are known.
NEMA divides standard frame sizes into two categories, fractional
horsepower and integral horsepower. The most common frame sizes for

30

fractional horsepower motors are 42, 48, and 56. Integral horsepower
motors are designated by frame sizes 143 and above. A T in the motor
frame size designation for an integral horsepower motor indicates that
the motor is built to current NEMA frame standards.
Motors that have a U in their motor frame size designation are built to
NEMA standards that were in place between 1952 and 1964. The frame
size designation is a code to help identify key frame dimensions. The
first two digits are used to determine the shaft height. The shaft height is
the distance from the center of the shaft to the mounting surface. To
calculate the shaft height, divide the first two digits of the frame size by
4. For example, In Fig. 1.5A - a 143T frame size motor has a shaft height
of 3 inches (14 4).

Fig. 1.5A Importance of Frame Size

The third digit in the integral T frame size number is the NEMA code for
the distance between the center lines of the motor feet mounting bolt
holes. The distance is determined by matching this digit with a table in
NEMA publication MG-1. For example in Fig. 1.5B, the distance
between the center lines of the mounting bolt holes in the feet of a 143T
frame is 4.00 inches.

31

FRAME
SIZE
SERIES
140

160
180
200
210
220
250
280
320

4.00
4.50
5.00
5.25
5.50
6.25
7.00
8.00

Third/Fourth Digit In Frame Number

1
3.50
4.00
4.50
4.50
5.00
5.50
6.25
7.00

4.00
4.50
5.00
5.00
5.50
6.25
7.00
8.00

4.00
4.50
5.00
5.50
5.50
6.25
7.00
8.00
9.00

4.50
5.00
5.50
6.50
6.25
6.75
8.25
9.50
10.50

4.50
5.00
5.50
6.50
6.25
6.75
8.25
9.50
10.50

Fig. 1.5B Importance of Frame Size

IEC Dimensions
IEC also has standardized dimensions, but these dimensions differ from
NEMA standards. An example of the IEC dimensions are shown in the
following drawing.

32

IEC Mounting Dimensions Foot-Mounted AC & DC Machines

33

IEC Flange-Mounted AC & DC Machines Dimensions for Flanges

34

IEC Shaft Extension, Key and Keyseat Dimensions for Continuous

Duty AC Motors.

35

Dimensions for AC Machines Millimeters NEMA Frame

36

37

38

39

Mounting Positions
The typical floor mounting positions are illustrated in the following
drawing, and are referred to as F-1 and F-2 mountings. The conduit box
can be located on either side of the frame to match the mounting
arrangement and position. The standard location of the conduit box is on
the left-hand side of the motor when viewed from the shaft end. This is
40

referred to as the F-1 mounting. The conduit opening can be placed on

any of the four sides of the box by rotating the box in 90 steps.

With modification, a foot-mounted motor can be mounted on a wall and

ceiling.
Typical wall and ceiling mounts are shown in the following illustration.
Wall mounting positions have the prefix W and ceiling mounted
positions have the prefix C.

41

Mounting Faces
It is sometimes necessary to connect the motor directly to the equipment
it drives. In the following example a motor is connected directly to a gear
box.

C-face
The face, or the end, of a C-face motor has threaded bolt holes. Bolts to
mount the motor pass through mating holes in the equipment and into the
face of the motor.

42

43

44

D-flange
The bolts go through the holes in the flange of a D-flange motor and into
threaded mating holes of the equipment.

45

46

47

JM Face Mounted
NEMA FRAME DIMENSIONS*
TYPE JM FACE-MOUNTING,
CLOSED-COUPLED, AC PUMP MOTORS
* DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS

BF
BOLT
PENETRATION
ALLOWANCE

NUMBER

BB
3.5

BD
MAX
168

TAP
SIZE

3/8-16

14

114.30

3.5

168

3/8-16

14

184.15

215.90

228

1/2-13

19

134

184.15

215.90

254

1/2-13

19

31.73

134

279.40

317.5

355

5/8-11

24

31.73

134

279.40

317.5

355

5/8-11

24

FRAME
DESIGNATIONS
143JM and 145JM

U
22.21

AH*
108

AJ
149.25

AK
114.30

182JM and 184JM

22.21

108

149.25

213JM and 215JM

22.21

108

254JM and 256JM

31.73

284JM and 286JM

324JM and 326JM

TAP
SIZE

EN
TAP
DRILL
DEPTH
MAX

BOLT
PENETRATION
ALLOWANCE

KEYSEAT

EP
MIN

FRAME
DESIGNATIONS

EL

EM

143JM and 145JM

29.35

25.40

3/8-16

28

19

30

182JM and 184JM

31.75

25.40

3/8-16

28

19

32

213JM and 215JM

31.75

25.40

3/8-16

28

19

45

254JM and 256JM

44.45

34.92

1/2-13

38

25

45

284JM and 286JM

44.45

34.92

1/2-13

38

25

54

324JM and 326JM

44.45

34.92

1/2-13

38

25

54

EQ*
16.0

ER
MIN
108

R
19.5

ES
MIN
42

S
4.80

ET*
73.0

16.0

108

19.5

42

4.80

73.0

16.0

108

19.5

42

4.80

73.0

16.0

134

28.2

65

6.40

76.5

16.0

134

28.2

65

6.40

76.5

16.0

134

28.2

65

6.40

76.5

Reference: NEMA Standards MG 1-2006, 16.250.

Dimensions, except for tap sizes, are shown in millimeters (rounded off). Tap sizes are in inches.

48

JP Face Mounted
NEMA FRAME DIMENSIONS*
TYPE JM FACE-MOUNTING,
CLOSED-COUPLED, AC PUMP MOTORS
* DIMENSIONS IN MILLIMETERS

BF
NUMBER

TAP
SIZE

BB

BD
MAX

BOLT
PENETRATION
ALLOWANCE

3.5

168

3/8-16

14

3.5

168

3/8-16

14

215.90

228

1/2-13

19

184.15

215.90

254

1/2-13

19

207

279.40

317.5

355

5/8-11

24

31.73

207

279.40

317.5

355

5/8-11

24

41.26

207

279.40

317.5

355

5/8-11

24

FRAME
DESIGNATIONS

AH*

AJ

AK

143JP and 145JP

22.21

186

149.25

114.30

182JP and 184JP

22.21

186

149.25

114.30

213JP and 215JP

31.73

207

184.15

254JP and 256JP

31.73

207

284JP and 286JP

31.73

324JP and 326JP

364JP and 366JP

TAP
SIZE

EN
TAP
DRILL
DEPTH
MAX

BOLT
PENETRATION
ALLOWANCE

KEYSEAT

FRAME
DESIGNATIONS

EL

EM

EP
MIN

EQ*

ER
MIN

ES
MIN

ET*

143JM and 145JM

29.35

25.40

3/8-16

28

19

30

40.0

186

19.5

42

4.80

151.0

182JM and 184JM

31.75

25.40

3/8-16

28

19

32

40.0

186

19.5

42

4.80

151.0

213JM and 215JM

44.45

34.92

3/8-16

38

25

45

60.5

207

28.2

65

6.40

149.5

254JM and 256JM

44.45

34.92

1/2-13

38

25

45

60.5

207

28.2

65

6.40

149.5

284JM and 286JM

44.45

34.92

1/2-13

38

25

54

60.5

207

28.2

65

6.40

149.5

324JM and 326JM

44.45

34.92

1/2-13

38

25

54

60.5

207

28.2

65

6.40

149.5

324JM and 326JM

53.95

44.45

1/2-13

38

25

54

60.5

207

35.9

65

9.55

149.5

49

Mounting arrangements
IEC Publication 347 lays down two ways of stating how a motor is
mounted.
Code I covers only motors with bearing end shields and one shaft
extension.
Code II is a general code.

The table below includes the designations for the most commonly
occurring mounting arrangements according to the two codes.

50

The electric motors execution and assembly type can be seen here

IM..2. = IM.. 0. + IM..1.

IM..4. = IM..0. + IM ..1. IM..3.
IM..8. = The motor must be able to work in all
mounting positions as per IM..0. to
IM..7.
IM..9. = The position of the shat cannot be
specified with the third digit 0 8:
instead it must be specified in each
individual case.

1.6

Manufacturers Identification Number

This model and/or catalog number is used to establish motor identity and
age for replacement parts and warranty.

51

Bearing Part Numbers.

The bearing part numbers on U.S. Motors machines are made

conveniently available on the nameplate so that, when required,
procurement of replacement bearings can be carried out prior to motor
disassembly.
Ball and roller bearings (anti-friction bearings) are manufactured to very
rigid tolerance specifications and must be treated as precision parts to
insure that they don not fail prematurely. American Bearing
Manufacturers Association (ABMA) Standard 20 specifies boundary
dimensions, tolerance classes, and internal clearance for ball and roller
bearings.
Boundary Dimensions
The ID (d), OD (D) and width (B) of bearings are standardized metric
dimensions with the last two digits in the bearing nomenclature
representing the bore size. Beginning with a 20 mm bore, the last two
digits equal the bore in mm divided by 5. The smallest internal diameter
interval is, therefore, 5 mm. This permits the two-digit value to span a
bore range from 20 (04) to 480 mm (96). This system is used on all types
of rolling element bearings.

52

Tolerance Classes
The tolerance classes specified in the ABMA Standards have been
established by the Annular Bearing Engineers Committee (ABEC).
These tolerance classes have been accepted by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) and conform essentially with standards of the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
ABEC Parameters
ABEC Standards, which define tolerances for several major bearing
dimensions and characteristics, are divided into mounting dimensions
and bearing geometry. The geometric tolerances apply to both inner and
outer rings and include:
Bore roundness
Bore runout with side
Bore taper
Race runout with side
Width variation
Radial runout
ABEC standards do not address many other factors that affect bearing
performance and life, including:
Materials
Ball complement number, size and precision
Raceway curvature, roundness and finish
Cage design
Lubricant
ABEC Precision Classes
General purpose ball bearing are manufactured to tolerances in
accordance with precision classes ABEC1, ABEC3, BEC5, ABEC7 and
ABEC9. The ascending numbers indicate stricter tolerances and
additional requirement as found in ABMA Standard 20.

53

Bearing Manufacturer Numbering Systems

The metric system of measurement has been widely adopted by all
bearing manufacturers, which ensures ready interchangeability of most
bearings types and sizes.
Bearings can be identified by using ABMA numbers or by using each
manufacturers discreet numbering system. In either case, it is imperative
that repair firms record the name as well as all of the numbers on each
bearing that is to be replaced. They should also check the nomenclature
designations in catalogs from the makers of the bearings because there
are some variations among manufacturers.

54

Example: 50BC03JPP3 50 mm bore diameter whose

bearing last two digit is 50/5 = 10, standard Deep
Groove Ball Bearing (BC), medium series (03), standard
steel cage (J), double shield (PP), and loose internal fitup
ABMA 3 or C3. The equivalent SKF bearing no. is
6310 ZZ/C3.

55

Example: 50RU03K30 50 mm bore diameter whose

last two digit is 50/5 = 10. RU cylindrical roller
bearing with prefix of NU, medium series (03), brass of
bronze cage (K), internal clearance greater than normal
C3 with standard tolerance. This is equivalent to NU 310
ECJ/C3 for SKF brand. EC - Optimized internal design
incorporating more and/or larger rollers and with
modified roller/end flange contact, J - Pressed steel cage,
roller centred, unhardened and C3 - Radial internal
clearance greater than Normal.

56

Bearing Designation based on ISO

1.7

Terminal Markings

IEC Publication 34-8 lays down that the stator winding, parts of it and
the terminals of A.C motors must be designated with the letters U, V and

57

W. External neutral terminals are designated N. The letters used for the
rotor winding are K, L, M and Q.
1. End points and intermediate points of a winding are indicated by a
digit after the letter, e.g. U1, U2 etc.
2. Parts of the same winding are designated by a digit before the
letter, e.g. 1U1, 2U1 etc. If there is no possibility of confusion, the
digit before the letter, or both, may be omitted.

Terminal Markings and Connections

Single-Phase Motors Capacitor-start, NEMA Nomenclature

58

The switch in the auxiliary winding circuit has been omitted from this
diagram. The connections to the switch must be made so that both
auxiliary windings become de-energized when the switch is open
ROTATION:

CC Counter- clockwise
CW - Clockwise

The direction of shaft rotation can be determined by facing the end of the
motor opposite the drive.

(NEMA Standards MG 1-2006, 2.41. Note: May not apply for some
definite-purpose motors.)

59

Three-Phase Motors Part-Winding Start

60

61

Three-Phase Motors Reduced-Current Starting

62

Three Phase Motors Single Speed

63

64

Three-Phase Motors Two Speed, Single Winding

65

Dahlander Motors
Two speed motor with a re-connectible winding (Dahlander
Connection)

Two-speed motor with two separate windings

Note the two-speed motors with re-connectible windings (Dahlander

connection) have a higher rated output than the corresponding size with
separate windings.

66

1.8

Motor Design

NEMA Design Letter

Changes in motor windings and rotor design will alter the performance
characteristics of induction motors. Motors are designed with certain
speed torque characteristics to match the speed torque requirements of
the various loads. To obtain some uniformity in application, NEMA has
designated specific designs of general purpose motors having specified
locked rotor torque, breakdown torque, slip, starting current, or other
values. The following graph shows the relationship between speed and
torque that the motor produces from the moment of start until the motor
reaches full load torque at rated speed.

67

Locked rotor torque, or starting torque, is developed when the rotor is

held at rest with the rated voltage and frequency applied. This condition
occurs each time a motor is started. When rated voltage and frequency
are applied to the stator, there is a brief amount of time before the rotor
turns. At this instant, a NEMA B motor develops approximately 150% of
its full load torque.
The magnetic attraction of the rotating magnetic field will cause the rotor
to accelerate. As the motor picks up speed, torque decreases slightly until
it reaches pull up torque. As the speed increases the torque increases
until it reaches its maximum at about 200%. This is called breakdown,
pullout or stall torque.
Torque decreases rapidly as speed increases beyond breakdown torque
until it reaches full-load torque at a speed slightly less than 100% of
synchronous speed. Full load torque is the torque developed when the
motor is operating with rated voltage, frequency and load. The speed at
which full-load torque is produced is the slip speed or rated speed of the
motor.
Minimum acceptable values for different motor designs have been
established and are identified by the letters A, B, C and D. The general
shapes of the four typical torque-speed characteristics are shown here.

68

NEMA Design A, B, C, D
NEMA has established four different designs - A, B, C and D - for
electrical induction motors.
Different motors of the same nominal horsepower can have varying
starting current, torque curves, speeds, and other variables. Selection of a
particular motor for an intended task must take all engineering
parameters into account.
The four NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) designs
have unique speed-torque-slip relationships making them suitable to
different type of applications:
NEMA design A
Has maximum 5% slip, high to medium starting current, normal locked
rotor torque, normal breakdown torque, and suited for a broad variety of
applications - as fans and pumps.

69

NEMA design B
Has maximum 5% slip, low starting current, high locked rotor torque,
normal breakdown torque, suited for a broad variety of applications,
normal starting torque - common in HVAC application with fans,
blowers and pumps.
NEMA design C
Has maximum 5% slip, low starting current, high locked rotor torque,
normal breakdown torque, and suited for equipment with high inertia
starts - as positive displacement pumps.
NEMA design D
Has maximum 5% slip, low starting current, very high locked rotor
torque, and suited for equipment with very high inertia starts - as cranes,
hoists etc.
IEC Design
Motors covered by this IEC standard are classified by the following
designs:
Design N
Normal torque three-phase cage induction motors intended for direct-online starting, having 2, 4, 6, or 8 poles and rated from 0.4 kW to 630 kW
at frequencies of 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
Design NY
Motors similar to design N, but intended for star-delta starting. For these
motors in star-connection, minimum values for Tl and TU of 25% of the
values of design N as shown in Table 1.8A may be expected.

70

Table 1.8A Minimum Values of Torque for

Design N Starting Performance

Design H
High torque three-phase cage induction motors with 4, 6 or 8 poles,
intended for
Direct-online starting, and rated from 0.4 kW to 160 kW at a frequency
of 60 Hz. Torques of IEC Design H are nearly identical to NEMA
Design C.
Design HY
Motors similar to design H but intended for star-delta starting. For these
motors in star-connection, minimum values for T1 and TU of 25% of the
values of Design H as shown in Table 1.8B may be expected.

71

Table 1.8B Minimum Values of Torques for Design H

Notes:
1.
2.
3.

The values of Tl are 1.5 times the corresponding values for design N
starting performance, but arc not less than 2.0.
The values of Tu are 1.5 times the corresponding values for design N
starting performance, but are not less than 1.4.
The values of Tb are equal to the corresponding values for design N
starting performance, but are not less than 1.9 and the values of Tu.

Design N starting torque

The starting torque is represented by the locked rotor torque Tl, pull-up
torque Tu and breakdown torque Tb, each expressed as a per unit value
of the rated torque TN, and shall be in accordance with the appropriate
values given in Table 1.8A. These values are minimum values at rated
voltage, with no tolerance. Higher values are allowed.
The starting torque at any speed between zero and that at which
breakdown torque occurs shall be not less than 1.3 times the torque
obtained from a curve varying as the square of the speed and being equal
to rated torque at rated speed.
Note. The factor 1.3 has been chosen with regard to an undervoltage of
10% in relation to the rated voltage at the motor terminals during the
acceleration period.

72

Design N locked rotor apparent power

The locked rotor apparent power S1, is the apparent power input
expressed as a per unit value of the rated output PN. This value shall be
not greater than the appropriate value given in Table 1.8C. The values
given in Table 1.8C are independent of the number of poles and are
maximum values at rated voltage, with no tolerance.
Table 1.8C.

Design N starting requirements

Motors of design N shall satisfy the following starting requirements:
1. They shall allow two starts in succession (coasting to rest
between starts) from cold conditions or one start from hot after
running at rated conditions. The retarding torque due to the
driven load is in each case proportional to the square of the speed
and equal to the rated torque at rated speed with the external
inertia given in Table 1.8D.
2. In each case a further start is permissible only if the motor
temperature before starting does not exceed the steady
temperature at rated load.
Note. It should be recognized that the number of starts should be
minimized since these affect the life of the motor.

The values given are in terms of mr2 (m = mass; r = mean radius of

gyration).
Note. Moment of inertia is defined in ISO Publication 31/111 1978, No. 39.1.

73

Table 1.8D

For intermediate output values, external inertia shall be calculated

according to the following formula, from which the values in the table
have been calculated:
I = 0.04 P0.9 p2.5 kg m2
where:

P is the power in kW and

p is the number of pairs of poles.

Design NY starting requirements

The starting requirements are as for design N. In addition, however, a
reduced retarding torque is necessary as the starting torque in 'star' may
be insufficient to accelerate some loads to an acceptable speed.

74

Design H starting torque

The starting torque is represented by the locked rotor torque Tl, pull-up
torque TU and breakdown torque Tb, each expressed as a per unit value
of the rated torque TN, and shall be in accordance with the appropriate
values given in Table 1.8B - Minimum values of torques for Design H
starting performance. These values given are per unit TN. These values
are minimum values at rated voltage, with no tolerance. Higher values
are allowed.
Design H locked rotor apparent power
The locked rotor apparent power S, is the apparent power input
expressed as a per unit value of the rated output PN. This value shall be
not greater than the appropriate value given in Table 1.8C. The values in
Table 1.8C are independent of the number of poles and are maximum
values at rated voltage, with no positive tolerance.
Design H starting requirements
Motors of design H shall satisfy the following starting requirements:
1. They shall allow two starts in succession (coasting to rest
between starts) from cold conditions, or one start from hot after
running at rated conditions. The retarding torque due to the
driven load is assumed to be constant and equal to rated torque,
independent of speed, with an external inertia of 50% of the
values given in Table1.8D.
2. In each case a further start is permissible only if the motor
temperature before starting does not exceed the steady
temperature at rated load.
Design HY starting requirements
The starting requirements are as for design H. In addition, however, a
reduced retarding torque is necessary as the starting torque in 'star' may
be insufficient to accelerate some loads to an acceptable speed.

75

1.9

Types of duty

Definitions
Various types of duty have been defined in terms of how the load, and
thus the output of the motor, varies with time. The rated output for each
type of duty is determined in a load test which the motor must undergo
without the temperature limits laid down in IEC Publication 34-1 being
exceeded.
Actual operating conditions are often of a more irregular nature than
those corresponding to any of the standardized types of duty. It is
therefore essential, both when choosing a motor and when rating and
testing it, to decide on the type of duty that corresponds best to the
thermal stresses that are expected to occur in practice.
IEC (the International Electrotechnical Commission) uses nine duty
cycle designations to describe electrical motor operating conditions:

76

S1 Continuous duty
Operation at constant load long enough for thermal equilibrium to be
reached.

S2 Short-time duty
Operation at constant load for a given time that is shorter than the time
needed to reach thermal equilibrium, followed by a rest and de-energized
period long enough to allow the motor to reach a temperature that does
not deviate from the temperature of the cooling medium by more than 2
K.

77

S3 Intermittent duty
A sequence of identical duty cycles, where each cycle is in two parts, one
at constant load and the other at rest and de-energized, in this type of
duty the starting current has no significant effect on the temperature rise.
The duty cycle is too short for thermal equilibrium to be reached.

S4 Intermittent duty with starting

A sequence of identical duty cycles, where each cycle consists of a start
that is long enough to have a significant effect on the temperature of the
motor, a period at constant load and a period at rest and de-energized, in
this type of duty the starting current has no significant effect on the
temperature

78

S5 Intermittent duty with electrical braking

A sequence of identical duty cycles, where each cycle consists of a start,
a period at constant load followed by rapid electrical braking and a rest
and de-energized period. The duty cycles are too short for thermal
equilibrium conditions to be reached.

S6 Continuous-operation periodic duty

A sequence of identical duty cycles, where each cycle is in two parts, one
at constant load and the other at no-load. No rest and de-energized
period. The duty cycles are too short for thermal equilibrium conditions
to be reached.

79

S7 Continuous-operation periodic duty with electrical braking

A sequence of identical duty cycles, where each cycle consists of a start
and a period at constant load, followed by electrical braking. No rest and
de-energized period. The duty cycles are too short for thermal
equilibrium conditions to be reached.

S8 Continuous-operation periodic with related load/speed changes

A sequence of Identical duty cycles, each cycle consisting of a period of
operation at constant load corresponding to a predetermined speed,
followed by one or more periods of operation at other constant loads
corresponding to different speeds. There is no rest and de-energized
period.

80

Duty with non-periodic load speed variations

A duty in which generally load and speed are varying non-periodically
within the permissible operating range. This duty includes frequently
applied overloads that may greatly exceed the full loads. For this duty
type suitable full load values should be taken as the basis of the overload
concept.

Direction of rotation
If the mains supply is connected to the stator terminals marked U, V and
W of a three-phase motor, and the phase sequence of the mains is L1, L2,
L3, the motor will rotate clockwise as viewed from the drive end. For the
opposite direction of rotation, interchange two of the three wires
connected to the starter switch or the motor.

Fig. 1.9 - Normal direction of rotation is clockwise as viewed from

the D-end.

81

Braking
Mechanical braking
Mechanical braking with magnetic lifting is the technique most widely
used for the braking of electric motors. At standstill brakes of this type
provide a holding torque, and are therefore used where loss of braking in
the event of power failure could be dangerous. However, in certain cases
it may be necessary to lift the brake without starting the motor. This can
be done by supplying the brake coil from a separate power source, or
with a manual release device.
The mechanical brakes used for electric motors are shoe, multiple-plate
or disc brakes. ABB Motors brakes are disc brakes with asbestos-free
brake pads or linings.

Fig. 2.0 Mechanical Braking

During braking, the braking torque is constant with mechanical braking.

At standstill the brake has a holding torque. On some brakes the braking
torque can be reduced for softer deceleration. When the motor is started
again, the holding torque ceases automatically.

82

Electrical Braking
Countercurrent braking
With countercurrent braking, an ordinary standard motor is switched at
full speed for the opposite direction of rotation. This can be done with a
reversing switch. After braking to a standstill, the motor starts in the
opposite direction of rotation, unless the current is switched off at the
right moment. A low speed detector is therefore used to cut off the
supply to the motor when the speed approaches zero.
Countercurrent braking gives a very high braking torque. The current
during braking is about the same as during starting, so that there is a
considerable temperature rise in the motor. Consequently the permitted
frequency of braking with the countercurrent technique is only about
one-quarter of the number of permitted brakings for a brake motor. Since
the permitted frequency of braking can easily be exceeded with
countercurrent braking, temperature sensors should always be used to
protect the motor windings from overheating.
For squirrel-cage motors the braking time can be calculated
approximately with the formula:

Where:
tb
K1
Jm
Jb

=
=
=
=

Mmax =
Mstart =

braking time, s
constant depending on number of poles. See table
below.
moment of inertia of motor, kgm2
moment of inertia of load, referred to speed of motor,
kgm2
maximum torque of motor, Nm
starting torque of motor, Nm

83

For slip-ring motors the starting and braking times are both determined
by the dimensioning of the rheostatic starter. With countercurrent
braking there is no braking action in the event of power failure. The
technique is therefore unsuitable for use in plant where loss of braking
could cause danger.
Direct-current braking
When braking with this technique, the A.C. supply to the motor is
disconnected and the stator is excited with direct current instead; this
causes the motor to produce a braking torque.
An ordinary standard motor and suitable equipment for D.C. excitation
may be used. The A.C. voltage follows a decay curve, and the D.C.
voltage must not be connected until the A.C. voltage has fallen to a value
at which it will not harm the D.C. equipment.
Direct-current braking gives a far longer braking time than
countercurrent braking, however high the excitation current is, but
thermal losses are lower, so more frequent braking is permissible.
Derating Factors
Several factors can affect the performance of an AC motor. These must
be considered when applying a motor.
Voltage Variation
As previously discussed, AC motors have a rated voltage and frequency.
Some motors have connections for more that one rated voltage. The
following table shows the most common voltage ratings for NEMA
motors.

84

A small variation in supply voltage can have a dramatic affect on motor

performance. In the following chart, for example, when voltage is 10%
below the rated voltage of the motor, the motor has 20% less starting
torque. This reduced voltage may prevent the motor from getting its load
started or keeping it running at rated speed.
A 10% increase in supply voltage, on the other hand, increases the
starting torque by 20%. This increased torque may cause damage during
startup. A conveyor, for example, may lurch forward at startup. A
voltage variation also causes similar changes in the motors starting and
full-load currents and temperature rise.

85

Frequency
A variation in the frequency at which the motor operates causes changes
primarily in speed and torque characteristics. A 5% increase in
frequency, for example, causes a 5% increase in full-load speed and a
10% decrease in torque.

Altitude
Standard motors are designed to operate below 3300 feet. Air is thinner,
and heat is not dissipated as quickly above 3300 feet. Most motors must
be derated for altitudes above 3300 feet. The following chart shows
typical horsepower derating factors, but the derating factor should be
checked for each motor. A 50 HP motor operated at 6000 feet, for
example, would be derated to 47 HP, providing the 40C ambient rating
is still required.

Example: 50 HP x 0.94 = 47 HP
Ambient Temperature
The ambient temperature may also have to be considered. The ambient
temperature requirement may be reduced from 40C to 30C at 6600 feet
on many motors. However, a motor with a higher insulation class may
not require derating in these conditions.

86

Earthing of machines
Machines shall be provided with means for connecting a protective
conductor or an earth conductor, such means being identified by the
appropriate symbol or legend. This requirement does not apply to
machines with supplementary insulation, to machines with rated voltages
up to and including 50 VAC or 120 VDC (see IEC 60364-4-41, clause
411 and IEC 60449), or to machines for assembling in apparatus with
supplementary insulation.
In the case of machines having rated voltages greater than 50 VAC or
120 VDC, but not exceeding 1 000 VAC, or 1 500 VDC, the terminal for
the earth conductor shall be situated in the vicinity of the terminals for
the line conductors, being placed in the terminal box, if one is provided.
Machines having rated outputs in excess of 100 kW (or kVA) shall have
in addition an earth terminal fitted on the frame.
Machines for rated voltages greater than 1 000 VAC or 1 500 VDC shall
have an earth terminal on the frame, for example an iron strap, and in
addition, a means inside the terminal box for connecting a conducting
cable sheath, if any.
For other cross-sectional areas of live conductors, the earth or protective
conductor shall have a cross-sectional area at least equivalent to:
1. That of the live conductor for cross-sectional areas less than 25
mm2;
2. 25 mm2 for cross-sectional areas between 25 mm2 and 50 mm2;
3. 50 % of that of the live conductor for cross-sectional areas
exceeding 50 mm2
The earth terminal shall be identified in accordance with IEC 60445.

87

Speed Control
General
The relationship between rotational speed, supply frequency, number of
poles and slip for induction motors is usually written:

In principle the speed can be controlled by changing the number of poles,

the slip or the frequency. All three possibilities are used.
Changing the number of poles
There are three ways to change the number of poles in an induction
motor. The stator can be given:
1. Two or more separate windings
2. A pole changing winding
3. Combinations of the above
Two-speed motors with separate windings
Having separate windings makes it possible to combine different
numbers of poles with considerable freedom, but the method does not
utilize the motor well, since only half the stator winding is in use at each
speed, in principle the possible rated power at each speed will thus only
be half that of a single-speed motor of the same size. In addition, the
stator and rotor cores are normally dimensioned for a given number of
poles. This may also impose certain limitations on ways in which
different numbers of poles can be combined in a given core design.

88

Two-speed motors with pole changing winding

There are several ways of achieving a pole changing winding in order to
utilize a motor better than with two separate windings, but some limits
are set by the need for the switchgear to be kept simple. The most widely
used systems are the Lindstrom-Dahlander connection, often simply
called the Dahlander connection, and PAM, Pole Amplitude Modulation.
The Dahlander connection gives a pole number ratio of 1:2. The winding
of each phase is in two parts connected in series. These are two common
applications that use Dahlander pole-changing:

"Constant torque", where the rated torque of the motor is

approximately the same at both speeds. The ratio between the
rated outputs is about 3:2. This is achieved by connecting the
windings in double star for the higher speed and in delta for the
lower speed. This is usually represented in catalogues by the
symbols YY/.
"Fan torque", where the torque varies as the square of the speed.
"Falling torque" and "square-law torque" are other terms used for
this. The ratio between the rated outputs at the two speeds is
about 1:5. This is achieved by connecting the windings in double
star for the higher speed and in star for the lower speed. This is
usually represented in catalogues by the symbols YY/Y.

PAM
PAM (pole amplitude modulation) makes it possible to design a twospeed motor with a stator winding for pole number ratios other than 2:1.
Pole number changing is achieved by changing the direction of the
current in part of the winding, thus varying the excitation in the same
way as with the Dahlander arrangement. Among the advantages of PAM
is that a given motor size can be better utilized and a higher rated power
can be extracted from it. Just as with the Dahlander connection, constanttorque or fan-torque versions are possible.

89

Multi-speed motors
A pole changing winding can also be combined with another winding.
This winding can be for a single speed or it too can be a pole-changing
winding. In this way, three or even four-speed motors can be made. Even
so, such motors are uncommon.
Examples of stator windings and connection arrangements with different
types of multi-speed motor There may be other variants.

1) Dahlander or PAM connected

2) For 8/6/4 poles, for example. One of the windings is Dahlanderor PAM- connected.
3) The winding can also be delta-connected.
Slip-ring motor with control rheostat
A simple way of controlling the speed of a slip-ring motor is to connect
an external rheostat (variable resistor) to the rotor winding.
If the load torque, and with it the rotor current, is kept constant, an
increase in the rotor resistance will lead to increased slip. However, the
motor speed will be highly load dependent. This type of speed control,
often called slip control, is therefore only used where there are small load
variations, for example with pumps, or where the speed can be
continuously monitored and the rheostat setting adjusted to suit the
torque, with cranes for example.

90

Thus the power supplied to the motor is always constant, regardless of

the speed, whilst the output of the motor decreases in proportion to the
speed. This means that the difference between the power output with the
rheostat fully in circuit and fully out of circuit is consumed in the
rheostat itself. Assuming for simplicity that the load torque is constant
and the speed is reduced by 25%, for example, the power output will be
75% and the remaining 25% is dissipated in the rheostat. This type of
speed control is therefore highly inefficient.
2.3

Converter control

Primary voltage control

For small changes the slip (s) can be approximately defined as:

Reduction of the primary voltage by means of thyristor-type voltage

regulators is a speed control technique that is suitable for certain
applications. The motor to be controlled should have an adapted torque
characteristic, which is achieved by means of increased rotor resistance.
A slip-ring motor with external rheostat is therefore suitable. This control
method is often used for cranes and similar applications, where the high
losses in the rotor circuit are acceptable because the total running time is
limited.
Rotor power feedback
If the speed of a large induction motor is to be reduced for a long time,
the methods described above would be uneconomical because of rotor
losses. Modern thyristor frequency converters provide quick, stepless
control and, because they feed any losses back to the supply, high
efficiency.

91

The basic principle of this form of speed control is that the rotor power is
taken out via the slip-rings and rectified in a conventional uncontrolled
rectifier. The voltage is then converted into alternating voltage in a
controlled inverter and fed back to the supply via a transformer. The
amount of power fed back to the supply can be varied by varying the
firing angle in the inverter.

Fig. 2.3A Typical torque/speed diagram for pump and fan duty
with speed control using a slip recovery system.

This method of operation is comparable to dual supply of slip-ring

induction motors. If the rotor is supplied with an external voltage,
synchronous speeds will be obtained, which are dependent on the
frequency of the external voltage.
With converter control the character of the torque/speed curve is
different from that of the normal slip-ring motor, and the speed will be
less dependent on the load.
For accurate speed regulation, the motor is usually fitted with a tachogenerator or pulse generator connected to the controller.

92

Converter control gives deviations from the normal sinusoidal shape of

the current in the rotor circuit. These results in additional thermal losses,
and these must be compensated for by choosing a slightly larger motor.
Reduced cooling due to constant load torque at reduced speed may also
need to be compensated for by choosing a slightly larger motor or using
forced cooling. There is no need to do this where the load torque follows
a square law.
Current harmonics in the rotor circuit give small torque pulsations at a
frequency of six times the secondary frequency, i.e. the slip frequency.
The shaft system must therefore be checked to ensure that it does not
suffer harmful resonance stresses.
Voltage and frequency control
The most attractive way of controlling motor speed is to control the
voltage and frequency simultaneously.
Fig. 2.3B shows how the torque/speed curve varies when the frequency
is reduced and the primary voltage is changed in proportion to the
frequency. The maximum torque remains the same, and the motor can be
loaded at constant torque within the control range.

Fig. 2.3B - Examples of torque curves at different frequencies

and with voltage proportional to frequency.

93

If the rated voltage of the motor corresponds to the supply voltage, the
motor cannot be controlled to a speed higher than the rated speed if the
load torque is to be maintained, since the inverter cannot provide a
voltage higher than the supply voltage.
Another limit to higher speeds has to do with rotor design. Particularly in
large motors for high speeds, control to higher speeds is determined by
the critical speed of the motor and the highest permitted runaway speed.
One possible result of a wide speed range is that cooling of the motor
might be insufficient at low speed and high torque, making it necessary
to provide extra cooling. Alternatively, an over dimensioned motor must
be chosen.
Standard motors are generally used with frequency control, in any case
for the lower power ranges. Standard motors are dimensioned for a fairly
high starting torque. The shape of the rotor bars is often such that large
amounts of heat are produced at the top of the bars during starting, when
the rotor frequency is high. Because of the high harmonic losses, this
type of rotor bar design is a disadvantage in frequency converter
operation, in view of the high harmonic content of the supply voltage.
After all, there is no need for a high starting torque when starting with a
frequency converter and it may be preferable to use a different rotor bar
shape.

Fig. 2.3C - Schematic diagram of a frequency converter

94

CTU On-load switch and contactor

LCU Rectifier
CBU Intermediate filter
INU Inverter
CP1 Control unit

Fig. 2.3D - Complete frequency converter

Commutator Motor
A motor that has come to be widely used for uninterrupted speed control
is the commutator motor, also known as the Schrage motor, after its
inventor, in principle it is an induction motor with built-in control gear.
Unlike ordinary induction motors the commutator motor has its primary
winding in the rotor; the winding is fed from the supply via slip rings.
The rotor slots that contain the primary winding also contain a
commutator winding, essentially in the form of a D.C. winding. The
secondary winding is in the stator.
The normal control range is 1 to 10, but it can be extended to 1 to 100 in
special cases. So that full torque can be drawn from the motor over the
entire control range, these motors are often fitted with a built-on
separately driven fan.

95

Common fields of application include printing presses, packaging

machines and ski-lifts.
Speed control is achieved by supplying the secondary winding in the
stator with a control voltage at the slip frequency from the commutator
winding, via brushes running on the commutator. By moving the brushes
the control voltage to the secondary winding can be varied continuously
and stepless, so varying the speed. The speed is stable; the effect of load
variations is insignificant.

Fig. 2.3D - Three-phase commutator motor.

Fig. 2.3E - Examples of brush positions on a commutator motor.

Ust = control voltage
sUs = secondary voltage
s
= slip at no load

96

Fig. 2.3F - Torque curves for three different brush positions

As the figure shows, the characteristics of the torque curves are such that
the change in speed for varying load is insignificant over the normal
speed range.
2.4

Motor Efficiency

Efficiency is reflected in the nameplate as shown in Fig. 2.4.A. Motor

efficiency is the percentage of the energy supplied to the motor that is
converted into mechanical energy at the motors shaft when the motor is
continuously operating at full load with the rated voltage applied.
Because motor efficiencies can vary among motors of the same design,
the NEMA nominal efficiency percentage on the nameplate is
representative of the average efficiency for a large number of motors of
the same type.
Both NEMA and the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct) specify the
same process for testing motor efficiency. EPAct also specifies the
efficiency requirements for a large class of AC motors manufactured
after 1997. In 2001, NEMA established the NEMA Premium designation
for three-phase AC motors that meet even higher efficiency standards
than required by EPAct. Siemens High Efficient motors meet or exceed
EPAct efficiency standards and our NEMA Premium Efficient motors
with our new copper rotor technology exceed NEMA Premium
efficiency standards.

97

Fig. 2.4.A Efficiency

98

99

100

101

102

General Characteristics
2.1

System Nominal Voltages

There continues to be some confusion between the system or services

voltage and utilization or equipment voltage. Table below provides these
relationships for the normal range A and for range B when the
voltage moves outside of the normal voltage range.
NOMINAL
SYSTEM
VOLTAGE

Three
-wire

120/240

240

Four-wire

Utilization
Voltage

Service
Voltage

110
110/120

114
114/228

208Y/120

191Y/110

240/120

220/120
220
440Y/254
440
550
2160
3740Y/2160
3740
4320
6210

480Y/277

480
600
2400

VOLTAGE RANGE A
Minimum
Maximum

4160Y/2400

4160
4800
6900
8320Y/4800
12000Y/6930

Utilization and
Service Voltage
Single-Phase Systems

VOLTAGE RANGE B
Minimum
Maximum
Utilization
Voltage

Service
Voltage

Utilization and
Service Voltage

126
126/252

106
106/212

110
110/220

127
127/254

197Y/114

218Y/126
252/126

228
456Y/263
456
570
2340
4050Y/2340
4050
4680
6730
8110Y/4680
11700Y/6760

252
504Y/291
504
630
2520
4370Y/2520
4370
5040
7240
8730Y/5040
12600Y/7270

184Y/106
(Note d)
212/106
212
424/245
424
530
2080
3600Y/2080
3600
4160
5940

191y/110
(Note d)
220/110
220
440Y/254
440
550
2280
3950Y/2280
3950
4560
6560
7900Y/4560
11400/6580

220Y/127

228/114

Three-Phase Systems

220/127
254
508Y/293
508
635
2540
4400Y/2540
4400
5080
7260
8800Y/5080
12700Y/7330

Standard Nominal System Voltages and Voltage Ranges (ANSI C84.1-1995).

Application of Voltage Ranges

According to ANSI C84.1.2.4.1, applications of voltage ranges are as
follows.
C84.1.2.4.1 Range A Service Voltage. Electric supply systems shall
be so designed and operated that most service voltages will be within the
limits specified for Range A. The occurrence of service voltages
outside of these limits should be infrequent.
C84.1.2.4.2 Range A Utilization Voltage. User systems shall be so
designed and operated that with service voltages within Range A
limits, most utilization voltages will be within the limits specified for this
range. Utilization equipment shall be designed and rated to give fully
satisfactory performance throughout this range.

103

C84.1.2.4.3 Range B Service and Utilization Voltages. Range B

includes voltages above and below Range A limits that necessarily
result from practical design and operating conditions on supply or user
systems, or both. Although such conditions are a part of practical
operations, they shall be limited in extend, frequency, and duration.
When they occur, corrective measures shall be undertaken within a
reasonable time to improve voltages to meet Range A requirements.
Insofar as practicable, utilization equipment shall be designed to give
acceptable performance in the extremes of this range of utilization
voltages, although not necessarily as good performance as in Range A.
It must be recognized that because of conditions beyond the control of
the supplier or user, or both, there will be infrequent and limited periods
when sustained voltages outside of Range B limits will occur.
Utilization equipment may not operate satisfactorily under these
conditions, and protective devices may operate to protect the equipment.
When voltage occurs outside the limits of Range B, prompt corrective
action is recommended. The urgency for such as location and nature of
load or circuits involved and magnitude and nature of the deviation
beyond Range B limits.
2.2

Voltage

Single-speed three-phase motors (i.e. motors without pole changing) can

usually be reconnected for two voltages. The usual way is to connect the
three stator phase windings in star (Y) or delta ().
Another way is to connect the windings in series or parallel, Y or YY for
instance.
So if the rating plate of a three-phase motor shows voltages for both Yand connection, this means that the motor can be used for both 440 V
and 220 V, for example. At 220 V the winding is connected in by
placing the connecting links as shown in the left-hand part of Fig 2.1A. If
the supply voltage is 440 V, Y- connection is used, and the strips are
connected as shown in the right-hand diagram.

104

Fig. 2.1A - Arrangement of windings and terminal

blocks for - Y- Connection
Voltage Deviation
If the supply voltage at constant output power deviates from the rated
voltage of the motor, the starting and maximum torques of the motor
vary approximately as the square of the voltage. The change in torque
will also result in a change in the speed. The efficiency and the power
factor are also affected.

105

Voltage deviations also affect the temperature rise in the winding of the
motor. If the voltage is low, the temperature rises in both small and large
motors; if the voltage is high the temperature may drop slightly in large
motors, but rises sharply in motors with small output powers. It is
therefore essential to dimension the windings generously enough to
ensure that there is no significant voltage drop in them on starting or in
service.

Another effect is shown below, for every 100C increase in winding

temperature, the expected thermal life of the winding is reduced by half.
There may also be notable decrease in bearing lubricant life as the
operating temperature of the motor increases.

106

Unbalance Voltage
Far too many assumptions are made when dealing with the symmetry of
a voltage supply. In order to accurately assess the quality of the voltage
supply, it is necessary to verify it at a number of places within the service
and over a reasonable period of time and seasons. NEMA MG 1, 14.36
offers the following explanation of the effects of unbalance voltage,
along with a load derating curve.
Effects of Unbalance Voltages on the Performance of Polyphase
Induction Motors.
When the line voltages applied to a polyphase induction motor are not
equal, unbalanced currents in the stator windings will result. A small

107

percentage voltage unbalance will result in a much larger percentage

current unbalance. Consequently, the temperature rise of the motor
operating at a particular load and percentage voltage unbalance will be
greater than for the motor operating under the same conditions with
balanced voltages.
Voltages should be evenly balance as closely as can be read on a
voltmeter. Should voltages be unbalance, the rated horsepower of the
motor should be multiplied by the factor shown in Fig 2.2A to reduce the
possibility of damage to the motor. Operation of the motor above a 5
percent voltage unbalance condition is not recommended.

When the derating curve as shown in the left figure, it is applied for
operation on unbalanced voltages, the selection and setting of the
overload device should take into account the combination of the derating
factor applied to the motor and increase in current resulting from the
unbalance voltages. This is a complex problem involving the variation in

108

motor current as a function of load and voltage unbalance in addition to

the characteristics for the overload device relative to Imaximum or Iaverage. In
the absence of specific information, it is recommended that overload
devices be selected or adjusted, or both, at the minimum value that does
not result in tripping for the derating factor and voltage unbalance that
apply. When unbalance voltages are anticipated, it is recommended that
the overload devices be selected so as to be responsive to Imaximum in
preference to overload devices responsive to Iaverage.
Effect on Performance General.
The effect of unbalance voltages on polyphase induction motors is
equivalent to the introduction of a negative sequence voltage having a
rotation opposite to that occurring with balanced voltages. This negative
sequence voltage produces in the air gap a flux rotating against the
rotation of the rotor, tending to product high currents. A small negativesequence voltage may product in the windings currents considerably in
excess of those present under balanced voltage conditions.
Unbalance Defined.
The voltage unbalance in percent may be defined as follows:

Example: With voltages of 460, 467, and 450, the average is 459, the
maximum deviation from average is 9, and the percent unbalance equals:

Torques. The locked-rotor torque and breakdown torque are decreased

when the voltage is unbalanced. If the voltage unbalance should be
extremely severe, the torques might not be adequate for the application.

109

Full-Load Speed. The full-load speed is reduced slightly when the

motor operates with unbalanced voltages.
Currents. The locked-rotor current will be unbalanced to the same
degree that the voltages are unbalanced, but the locked-rotor kVA will
increase only slightly.
The currents at normal operating speed with unbalanced voltages will be
greatly unbalanced in the order of approximately 6 to 10 times the
voltage unbalance.
Performance Comparison between Standard Efficient Motor vs.
Premium Efficient Motor.
Emerson Motor Technology Center in St., Louis, Missouri had
conducted a study to compare standard efficient motor to premium
efficient motor under unbalanced voltage conditions.
MOTORS DESIGN DATA
DESCRIPTION

PREM. EFF.

STD. EFF.

Model No.

7965

E398

Type

TCE

CT

HP Rating

Voltage/Freq.

230/60

230/60

No. of Poles

Syn. Speed

1800

1800

Connections

Wye

Wye

12.56
1750
0.0280
445
89.3
83.4

13.47
1738
0.0344
611
85.9
80.9

107
114
0.0325
43
116

110
120
0.0359
51
116

Full Load Performance

Amps
RPM
Slip P.U.
Losses (Watts)
Efficiency %
Power Factor %
Flux Density: Kl/in2
Stator Core
Stator Teeth
Air Gap
Rotor Core
Rotor Teeth

110

The increase in winding temperature causes additional I2R losses. The

rotor losses also increase because of the impact the Negative Sequence
Component has on the rotor. Therefore as shown in figure below, there
is a significant drop in motor efficiency.

Vibration and Noise

Note that in both cases there is a significant impact on motor
performance as it relates to acceptable vibration levels and sound power
levels.

111

2.3

Power factor

A motor consumes not only active power, which it converts into

mechanical work, but also reactive power, which is needed for
magnetization but does not perform any work. The active and reactive
power, represented in the diagram on the right by P and Q together give
the apparent power S. The ratio between the active power, measured in
kW, and the apparent power, measured in kVA, is known as the power
factor. The angle between P and S is usually designated cos . The
power factor is equal to cos . The power factor is usually between 0.7
and 0.9. It is lower for small motors and higher for large ones.
If there are many motors in an installation it will consume a lot of
reactive power and will therefore have a lower power factor. Power
supply utilities sometimes require the power factor of an installation to
be raised. This is done by connecting capacitors to the supply; these
generate reactive power and thus raise the power factor.
Phase compensation
With phase compensation the capacitors are usually connected in parallel
with the motor or group of motors. However, in some cases an Induction

112

motor can run as a generator, and this can lead to self-excitation. To

avoid complications, therefore, it is normal practice not to compensate
for more than the no-load current of the motor.
The capacitors must not be connected in parallel with single phases of
the winding; such an arrangement may make the motor difficult or
impossible to start with star-delta (Y-) starting.
If a two-speed motor with separate windings has phase compensation on
both windings, the capacitors should not remain in circuit on the unused
winding. Under certain circumstances such capacitors can cause
increased heating of the winding and possibly vibration as well.
2.4

Efficiency

Electric motors are simply devices that convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Like all electromechanical equipment, motors
consume some "extra" energy in order to make the conversion.
Efficiency is a measure of how much total energy a motor uses in
relation to the rated power delivered to the shaft.
A motor's nameplate rating is based on output horsepower, which is fixed
for continuous operation at full load. The amount of input power needed
to produce rated horsepower will vary from motor to motor, with moreefficient motors requiring less input wattage than less-efficient models to
produce the same output. Electrical energy input is measured in watts,
while output is given in horsepower. (This convention applies in the
USA; output power for motors manufactured in other countries may be
stated in watts or kilowatts.) One horsepower is equivalent to 746 watts.
There are several ways to express motor efficiency, but the basic concept
and the numerical results are the same. For example:
Efficiency, % =

746 x Horsepower (output)

Watts (input)

or its equivalent;

113

x 100

Watts (output)
Watts (input)

Efficiency, % =

x 100

The ratio describes efficiency in terms of what can be observed from

outside the motor, but it doesn't say anything about what is going on
inside the motor, and it is what's happening inside that makes one motor
more or less efficient than another. For example, we can rewrite the
equation as:
Efficiency, % =

Watts (output)
Watts (output) + Watts (losses)

x 100

or its equivalent;
Efficiency, % =

Watts (input) Watts (losses)

Watts (input)

x 100

"Losses" stands for all the energy "fees" the motor charges in order to
make its electrical-to-mechanical energy conversion. Their magnitude
varies from motor to motor and can even vary among motors of the same
make, type and size. In general, however, standard-efficiency motors
(pre-EPAct) have higher losses than motors that meet EPAct standards,
while NEMA Premium motors, or better, have lower losses still.
Types of Losses
Energy losses in electric motors fall into four categories:

Power losses (Stator and Rotor Losses)

Magnetic core losses
Friction and windage losses, and
Stray load losses.

114

Fig 2.4A. A typical NEMA Design B motor showing components

that can be modified to increase the motor's efficiency: (a) Stator
windings; (b) Rotor length; (c) conductor bars and end rings; (d)
air gap; (e) laminations; (f) bearings; (g) fan.

Power losses and stray load losses appear only when the motor is
operating under load. They are therefore more important in terms of
energy efficiency than magnetic core losses and friction and windage
losses, which are present, even under no-load conditions (when the motor
is running, of course).
Power losses, also called IR losses, are the most important of the four
categories and can account for more than one-half of a motor's total
losses. Power losses appear as heat generated by resistance to current
flowing in the stator windings and rotor conductor bars and end rings.
Stator losses make up about 66% of power losses, and it is here that
motor manufacturers have achieved significant gains in efficiency. Since
increasing the mass of stator windings lowers their electrical resistance
(and therefore reduces IR losses), highly efficient motors typically
contain about 20% more copper than standard efficiency models of
equivalent size and rating.
Rotor losses are reduced by decreasing the degree of slip. This is
accomplished by increasing the mass of the rotor conductors (conductor
bars and end-plates) and/or increasing their conductivity (see below), and
to a lesser extent by increasing the total flux across the air gap between
rotor and stator.

115

Fig 2.4B. Conductor bars, end plates and fan

in a typical squirrel cage motor. The steel rotor
laminations have been removed by etching.

Conductivity is an important characteristic of the rotor. Conductor bars

in large motors are normally made from high-conductivity copper.
Conductor bars in small-to-intermediate size motors, up to about 200 hp,
depending on manufacturer, are in the form of a die-cast aluminum
"squirrel cage" that gives these motors their common name. Increasing
the mass of the die-cast bars requires changes in the slots in the rotor
laminations, through which the bars are cast, and that changes the rotor's
magnetic structure. Lowering rotor IR losses in what are typically
aluminum alloy squirrel cage motors is therefore not a simple task.
Copper has higher electrical conductivity than aluminum, and it would
be an ideal conductor bar material except for the fact that it is difficult to
die cast. A process to produce die-cast copper rotors has recently been
developed and, when fully commercialized, it will enable the production
of motors with even higher efficiencies than the best models currently
available.

Fig 2.4C. Cross-section of a die-cast copper motor rotor.

The blue area represents the surface of one of the rotor
laminations, through which the copper has been cast.
116

The fact that high-efficiency motors tend to have less slip (run faster)
than standard-efficiency motors must be taken into account in certain
applications. For example, energy consumption by centrifugal loads such
as fans and rotary compressors is proportional to the cube of rotational
speed. If such loads are driven at the higher speed of a low-slip, highefficiency motor directly replacing a standard motor, energy
consumption can actually increase. This situation can sometimes be
resolved by lowering rotational speed with a variable-speed drive, gears
or pulleys. There are other parameters, such as torque or starting current,
that can vary among motors of the same nominal horsepower. It is
important to properly engineer the application of any motor to the
intended task.
Magnetic core losses arise from hysteresis effects, eddy currents and
magnetic saturation, all of which take effect in the steel laminations.
Magnetic losses can account for up to 20% of total losses. With proper
design, use of better materials and stringent quality control, these losses
can be reduced considerably.

Fig 2.4D. Three different efficiencies for the same horsepower

rating. Top: standard-efficiency pre-EPAct motor; lower right:
NEMA Premium efficiency motor. Notice that the rotor and stator
lengthen (and the amount of copper in the motor rises) as
efficiency increases.

117

The most effective means to reduce hysteresis and saturation losses is to

utilize steels containing up to 4% silicon for the laminations in place of
lower-cost plain carbon steels. The better magnetic properties offered by
silicon steels can reduce core losses by 10 to 25%. Reducing the
laminations' thickness also helps: substituting 26-ga or 29-ga steel for the
24-ga steel found in standard-efficiency motors lowers core losses by
between 15 and 25%. Lengthening the lamination stack, which reduces
the flux density within the stack, also reduces core losses. Eddy current
losses can be reduced by ensuring adequate insulation between
laminations, thus minimizing the flow of current (and IR losses) through
the stack.
2.5

Speed

The speed of an A.C. motor depends on the mains frequency and the
number of poles of the stator winding.

Where n = speed, f = frequency, p = number of poles

The rule of thumb for 50 Hz mains frequency is that the speed in
revolutions per minute (r/min) is 6000 divided by the number of poles.
This is the synchronous speed; it can never be reached by an Induction
motor, squirrel-cage or slip-ring. At no load, however, the speed is
practically equal to the synchronous speed; at rated output it is slightly
lower.
The following equation is used to calculate the slip:

118

The rules above apply to moderate changes in output and voltage. The
speeds of the motors when warm and at rated output are subject to a
tolerance of 20% of the slip. The normal testing speed for overspeed is
120% of the rated speed for two minutes.

2.6

Vibration characteristics and balancing

Vibration is defined as a mechanical fluctuation from an equilibrium

point. Vibration can also be considered as period vibration. Period
vibration is a random vibration or pendulum motion of an object. An
example of this is the movement of tires when moving on a gravel road.
There are different types of vibrations that we experience everyday.
These are both desirable and undesirable. It is important that we have a
basic understanding on vibration analysis and some of its principles.

119

The most commonly used method for rotating machines is called

vibration analysis. Measurements can be taken on machine bearing
casings with seismic or piezo-electric transducers to measure the casing
vibrations, and on the vast majority of critical machines, with eddycurrent transducers that directly observe the rotating shafts to measure
the radial (and axial) vibration of the shaft. The level of vibration can be
compared with historical baseline values such as former start-ups and
shutdowns, and in some cases established standards such as load
changes, to assess the severity.
What is vibration?
Vibration is a "back and forth" movement of a structure. It can also be
referred to as a "cyclical" movement.
Benefits
1. Safety - failure of electrical components could be catastrophic,
injuring or even killing employees, maintenance personnel or the
public.
2. Greater System Security - locate the problems prior to failure
greatly reduces unscheduled outages, associated equipment
damage and downtime.
3. Increased Revenue - with more uptime, revenue is maximized.
With less maintenance on good components and faster repairs of
120

faulty components, maintenance costs care are reduced leading

to a better bottom line.
4. Reduced Outage Costs - the cost of an emergency outage is ten
times greater than planned maintenance.
5. Reduce Spare Parts Inventory - with improved inspection
techniques giving advanced warning of failure, fewer spare parts
are required in inventory. What would it mean to the bottom line
if your spare parts inventory could be reduced by 10%?
6. Reduced Operational Costs - with the system up and running
for longer periods of time, the reduction and improvement of
inspections, maintenance, spare parts inventory and outages will
reduce the overall cost of operations.
What Vibration "Characteristics" Do We Measure?
Vibration is one of the best technologies that will help you determine the
root cause and health condition of your motor. Each rotating component
has its own defect frequency. There are machines whose vibrations had
reached the breakdown threshold (critical level) but still operational
because the bearing is still operational. However, long term-wise, it will
be damaged if such vibration is not addressed in a timely manner. There
are machines also who have an excellent vibration level but stop to
operate because its bearing failed.
We need to measure the amplitude of vibration and compare to ISO
10816-3 Vibration Severity Chart. We look for the defect frequencies
(imbalance, misalignment, looseness, bearings, etc) in the spectrum or
time-waveform.

121

Each manufacturer of vibration instruments has its own patented

technology in determining bearing defects. Such as: envelope
acceleration from SKF, spike energy from CSI or Entek IRD, shockpulse-method from SPM, Defect Factor from 01dB Metravibs of
AREVA, etc. In addition to vibration spectrum or time-waveform, it is
suggested to utilize the bearing parameters of the instrument in analyzing
the health condition of bearings.
The Standard Evolutions
The international standard ISO 10816 (1995) replaces the former
standard ISO 2372 (1974). The text modifications are related to the
following points:

Evaluation of the vibration severity according 2 criterions :

o Vibration magnitude
o Change in the vibration magnitude

The use of other unit and parameters is now possible :

o Broad bands in acceleration or displacements
o Narrow bands in acceleration, velocity or displacements

These evolutions aim to allow:

o A better standard adequacy to the machines at slow or fast
speed ( 600 r/min or 12000 r/min)
o Taking into account of the measurement tools evolution and
in particular the generalization of the use of the frequency
analyzers.
o Taking into account of specificities of the various categories
of machine according to their type, their installation status,
and their operation parameters.

Monitoring principle
The evaluation of the vibrations is based on the following principles:
Measurement of the velocity using a broad band
Comparison to acceptance criteria depending on the machines
class, type and power : Criteria 1
122

Comparison of the change in the vibration magnitude to

acceptance criteria : Criteria 2

VRMS :
VA
:
G

k et m :

allowable RMS velocity, in mm/s

constant RMS velocity, in mm/s, which
applies between fx and fy for Zone A
factor which define the zone boundaries
example:
G=1 for zone A
G=2.56 for zone B
G=6.4 for zone C
constants for a given machine type

Evaluation zone limits

Zone A : The vibration of newly commissioned machine would
normally fall within his one
Zone B : Machine with vibration within this zone are normally
considered acceptable for unrestricted long term
operation
Zone C : Machines with vibration within this zone are normally
considered unsatisfactory for long-term continuous
operation. Generally, the machine may be operated for a

123

limited period in this condition until a suitable

opportunity arises for remedial action
Zone D : Vibration values within this zone are normally considered
to be of sufficient severity to cause damage to the
machine
ISO 10816-3: 1998 (E) VIBRATION SEVERITY for ROTATING
MACHINES 120 TO 15,000 RPM

ISO 10816-3: Industrial machines with nominal power above 15KW and
nominal speeds between 120 r/min and 15000 r/min when measured in
situ.
RMS velocity value VRMS and RMS displacement DRMS during
nominal and steady running conditions.
Broad band measurements [10-1000] Hz if speed > 600 RPM.
Broad band measurements [2-1000] Hz if 120 < speed < 600
RPM.
The zone limits are given according the machine group and
mounting type.

124

ISO 10816-3: Industrial machines with nominal power above 15KW and
nominal speeds between 120 r/min and 15000 r/min when measured in
situ.

Group 1: Large machine with rated power above 300kW and not
more than 50 MW ; electrical machine with shaft height H > 315
mm

Group 2 : Medium-size machine with rated power above 15 kW

up to including 300 kW; electrical machine with shaft height
160mm < H < 315 mm

Group 3: Pumps with multi-vane impeller and separate driver

(centrifugal, mixed flow or axial flow) with rated power above
15 kW

125

Group 4: Pumps with multi-vane impeller integrated driver

(centrifugal, mixed flow or axial flow) with rated power above
15 kW

ELECTRICAL HEALTH BANDS FOR MOTOR DRIVES (AC, DC, VFD, LOW
FREQUENCY FAULTS
RANGE

DRIVE

Band #

1x LF

2x LF

3x LF

4x LF

5x LF

6x LF

Band 1

Band 2

Band 3

Band 4

Band 5

Band 6

Band Level

AC
DRIVE

Band Level

AC VFD

0.020
ips

0.080
ips

0.020
ips

0.040
ips

0.020
ips

Band Level

DC
FWR

0.020
ips

0.020
ips

0.020
ips

0.020
ips

0.020
ips

Band Level

DC
HWR

0.020
ips

0.020
ips

0.080
ips

0.020
ips

0.020
ips

0.9-1.1x
LF

1.8-2.2x
LF

2.9-3.1x
LF

3.8-4.2x
LF

4.9-5.1x
LF

Frequency
Range

0.080
ips

0.040
ips
0.020
ips
0.080
ips
0.020
ips
5.9-6.1x
LF

FMAX = 24,000 CPM #FFT Lines = 6400 #Average = 2 Overlapping = 0% Window = Hanning
If Drive is Variable Speed Type:
Lock Drive to Repeatable Frequency for each Survey, or
Expand Frequency Range(s) to include range of possible operating conditions.
If Drive is DC Type:
Set SCR Bands to appropriate Control Type (Half Wave Rectified or Full Wave
Rectified).

126

Vibration Principles

Vibration Definition according to standard ISO2041

Vibration is a variation with the time of a characteristic value of
the movement or position of a mechanical system when the value
is alternatively higher and lower than a average value or a
reference value.
The vibrations are periodic or non periodic phenomena more or
less complex.

127

Sinusoidal Vibration. The simplest vibration is the sinusoidal

movement. For example: the movement generated by a mass unbalance
Amplitude (A) of the signal can be represented in many manners but
only three of them are used in vibratory analysis.
The frequency (F) of a phenomenon is the number of repetitions
(periods) of this phenomenon in one second.

The period (T) of a phenomenon is the duration between two successive

passages at the same position and in the same direction. The period is
expressed in second (s).

128

In the case of the rotating machines, the period often corresponds to the
duration for one shaft rotation
Like any movement, a vibration can be studied according to three
magnitudes:
Displacement
Velocity
Acceleration
There are mathematical relationships between theses values. These
relations are simple in the case of pure sinusoidal signals. The choice of
the magnitude is important for the quality of diagnosis.
FFT (Fast Fourier Transform)
The decomposition of a periodic and complex vibratory signal in its
various sinusoidal components, represented each one by their amplitude
(Ai) their frequency (Fi) is carried out by a time - frequency
transformation called Fourier transform. This mathematical function
carries out a transposition of the signal from the time domain towards the
frequency domain. The resulting signal is called a frequency spectrum.
The algorithm used in the modern analyzer to calculate the Fourier
Transform is called: FFT (Fast Fourier Transform).
Vibration from Unbalance
Many vibration and balancing specialists suggest that machinery
unbalance is the most common cause of vibration in rotating equipment.
The vibration caused by unbalance occurs at a frequency equal to 1 x
RPM on the unbalanced part.
Note: Unbalance is not the only problem that can cause vibration frequencies of 1
x RPM. Misalignment also causes high levels of vibration at 1 x RPM.

The largest amplitude of vibration will be measured in the radical

direction (vertical and horizontal), although unbalance of an overhung
rotor may be indicated by high amplitude readings in the axial direction
as well, possibly as high as the radial readings.

129

The units used for measuring unbalance are varied. It may be stated that
a machine is out-of-balance 6.5 mm/s RMS. This usually means that the
vibration amplitude is 6.5 mm/s and it has been determined that
unbalance is causing the vibration. Unbalance units can also be measured
in ounce-inches or gram-centimeters. To calculate these unbalance units
multiply the amount of unbalance by the radius at which it is acting. For
example, one ounce of unbalance at one-inch radius will result in one
ounce-inch of unbalance.
Causes of Unbalance
There are many reasons that unbalance is present in a rotor. Several
reasons are:

Deposit and Build-Up: Rotors used in material handling may

become unbalanced due to the unequal build-up of deposits on
the rotor and its parts. The gradual increase of build-up can lead
to a serious problem when the build-up becomes uneven, as
when deposits begin to break away. As the deposits break away
the vibration increases and even more deposits break off. A
serious unbalance within the rotating equipment results. During
scheduled inspection it may be necessary to clean the parts
where the deposits are greater.
Corrosion and Wear: Rotors, such as fans, blowers and
impellers are involved in material handling processes where they
become subjected to abrasion, corrosion, and wear. The
materials used in the rotor parts can deteriorate unevenly,
therefore unbalance and vibration increases. To avoid corrosion
and wear the rotor parts must be from materials, which offer
long-term resistance to the corrosive or abrasive effects of the
products being handled.
Eccentricity: Eccentricity exists when the true or geometric
centerline of a part does not coincide with its rotating centerline.
Either the part has been made off-center, or the center of rotation
has been located off-center. Eccentricity may be caused by a
mechanical defect (out of roundness), variations in electrical
properties or uneven heating (thermal bow).

130

C1 (30 Hz, [0.14157 g, 7.36 mm/s, 39.09 m])

[RMS]: PMP-VACO5 MOH S-2 Hz-200 Hz g 05/04/2010 23:21:00

1x rpm motor fan

Unbalance motor fan. Delivers insufficient ventilation to motor body

thereby increases temperature. Once temperature increases, winding
temperature also increase resulting to reduce in operating efficiency and
premature failure. Increase vibration causing damaged to bearing and its
structures.

Vibration From Misalignment

Shaft and coupling misalignment continue to be one of the main causes
of vibration, probably second to unbalance. It is fortunate that this source
of vibration can be easily corrected by applying some basic alignment
practices. Most companies do not have definite standards as to what is
considered proper alignment.
Alignment tolerances should depend on such factors as equipment
classification, size, operating speeds, operating temperature, coupling
type, bearing and seal type and how essential the machine is to the
operation.
131

2x rpm
1x rpm
Measured radial or axial

132

Misalignment changed the air gap between the stator and rotor resulting
to burnt motor winding due to stress on bearings.
Diagnosing Bearings Defects
Damage to the bearing can be detected early by measuring the vibration
of the machine. The degree of damage is inferred from quantitative
analysis of the amplitude and frequency of the vibration. However,
values measured differ depending on the measuring point and the
operating condition of the bearing. It is desirable to accumulate
measurement data and establish evaluation criteria for each machine. In
this example, we have a pump driven by a motor.
There was a strong axial movement from the pump that damaged motor
bearings. The two bearings 7324 BEJ were mounted in pump outboard
bearing instead of 7324 BECBJ. The later is suitable for back-to-back
bearing arrangement that can handle axial load in any direction. While,
the former is suitable for single mounting and handles one direction of
axial load only.

133

134

Bearing Defects
on motor

Rotor Balancing
Rotor balancing is a relatively simple operation and the balance is easy to
check.
However, the final vibration resistance is also influenced by other
factors, mainly the nature of the base on which the motor is mounted,
although the method of clamping, the alignment and the electromagnetic
forces also play a part.

Why Balance to tight limits? There are many reasons why a machine
should be balanced to tight limits, some of which include:

Usually the largest component in the vibration spectra is due to

unbalance.
Balancing to tight limits is probably the easiest way to lower the
vibration level.
Balancing to tight limits is necessary in the machine tool
industry to obtain desired product quality.
Balancing is critical on large rotating machinery where the unit
operates above the first critical speed.
Extra time is required to balance to high precision but it may
increase the time before maintenance is required.
It will lower the overall vibration level, which may unmask other
problems.

135

Balancing
When balancing a rotor, other than a 2-pole, the procedure is
straightforward. By adding or removing weight in the appropriate places
on each end of the rotor, we compensate for variations in the centrifugal
forces acting on the rotor. A heavy spot exerts more force, causing
movement that is measured as unbalance. Adding a compensating weight
directly opposite the heavy spot counterbalances it, reducing the net
unbalance.
With most rotors, the shaft is stiff enough to resist the centrifugal forces
acting to deflect it. Special cases require additional care in balancing. In
general, the longer and/or more flexible the shaft, the more critical
balancing becomes as shown below.

136

ISO 1940/1 1986 (E) Balance Quality Curve

Rotor Balancing

137

Vibration From Belt Drive Problems

Belt drives for power transmission are classed as friction drives. The belt
transmits power by friction contact between the belt and the driving and
driven sheaves.
Power transmission belts are available in several types and each has
specific characteristics from optimum load, speed and friction
performance. To obtain the best service from any particular belt
application, such as flat belt, V-belts, synchronous belts and multi-ribbed
belts, key considerations are:
a. Select the correct belt for the job
b. Ensure that the belt is installed correctly and use properly.
Belts drives are popular for power transmission because they have a high
capacity for absorbing shock and vibration. V-belts are the most
commonly used power transmission belt. They offer relatively quiet
operation compared to chain or gear dives. However, V-belts can be
source of unwanted vibration, especially on machines where low levels
of vibration must be maintained. For example machines such as grinders,
drills, lathes, fans, and agitators.
Vibration problems associated with V-belts are generally classified as:
a. Belt reaction to other disturbing forces in the equipment.
b. Vibration due to actual belt problems.
V-belts are often taken as the source of vibration because belts whipping
and bouncing between the sheaves are more visible than vibration of the
other parts of a machine and are usually easy to change. Belt replacement
is one of the first activities for trying to correct vibration problems.

Proper Belt Tension

138

V-belts often are reacting to other disturbing forces in the machine.

Several of these forces include: unbalanced eccentric sheaves/pulleys,
misalignment, build-up on sheaves and mechanical looseness. All of
these examples can produce highly visible belt vibration. Is often just too
easy to blame the belt. In these cases, the belt is the indicator of a
vibration, but is not the actual problem. A complete vibration analysis of
the machine should be done before replacing the drive belts.
Belt Over-Tension

1x Fan RPM
1x Motor RPM
Measured at Motor NDE

139

Impact of over belt tension:

Increase power consumption

Shorten bearing service life
Reduce reliability of equipment

With multi-belt drives, it is important that all belts have the same tension.
If one or more belts are slack while other are under proper tension, the
slack belt can undergo excessive vibration even from very minor
disturbing forces. This condition, if continued, causes belts slippage and
brings on excessive belt and pulley wear.
Belt Slippage
Improper tension, pulley misalignment, worn pulleys, belt mismatch,
excessive loads and dirty or wet operating areas commonly cause belt
slippage. Belt slippage produces high frequency vibration and noise,
identified as a chirp or squeal. Vibration due to slippage often results
in unsteady amplitude readings. On multiple V-belt installations belts
may slip by varying amounts, which is continued may either contribute
to vibration effect, or in some cases reduce the vibration effect. However
the net result is vibration amplitude that increases in a cyclic or periodic
manner. The extent of slippage can be determined on multiple V-belt
drives by using a strobe light. Safely shut down the machine and after he
belts are stopped draw a straight line across all the belts with chalk or
other visible market. Run the machine back up to normal operating
speed, set the vibration analyzer to 1x belt RPM and closely observe the
140

lined marks on the belts under the strobe light. If the belts are slipping in
relation to one another, the marks will also appear to move relative to
one another (freeze one and watch the other).

Pulley laser alignment tool.

2.7

Bearings

Rolling bearings, i.e. ball and roller bearings, are reliable, inexpensive
and easy to maintain. They are the only type of bearing used in small and
medium-sized three-phase motors. However, they have an upper size
limit that is a function of rotational speed.
This limit depends on bearing type, size, load, method of lubrication etc.
Sometimes sleeve bearings are preferred for larger motor sizes, even
where rolling bearings could be used.
Bearing Life
The nominal life of rolling bearing in motors is normally 25 000 to 100
000 hours L10 to ISO R 281.
Nominal life is the number of running hours at a given speed for which
the bearing can rotate before signs of fatigue scaling appear on the
rings or rolling elements.
ISO definition L10 means the length of life that 90% of a large number
of identical bearings are expected to reach or exceed. Half of the
bearings achieve as much as five times the L10 life.

141

Internal Clearance
There are applications that we have to consider operating temperature of
the equipment, like motors, equipment operating at 3600 rpm, and
loading that requires higher interference fits. Bearing clearance is then
required to accommodate any thermal expansion caused by the
temperature, speed, etc. Below the brief application:

Normal clearance bearing such as 6310 without a suffix

indicates a normal clearance.
C3 clearance Applicable for high speed, high operating
temperature, and high interference fits.

The internal clearance of bearings is the space provided between the

elements for a grease film and thermal expansion to prevent preloading
of the bearing that could cause premature failure. The internal clearance
is specified as C2, normal (0), C3 and C4. This is a basic boundary
dimension, with C2 being a tight clearance while C3 and C4 are loose
clearances. The correct space between the elements can be critical to the
application.

Interference Fits - Shaft and Housing Fit

In order for a ball or roller bearing to perform satisfactorily, the fit
between the inner ring and the shaft, and the fit between the outer ring
and the housing must be suitable for the application. For example, too
loose a fit could result in a corroded or scored bearing bore and shaft,
while too tight a fit could result in unnecessarily large mounting and
dismounting forces and too great a reduction in internal bearing
clearance.
142

Illustration of Location of Shaft and Housing Tolerance Grades with

respect to Bearing Bore and O.D. Toerances (exaggerated).

Shaft and housing fits for metric radial ball and roller bearings
conforming to basic boundary plans have been established by ABMA as
Standard7.Shaft and housing fits (j5, k5 and H6) are listed in the
Bearing Fit Tolerance charts as shown below.
A careful study of the ABMA Standards 7 and 20 should be made by
anyone responsible for replacing bearings in electric motors.
Example: Motor bearing no. 6310 ZZ/C3. The basic number 10. The last
two digit is 10 x 5 = 50 mm bore diameter. The maximum shaft
interference fit is 1.9690 or 50.012 mm. The minimum shaft diameter
is 1.9686 of 50.002 mm. The inner ring of the bearing will rotate against
the shaft if diameter is < than the minimum requirement. Or bearing will
hardly rotate if > than the maximum. Hence, its best to be within the
range for safe operation.

143

144

145

Sleeve bearings
At high speeds and/or for heavy loads sleeve bearings are used. Their life
is practically unlimited provided that the lubrication is uninterrupted and
that the lubricant is changed at suitable intervals. Another advantage is
that their noise level is lower than that of rolling bearings. It is also
important not to exceed the temperature limits of sleeve bearings. A
normal bearing temperature is 65 to 80C.
Sleeve bearings are usually self-lubricated and self-cooled. Internal oil
transport is ensured by an oil ring. Forced cooling can be provided by
fitting a separate circulation unit.

Permissible radial forces

The loads acting on the bearing can be calculated according to the laws
of mechanics, if the external forces are known. The values are calculated
according to ISO R 281-1 and they are quoted in product information
files for different types of machines. Axial forces are given separately for
horizontal and vertical machines.

146

Lubrication
43% of bearing failures is caused by lubrication. Proper lubrication will
also reduce your energy consumption.

If rolling bearings are to operate reliably they must be adequately

lubricated to prevent direct metal-to-metal contact between the
rolling elements, raceways and cages.
The lubricant also inhibits wear and protects the bearing surfaces
against corrosion. The choice of a suitable lubricant and method
of lubrication for each individual bearing application is therefore
important, as is correct maintenance.
Preventing such lubrication-related failures, as well as ensuring
optimal bearing performance, means delivering the right
lubricant, in the right amount, at the right time, to the right
lubrication point.
Excessive amounts of grease will cause the operating
temperature within the bearing to rise rapidly, particularly when
running at high speeds.
Base oil viscosity - The base oil viscosity of the greases
normally used for rolling bearings lies between 15 and
500 mm2/s at 40 C.
Consistency - Greases are divided into various consistency
classes according to the National Lubricating Grease Institute
(NLGI) scale. Metallic soap thickened greases, with a
consistency of 1, 2 or 3 are used for rolling bearings. The most
common greases have a consistency of 2.
Protection against corrosion, behavior in the presence of water.
Grease should protect the bearing against corrosion and should
not be washed out of the bearing arrangement in cases of water
penetration. The thickener type solely determines the resistance
to water: lithium complex, calcium complex and polyurea
greases offer usually very good resistance. The type of rust
inhibitor additive mainly determines the rust inhibiting
properties of greases.

The purpose of lubrication the bearing is to cover the rolling contact

surfaces and sliding contact surfaces with a thin oil film to avoid direct
metal-to-metal contact. Effective lubrication of the rolling-element
bearing has the following effects.
147

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Reduces friction and abrasion

Transports heat generated by friction
Prolongation of service life
Prevents rust (corrosion)
Keeps foreign objects (or contamination) away from rolling
elements and raceways

For these purposes, a lubricant should be selected by referring to the

following criteria:
Grease Lubrication
Grease is generally used for lubricating rolling-element bearings because
it is easy to handle and simplifies the sealing system.

Carefully examine the type and properties of the base oil, thickener and
additives of the grease, and select grease appropriate for the operating
condition of the bearing. The general relation between consistency of
grease and the application of the bearing is given in above Table. The
types and properties of greases can be provided by local lubricant
suppliers.

148

Grease Additives
Various additives are incorporated into lubricating greases to furnish
additional properties. Some of the most common are:
Anti-rust agents improve the protection offered by the grease. These
additives are useful for bearings operating in a wet environment. They
also protect bearings during transport and storage.
Anti-oxidants delay the breakdown of the base oil at high temperatures.
This in turn increases relubrication intervals and reduces costs.
EP, or extreme pressure, additives include sulphur, chlorine and
phosphorus compounds. (Some EP additives are harmful to bearings, so
that care should be taken in their selection.
Solid lubricants like molybdenum disulphide and graphite.
Relubrication Interval
For motor with a speed of 1800 rpm and DE bearing # 6312
D = 130 mm
B = 31mm
GP = 0.005 x 130 x 31= 20 grams
Interval is 9000 hours or 2 grams per month

149

The cost of lubrication maintenance

Productivity at reduced cost is of paramount importance. This is placing
great pressures on maintenance department personnel. You are
constantly looking for new opportunities to improve the way you
operate.

One cost that can be addressed is routine lubrication

maintenance.
Equipment relies on adequate lubrication as the life blood that
enables it to keep on producing, but lubrication application costs
are high.

150

The alternative method

There is now an alternative method to manual lubrication or expensive
integrated automatic lubrication systems.
When compared with the high cost of lubrication application labor, or the
hazards that can be associated with lubricating modern machinery,
automatic lubrication single point lubricators offer a cost effective
alternative to manual grease and oil application.

Oil lubrication
Oil lubrication is generally suitable for high speed or high temperature
operations. It is also suitable for carrying heat away from the bearing. Oil
viscosities required for the operating temperatures of bearings are given
in Table below.
Carefully study the viscosity, viscosity index, oxidation resistance,
corrosion resistance, foaming resistance, etc. to select oil. Table for
Selection Guide for Lubrication Oil Viscosity gives a guide for selecting
viscosity.

151

Use Table below to select oil with an adequate viscosity for the operating
temperature of the bearing.

152

Figure below shows the variation of viscosity with temperature for

several lubrication oils.

Oil Bath
Monitor conditions of oil seal for geared-motor.

153

Bearing Failures and Solutions

Flaking
Condition
Raceway surface is flaked
Surface after flaking is
very rough.

Cause
Rolling fatigue. Flaking
may be caused early by
over-load, excessive load
due to improper handling,
poor shaft or housing
accuracy, installation error,
ingress of foreign objects,
rusting, etc.

Solution
(1) Find the cause of the
heavy load.
(2) Examine operating
conditions and adopt
bearings with larger
capacity as necessary.
(3) Increase viscosity of oil
and improve lubrication
system to form an adequate
lubricating oil film.
(4) Eliminate installation
errors.

Photo A 1
Deep groove ball bearing.
Inner ring, outer ring, and balls are flaked.
The cause is excessive load.

Photo A 2
Outer ring of angular contact ball bearing.
Flaking of raceway surface spacing equal to distances
between balls.
The cause is improper handling.

Photo A 3
Inner ring raceway of a deep groove ball bearing.

Photo A 4
Outer ring raceway of an angular contact ball bearing.

154

Photo A 6
Inner ring of spherical roller bearing.
Flaking only on one side of the raceway surface.
The cause is an excessive axial load.

Photo A 5
Inner ring of deep groove ball bearing.
Flaking on one side of the raceway.
The cause is an excessive axial load.

Photo A 7
Tapered roller bearing.
Flaking on 1/4 circumference of inner ring raceway with
outer ring and rollers discoloured light brown.
The cause is excessive pre-load.

Photo A 8
Outer ring of double row angular contact ball bearing.
Flaking on 1/4 circumference of outer ring raceway.
The cause is poor installation.

Peeling
Condition
Peeling is a cluster of very
small spalls (size about
10 m).
Peeling can also include
very small cracks which
develop into spalls.

Photo B 1
Rollers of spherical roller bearing.
Peeling on rolling contact surfaces.
The cause is poor lubrication.

Cause
Likely to occur in roller
bearings. Tends to occur if
surface of opposite part is
rough or lubrication
characteristics are poor.
Peeling may develop into
flaking.

Solution
(1) Control of surface
roughness and dust.
(2) Selection of appropriate
lubricant.
(3) Proper break-in.

Photo B 2
Tapered roller bearing.
Development of peeling to flaking on inner ring and rollers.
The cause is poor lubrication.

155

Spalling
Condition
Score accompanying
seizing.
Mounting score in axial
direction.
Scores on roller end face
and guide rib-cycloidal
scores. Scratches in
spinning direction on
raceway surface and
rolling contact surfaces.

Photo C 1
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Spalling on rib.
The cause is excessive load.

Cause
Poor mounting and
removing practice. Oil
film discontinuation on
the contact surface due to
excessive radial load,
foreign object trapping, or
excessive pre-load.
Slippage or poor
lubrication of rolling
elements.

Solution
(1) Improvement in
mounting and removing
procedures.
(2) Improvement in
operation conditions.
(3) Correction of pre-load
(4) Selection of adequate
lubricant and
lubrication system.
(5) Improvement of sealing
efficiency.

Photo C 2
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Spalling on raceway surface and come back face rib.
The cause is poor lubrication.

156

Smearing
Condition
Surface is roughened and
tiny particles adhere.

Cause
Rolling elements slip in
rolling motion and
characteristics of lubricant
are too poor to prevent
slippage.

Solution
(1) Select optimum
lubricant and lubrication
system capable of
forming sound oil film.
(2) Use a lubricant
including extreme
pressure additive.
(3) Take precautions such
as a small radial
clearance and pre-load
to prevent slippage.

Photo D 1
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Smearing on raceway surface.
The cause is slippage of rollers due to foreign objects
trapped within.

Photo D 2
Roller of same bearing as that of the inner ring shown in
Photo D-1.
Smearing on rolling contact surface.
The cause is slippage of rollers due to foreign objects
trapped within.

Photo D 3
Rollers of spherical thrust roller bearings.
Smearing at middle of rolling contact surfaces.
The cause is slippage of rollers due to foreign objects
trapped within.

Photo D 4
Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing (RCT
bearing).
Smearing on raceway surface.

157

Stepped Wear
Condition
Surface is worn and
dimensions are reduced
compared with other
portions. Surface mostly
roughened and scored.

Cause
Ingress of solid foreign
objects.
Dirt and other foreign
objects in lubricant.
Poor lubrication.
Skewing of rollers.

Solution
(1) Selection of optimum
lubricant and lubrication
system.
(2) Improvement in sealing
efficiency.
(3) Filtration of lubricating
oil.
(4) Elimination of
misalignment.

Photo E 1
Outer ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Stepped wear on raceway surface.
The cause is oor lubrication.

Photo E 2
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing (inner ring of which is
shown in Photo E-1).
Stepped wear on full circumference of raceway.
The cause is poor lubrication.

Photo E 3
Outer ring of double row angular contact ball bearing
(hub unit bearing).
Wear on one side of the raceway.
The cause is poor lubrication.

Photo E 4
Retainer of cylindrical roller bearing.
Wear of pockets of machined high tensile brass casting
retainer (G1).

158

Speckles and Discoloration

Condition
Speckles
Raceway surface is
matted and speckled.
Speckles are clusters of tiny
elements.
Discoloration.
The surface color has
changed

Cause
Ingress of foreign objects.
Poor lubrication.
Temper color by
overheating (2).
Deposition of deteriorated
oil on surface.

Solution
Speckles
(1) Improvement in sealing
efficiency
Filtration of oil
(3) Improvement in
lubrication system.
Discoloration
(1) Oil deposition is
removable by wiping
with an organic solvent
(oxalic acid).
(2) If roughness is not
removable by polishing
with sandpaper, it is rust
or corrosion. If
completely removable, it
is temper color due to
overheating.

Photo F 1
Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing (RCT
bearing).
Raceway surface is speckled.
The cause is electric pitting.

Photo F 2
Ball of deep groove ball bearing.
Speckled all over.
The cause is foreign objects and poor lubrication.

Photo F 3
Outer ring of spherical roller bearing.
Partial oil deposition on raceway surface.

Photo F 4
Spherical roller bearing.
Discoloration of inner and outer ring raceway surfaces.
The cause is deterioration of lubricant.

159

Indentations
Condition
Hollows in raceway
surface produced by solid
foreign objects trapped or
impacts. (False brinelling)

Cause
Ingress of solid foreign
objects.
Trapping of flaked
particles.
Impacts due to careless
handling.

Solution
(1) Keeping out foreign
objects.
(2) Check involved bearing
and other bearings for
flaking if dents are
produced by metal
particles.
(3) Filtration of oil.
(4) Improvement in
handling and mounting
practices.

Photo G 1
Inner ring (cut off piece) of self-aligning roller bearing.
Dents on one side of the raceway.
The cause is trapping of solid foreign objects.

Photo G 2
Rollers of spherical roller bearing.
Dents on rolling contact surfaces.
The cause is trapping of solid foreign objects.

Photo G 3
Rollers of tapered roller bearings.
Dents all over rolling contact surfaces. (temper color at
two ends.)
The cause is foreign objects carried by lubricating oil.

Photo G 4
Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Dents on raceway surface.
The cause is trapping of foreign objects.

160

Chipping
Condition
Partial chipping of inner
ring, outer ring, or rolling
elements.

Cause
Trapping of large solid
foreign objects.
Impact or excessive load.
Poor handling.

Photo H 1
Cylindrical roller bearing.
Chipping of guide ribs of inner and outer rings.
The cause is excessive impact load.

Photo H 3
Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Chipping of cone back face rib.
The cause is impact due to poor mounting.

Solution
(1) Trouble shooting and
improvements of impacts
and excessive load.
(2) Improvement in
handling.
(3) Improvement in sealing
characteristics.

Photo H 2
Inner ring of spherical roller bearing.
Rib chipped.
The cause is excessive impact load.

Photo H 4
Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing.
Chipping of side face.
The cause is impact due to improper handling.

161

Cracking
Condition
Splits, and cracks in
bearing rings and rolling
elements.

Cause
Excessive load.
Excessive impacts.
Overheating by creeping
and rapid cooling.
Very loose fit.
Large flaking.

Solution
(1) Examination and
improvement of cause of
very large load.
(2) Prevention of creep.
(3) Correction of fit.

Photo I 2
Fracture of inner ring shown in Photo I-1.
Originating point is observed at the middle of the left
raceway surface.

Photo I 1
Inner ring of spherical roller bearing.
Split of raceway surface in the axial direction.
The cause is excessive interference fit.

Photo I 4
Outer ring of angular contact ball bearing.
Split of raceway surface in the circumferential direction.
The cause is slipping of balls due to poor lubrication.

Photo I 3
Outer ring of four-row cylindrical roller bearing.
Split of raceway surface in the circumferential
direction, originated from large flaking.
The cause is large flaking.

162

Rust and Corrosion

Condition
Rusting or corrosion of
bearing ring and rolling
element surfaces.
Sometimes rusted at
spacing equal to the
distances between the
rolling elements.

Cause
Ingress of water or
corrosive material (such as
acid)
Condensation of moisture
contained in the air.
Poor packaging and storing
conditions, and handling
with bare hands.

Solution
(1) Improvement in sealing
effect.
(2) Periodic inspection of
lubricating oil.
(3) Careful handling of
bearing.
(4) Measures for preventing
rusting when not
operating for a long
period of time.

Photo J 2
Outer ring of tapered roller bearing.
Rusting on raceway surface spacing equivalent distances
between rollers. The cause is water in lubricant. Some
points are corroded.

Photo J 1
Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Rusting on raceway surface spacing equivalent to the
distance between rollers. The cause is water in
lubricant.

Photo J 3
Roller of spherical roller bearing.
Rust as well as corrosion on rolling contact surface.
Ingress of water.

Photo J 4
Inner ring (split type) of self-aligning roller bearing.
Rust and corrosion of the raceway surface.
The cause is ingress of water.

163

Seizing
Condition
Bearing generates heat and
is seized up by heat
disabling spinning.
Discoloration, softening,
and welding of raceway
surface, rolling contact
surfaces, and rib surface.

Cause
Dissipation of heat
generated by bearings is
not enough. Poor
lubrication or lubricant
improper. Clearance
excessively small.
Excessive load (or
preload).
Roller skewing and
installation error.

Photo K 1
Inner ring of double row tapered roller bearing.
Seizing-up discolours and softens inner ring producing
stepped wear at spacing equal to distances between
the rollers.
The cause is poor lubrication.

Solution
(1) Improve dissipation of
heat from bearing.
(2) Selection of suitable
lubricant and
determination of
optimum lubricant
feeding rate.
(3) Prevention of
misalignment.
(4) Improvement in
clearance and pre-load.
(5) Improvement in
operating conditions.

Photo K 2
Rollers of double row tapered roller bearing.
Rollers of same bearing as that of the inner ring shown in
Photo K-1. Discoloration, spalling, and adhesion due to
seizing up on rolling contact surfaces and end faces of
rollers.

Photo K 4
Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Large end of the raceway surface and cone back face rib
surface are seized up.
The cause is poor lubrication.

Photo K 3
Outer ring of spherical roller bearing.
Stepped wear due to seizing up of raceway surface.
The cause is poor lubrication.

164

Fretting and Fretting Corrosion

Condition
Fretting surfaces wear
producing red rust colored
particles that form
hollows.
On the raceway surface,
dents called false
brinelling are formed at
spacing equal to distances
corresponding to the
rolling elements.

Cause
If a vibrating load works on
contacting elements
resulting in small
amplitude oscillation,
lubricant is driven out
from contact, and parts
are worn remarkably.
Oscillation angle of the
bearing is small.
Poor lubrication (no
lubrication)
Fluctuating load.
Vibration during
transportation.
Vibration, shaft deflection,
installation error, loose
fit.

Photo L 1
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Corrugated fretting along full circumference of
raceway.
The cause is vibration.

Solution
(1) Inner ring and outer
ring should be packaged
separately for
transportation. If not
separable, bearings
should be preloaded.
(2) Use oil of high
consistency grease when
bearings are used for
oscillation motion.
(3) Change lubricant.
(4) Fix shaft and housing.
(5) Improve fit.

Photo L 2
Inner ring of deep groove ball bearing.
Fretting along full circumference of raceway.
The cause is vibration.

Photo L 4
Outer ring of tapered roller bearing.
Fretting rust on the outside diameter surface.

Photo L 3
Outer ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Fretting rust on outside diameter surface.

165

Electrical Pitting
Condition
Surface is speckled visually
and the speckles are
clusters of tiny pits when
viewed through a
microscope. Further
development leads to a
corrugated surface.

Cause
Electric current passes
through bearing, and
sparks are generated to
fuse the raceway surface.

Photo M 2
Rollers of tapered roller bearings.
Electric pitting at middle of rolling contact surfaces.

Photo M 1
Inner ring of cylindrical roller bearing.
Raceway surface is corrugated by electric pitting.

Photo M 3
Magnified (x400) pitting of roller shown in Photo M-2.
Nital etchant develops a white layer on the cross
section.

Solution
Avoid flow of electric
current by averting
current with a slip ring
or insulation bearing.

Explanation of magnified photo M-3

166

Rolling Path Skewing

Condition
Rolling element contact
path on raceway surface
strays or skews.

Cause
Deformation or tilt of
bearing ring due to oor
accuracy of shaft or
housing.
Poor rigidity of shaft or
housing.
Deflection of shaft due to
excessive clearance.

Photo N 1
Spherical roller bearing.
Contacts on inner ring, outer ring, and rollers are not
even.
The cause is poor mounting.

Solution
(1) Improvement in
machining accuracy of
shaft and housing.
(2) Improvement of rigidity
of shaft and housing.
(3) Employment of
adequate clearance.

Photo N 2
Outer ring of tapered roller bearings.
Contact path on raceway surface strays.
The cause is poor mounting.

Photo N 3
Rollers of tapered roller bearing of which outer ring is
shown in photo N-2.
Contact marks on rolling contact surfaces are not even.

167

Damage to Retainers
Condition
Breaking of retainer
Wear of pockets or
guide
Loosening or breaking
of rivet

Cause
Excessive moment load.
High speed spinning or
large fluctuation of
speed.
Poor lubrication.
Trapping of foreign
objects.
Heavy vibration.
Poor mounting (cocked
bearing)
Excessive heat (plastic
retainer in particular)

Solution
(1) Improvement in load
conditions.
(2) Improvement in
lubrication system and
lubricant.
(3) Selection of optimum
retainer.
(4) Improvement in
handling.
(5) Study in rigidity of
shaft and housing.

Photo O 2
Retainer of spherical roller bearing.
Breakage of partitions between pockets of pressed steel
retainer.

Photo O 1
Retainer of angular contact ball bearing.
Breakage of machined high tension brass retainer L1.
The cause is poor lubrication.

Photo O 3
Retainer of tapered roller bearing.
Breakage of pockets of pressed steel retainer.

Photo O 4
Retainer of cylindrical roller bearing.
Breakage of partitions between pockets of machined
high tension brass casting retainer L1.

168

Creeping
Condition
Fitting surfaces are glazed
or matted, and sometimes
spalled as well.

Cause
Fitting of inner ring is
loose on inner ring drive
bearing, and that of the
outer ring is loose on
outer ring drive bearing.
If the housing is made of
a light alloy such as
aluminum, fit may
become loose due to the
difference of thermal
expansion.

Photo P 1
Inner ring of deep groove ball bearing.
Bore wall glazed by creep.

Photo P 3
Iner ring ring thrust ball bearing.
Spalling and friction cracking due to creep on bore
wall.

Solution
(1) Improvement in fit.
(2) Improvement in
machining accuracy of
shaft and housing.

Photo P 2
Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Spalling due to creep at the middle of bore wall.

Photo P 4
Inner ring of tapered roller bearing.
Spalling and friction cracking on width surface due to
creep. Crack developed into a split reaching bore wall.

169

2.8

Torque

Torque is the turning force through a radius and the units is rated in - Nm
- in the SI-system and in - lb ft - in the imperial system.
The torque developed by asynchronous induction motors varies with the
speed of the motor when it accelerates from full stop or zero speed, to
maximum operating speed.

Locked Rotor or Starting Torque

The Locked Rotor Torque or Starting Torque is the torque the electrical
motor develop when its starts at rest or zero speed.
A high Starting Torque is more important for application or machines
hard to start - as positive displacement pumps, cranes etc. A lower
Starting Torque can be accepted in applications as centrifugal fans or
pumps where the start load is low or close to zero.

170

Pull-up Torque
The Pull-up Torque is the minimum torque developed by the electrical
motor when it runs from zero to full-load speed (before it reaches the
break-down torque point)
When the motor starts and begins to accelerate the torque in general
decrease until it reach a low point at a certain speed - the pull-up torque before the torque increases until it reach the highest torque at a higher
speed - the break-down torque - point.
The pull-up torque may be critical for applications that need power to go
through some temporary barriers achieving the working conditions.
Break-down Torque
The Break-down Torque is the highest torque available before the
torque decreases when the machine continues to accelerate to the
working conditions.
Full-load (Rated) Torque or Braking Torque
The Full-load Torque is the torque required to produce the rated power of
the electrical motor at full-load speed.
In imperial units the Full-load Torque can be expressed as:
T = 5252 Php / nr

(1)

where:
T = full-load torque (lb ft)
Php = rated horsepower
nr = rated rotational speed (rev/min, rpm)
In metric units the rated torque can be expressed as:
T = 9550 PkW / nr

(2)

171

where:
T = rated torque (Nm)
PkW = rated power (kW)
nr = rated rotational speed (rpm)
Example - Electrical Motor and Braking Torque
The torque of a 60 hp motor rotating at 1725 rpm can be expressed as:
Tfl = 60 (hp) 5,252 / 1725 (rpm)
= 182.7 lb ft
NEMA Design
NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) have classified
electrical motors in four different NEMA designs where torques and
starting-load inertia are important criterions.

Accelerating Torque
Accelerating Torque = Available Motor Torque - Load Torque
Reduced Voltage Soft Starters
Reduced Voltage Soft Starters are used to limit the starting current and
reducing the Locked Rotor Torque or Starting Torque and are common
in applications which is hard to start or must be handled with care - as
positive displacement pumps, cranes, elevators and similar.
172

Power versus torque and motor velocity in electric motors are

indicated below:
Motor Velocity (rpm)
2000
1000
Torque

3450
Power
p

500

in lbf

ft lbf

Nm

in lbf

ft lbf

Nm

in lbf

ft lbf

Nm

in lbf

ft lbf

Nm

.75

.5

.1

.6

.6

.3

.1

26

0.5

4.2

.1

.3

.1

.9

.3

.9

0.7

89

5.8

1.4

.5

.1

.3

.1

26

0.5

4.2

52

8.5

.2

.6

.2

.9

0.7

89

5.8

1.4

78

1.5

2.7

.7

.6

58

3.1

15

6.3

30

2.5

.5

.6

37

36

73

45

07

.5

83

15

30

260

05

42

74

73

45

07

891

58

14

65

30

260

05

42

521

10

85

57

88

576

31

78

151

63

56

48

45

07

891

58

14

781

15

27

31

260

05

42

521

10

85

042

20

70

13

03

576

31

78

151

63

56

302

25

12

096

24

891

58

14

781

15

27

563

30

55

279

07

45

206

84

49

412

68

99

823

35

97

461

22

65

521

10

85

042

20

70

0084

40

140

644

37

86

836

36

21

672

73

41

1344

45

282

00

827

52

07

151

63

56

302

25

12

2605

050

425

25

283

90

58

939

28

45

878

57

91

5756

313

781

50

12

740

28

10

727

94

34

454

88

069

8907

576

137

75

31

197

66

61

515

60

23

1029

19

247

2058

838

494

00

49

654

04

13

302

25

12

2605

050

425

5210

101

850

25

68

110

43

65

090

91

01

4180

182

603

8361

363

206

25

68

110

43

65

090

91

01

4180

182

603

8361

363

206

50

87

567

81

16

878

57

91

5756

313

781

1512

626

562

.5

173

Power versus torque (Continued):

Motor Velocity (rpm)
2000
1000
Torque

3450
Power

500

in lbf

ft lbf

Nm

in lbf

ft lbf

Nm

in lbf

ft lbf

Nm

in lbf

ft lbf

Nm

75

05

024

19

68

666

22

80

7332

444

959

4663

889

918

00

24

480

57

20

454

88

069

8907

576

137

7814

151

275

50

61

394

33

23

1029

19

247

2058

838

494

4117

676

987

00

98

307

09

26

2605

050

425

5210

101

850

0419

202

699

50

36

221

85

29

4180

182

603

8361

363

206

6722

727

412

50

10

0047

37

136

7332

444

959

4663

889

918

9326

777

837

00

48

0961

13

239

8907

576

137

7814

151

275

5629

302

549

174

Asynchronous Motor Starting Systems

Introduction
The locked-rotor current of typical induction motors, started across-theline, is approximately six times full-load current. A current of that
magnitude causes increased heating of the winding, undesirable voltage
dips on the power line and undue mechanical stresses on gears, couplings
and other parts of the equipment.
Through methods described in this section, the inrush current for an
induction motor may be reduced to an acceptable level, thereby assuring
satisfactory operation of the motor. Before choosing a starting method,
however, consider these factors:
Compatibility of motor windings with starting method:
1. Torque requirements of the driven equipment;
2. Overload protection of motor and control
3. Initial cost (which varies considerably).
There are three methods for limiting the current and torque when
starting induction motors:
1. Reduction of terminal voltage by use of an auto-transformer,
resistors, reactors; or electronic soft starter.
2. Reconnection of the stator winding using the series-parallel,
why-delta or part-winding method.
3. Reduction in voltage and frequency by variable-frequency
drive.
3.1 Starting Methods
Direct on-line starting
This is the simplest mode, where the stator is directly connected to the
mains supply. The motor starts with its own characteristics.

175

When it is switched on, the motor behaves like a transformer with its
secondary, formed by the very low resistance rotor cage, in short circuit.
There is a high induced current in the rotor which results in a current
peak in the mains supply:
Current on starting = 5 to 8 rated Current.
The average starting torque is:
T on starting = 0.5 to 1.5 rated T.
Star-Delta Starting

176

This starting system can only be used with a motor where both ends of its
three stator windings are fitted to a terminal board.
Furthermore, the winding must be done so that the delta connection
matches the mains voltage: e.g. a 380V 3-phase supply will need a motor
with 380V delta and 660V star coiling.
The principle is to start the motor by connecting the star windings at
mains voltage, which divides the motors rated star voltage by 3 (in the
example above, the mains voltage at 380V = 660V / 3).
Star-delta starting is suitable for machines with a low resistive torque or
which start with no load (e.g. wood-cutting machines). Variants may be
required to limit the transient phenomena above a certain power level.
One of these is a 1-2 second delay in the shift from star to delta.
Such a delay weakens the counter-electromotive force and hence the
transient current peak.
This can only be used if the machine has enough inertia to prevent too
much speed reduction during the time delay.
Another system is 3-step starting: star-delta + resistance-delta.

177

There is still a break, but the resistor in series with the delta-connected
windings for about three seconds lowers the transient current. This stops
the current from breaking and so prevents the occurrence of transient
phenomena.
Use of these variants implies additional equipment, which may result in a
significant rise in the cost of the installation.
Part Winding Motor Starting
This system, not widely used in Europe, is quite common in the North
American market (voltage of 230/460, a ratio of 1:2). This type of motor
has a stator winding divided into two parallel windings with six or twelve
output terminals. It is equivalent to two half motors of equal power.

The part winding starter reduces inrush current by using two different
sets of windings in the motor. Therefore, part winding starters can be
used only with motors having stator windings divided into two equal
parts with the terminals of each part available for external connection.

178

The part winding starter consists of two across the line starters and a
timer. The first starter is used to connect one winding of the motor across
the line. The starting current from one winding will be about 50% of the
starting current if both windings were connected. The starting torque is
correspondingly 50%.
Because the starting torque is so low and will not increase until the
second winding is connected, the motor may not begin to accelerate.
Therefore, the time delay for the second winding to be energized should
not be more than 4 seconds.
When the second winding is energized, the inrush current will increase
depending upon the speed of the motor when the second winding is
energized.
Primary Resistance Starter
A Primary Resistance Starter closes the contacts connecting a motor to a
power supply by way of resistors. The resistors provide a voltage drop to
reduce the starting voltage of the motor. The value of the resistors is
chosen to provide adequate starting torque while minimizing starting
current.

Motor inrush current declines during motor acceleration reducing the

voltage drop across the resistors and providing more motor torque. This
results in smooth acceleration. After a period of time, the primary

179

contacts open, and the resistors are shorted out by an additional set of
contacts. At this point, full voltage is supplied to the motor.

Primary resistance starting provides the smoothest, shock free starts of

all methods. Approximately seventy percent of full starting torque is
available, and applications, such as conveyors moving fragile items, are
well suited to this technique.

180

Autotransformer starting
An autotransformer starter reduces inrush current by using a transformer
in the line just ahead of the motor to step down the voltage applied to the
motor terminals. By reducing the voltage, the current drawn from the line
is reduced during start-up.

Figure 3.1 Single Line Diagram

181

When the setting time on the timer has expired, the autotransformer is
bypassed.
The 1S contactor drops out, the run contactor closes, and the 2S
contactor opens, proving full voltage to the motor. The ABB
autotransformer starter is a closed transition type, meaning that the motor
remains connected to the line during the entire acceleration period.
The transformer has three taps which provide 50%, 65% and 80% of full
line voltage. At delivery, the transformer is connected to the 65% tap; the
inrush current will be reduced to 42% of normal; and the starting torque
will be reduced to 42%.

The autotransformer starter can be used for any LV squirrel-cage motor

at over 150kW. It does however make equipment rather expensive
because of the high cost of the autotransformer.
Solid State Starters
Solid state starters use no bulky or moving parts. These devices consist
of self-contained electronic circuitry. The amount of current flow to the
motor is controlled by using solid state devices, known in general as
thyristor.

182

The function of these devices is to allow a smooth increase in starting

voltage into the motor once a predetermined starting current has been
reached. The values for different levels of the gating current can be set in
the device.

Overall starting current and torque can be adjusted by choosing devices

which have different current ratings. Solid state starters usually include
other functions such as overload protection.

183

Soft Starter Starting/Slackening

This is an effective starting system for starting and stopping a motor
smoothly.
It can be used for:
Current limitation.
Torque adjustment.
Control by current limitation sets a maximum current (3 to 4 x RC)
during the starting stage and lowers torque performance. This control is
especially suitable for turbo-machines (centrifugal pumps, fans).
Control by torque adjustment optimizes torque performance in the
starting process and lowers mains inrush current. This is suited to
constant torque machines. This type of starter can have many different
diagrams:
1.
2.
3.
4.

One-way operation,
Two-way operation,
Device shunting at the end of the starting process,
Starting and slackening several motors in cascade, - etc.

Soft-Starter

184

Frequency Converter Starting

Variable or adjustable speed drives have been used for more than 20
years in a wide range of applications. Ranging from single motor driven
pumps, fans and compressors, to highly sophisticated multi-drive
machines, variable speed drives have the ability to change motor speed to
meet the needs of a driven load. Controlled speed allows more efficient
processing and reduces energy consumption.
Variable Speed Drives use solid state devices to vary supply voltage
frequency. They allow for a constant ratio of voltage to frequency.
Variable Speed Drives are relatively expensive. However, these devices
provide an exceptional degree of control over motor operations.
Furthermore, the energy savings resulting from variable speed drives
more than offsets the higher first cost
This is an effective starting system to use whenever speed must be
controlled and adjusted. Its purposes include:
1. Starting with high-inertia loads.
2. Starting with high loads on supplies with low short-circuit
capacity.
3. Optimization of electricity consumption adapted to the speed of
"turbo-machines".
This starting system can be used on all types of machines.
It is a solution primarily used to adjust motor speed, starting being a
secondary purpose.

185

Table 3.1 - Starting Characteristics of Induction Motors in Percent

of Full-Voltage Value

Summary Table of 3-phase Motor Starting Systems

Motor
Cost
Motor starting
current
Voltage dip
Voltage and
current
harmonics
Power factor
Number of
starts available
Available
torque
Thermal stress
Mechanical
shocks
Recommended
type of load
High inertia
loads

Direct
on-line

Star-delta

Standard

Standard

+
5 to 10
RC

++

Part
windings
6
windings
++

2 to 3 RC

2 RC

Resistors

Autotransformers

Slip ring
motors

Soft
starter

Frequency
converter

Standard

Standard

Specific

Standard

Standard

+++
Approx.
4.5 RC

+++

+++
Approx.
2 RC

+++
4 to 5
RC

++++

Low

Low

Low

1.7 to 4 RC

RC

High

High on
connection
change

Low

Low

Low; precautions
to take in DOL
connection

High

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

Low

High

High

Low

Low

Moderate

Low

Low

High

Restricted

2-3 times
more than
DOL

3-4 times
more than
DOL

Moderate
3-4 times
more
than
DOL

Limited

High

Approx.
0.5 RT
Moderate

1.5 to 2
RT
Low

Approx.
2.5 RT
Very high
Tres
eleve

RT

Approx. 0.5 RT

Moderate

High

Moderate

Moderate
2-3 times
more
than
DOL
Approx.
2 RT
Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

Low

Moderate

Low

No-load

Ascending
torque

Pumps
and fans

Pumps and fans

Any

Pumps
and fans

Any

No

No

No

No

Yes

No

Yes

0.2 to 0.5
RT
High
Moderate

Any
Yes*

2 RT

186

3-4 times more

than DOL

3.2 Single-phase motor starting

A single-phase motor cannot start on its own, so there are different ways
to run it.
Auxiliary phase starting
In this type of motor, the stator has two windings geometrically offset by
90.
When it is switched on, because the coils are made differently, a current
C1 crosses the main phase and a weaker current C2, noticeably shifted
by p/2, circulates in the auxiliary phase. The fields which are generated
are produced by two currents that are phase-shifted in relation to each
other, so the resulting rotating field is strong enough to trigger no-load
starting of the motor.

When the motor has reached about 80% of its speed, the auxiliary phase
can be cut off (centrifugal coupling) or kept running. The motor stator
thus becomes a two-phase stator, either on starting or all the time.

187

The connections of a phase can be inverted to reverse the direction of

rotation.
As the starting torque is low, it should be raised by increasing the offset
between the two fields the coils produce.
Auxiliary phase and resistance starting
A resistor in series with the auxiliary phase increases its impedance and
the offset between C1 and C2.
Operation at the end of the starting process is the same as with the
auxiliary phase on its own.
Auxiliary phase and inductance starting
This works in the same way as above, but the resistor is replaced by an
inductance in series with the auxiliary phase to increase the offset
between the two currents.
Auxiliary phase and capacitor starting
This is the most widespread device, where a capacitor is set in the
auxiliary phase. For a permanent capacitor, the working value is about
8F for a 200W motor.

188

Starting purposes may require an extra capacitor of 16F which is

eliminated when the starting process is over.
As a capacitor produces a phase shift that is the opposite of an
inductance one, during starting and operation, the motor works much like
a two-phase one with a rotating field. The torque and power factor are
high. The starting torque ST is more or less three times more than the
rated torque RT and the maximum torque Tmax reaches 2 RT.
When starting is complete, it is best to maintain the phase-shift between
the currents, though the value of the capacity can be reduced because the
stator impedance has increased.
The diagram represents a single-phase motor with a permanentlyconnected capacitor. Other arrangements exist, such as opening the
phase-shift circuit by a centrifugal switch when a given speed is reached.
Only low-powered 4-pole motors of no more than 4kW are suitable for
this system.
Manufacturers provide tables for selecting capacitors with the right
values.
Shaded pole winding starting
This device is used in very low-powered motors (around a hundred
watts). The poles have notches with short-circuited conducting rings
inserted in them. The induced current this produces distorts the rotating
field and triggers the starting process.
Efficiency is low but adequate in this power range.

189

Conclusion
When selecting the starting method for a specific motor consideration
must be given to compatibility of motor and starting method, torque
requirements, cost of equipment, and so forth. The various starting
methods described in this section and summarized the best starting and
Table 4.1 are meant to be a guided for determining the best starting
method for your motor.

Autotransformer starting enables the motor to produce a

comparatively high starting torque for a given value of line
current.
Resistor and starting are more economical than the use of an
autotransformer, but the starting torque is less for a given value
of line current.
Wye-delta staring, which requires a special winding design, is
the prevalent starting method in Europe.
Part-winding starting widely used to reduce lighting flicker and
shaft stress in pumps.
The electronic soft start reduces starting voltage and torque.
A variable-frequency drives permits starting torque and
acceleration to be controlled.

190

Motor Protection and Coordination

Introduction
Motors may be subjected to overloads. These kinds of overloads arise for
several reasons, for example,

Because the friction conditions of the driven machines change,

Because pumps have to work against different pressure heads
When the tool engages more powerfully and the transport
carriage has a greater load,
Because start-ups or braking operations are too long,
Due to blocked rotors.

Motors that are designed for a specific relationship between the load,
start-up time and switch-off time can also be overload if the start-up time
is lengthened or the switch-off time is reduced while the current
consumption is kept constant. These kinds of time changes can also
change torque characteristics. If the torque increases, the current
consumption increases as well, leading to an increase in motor
temperature with every increase in current.
A long period of increased current consumption may damage or destroy
the insulation of the motor windings.
The lifespan of motors depends very much on the observance of
temperature limits. Examinations have shown that the lifespan of motors
is considerably reduced with even the slightest continuous over191

temperature above the permissible continuous temperature limit. As a

rough guide it can be assumed that the lifespan of a winding insulation is
reduced by 50% with every over-temperature of 100C.
Code Requirements
There are several basic requirement are typically specified for a motor
circuit. In the Philippines, Philippine Electrical Code has the
requirements that must be met. Most often the National Electrical Code
(NEC) is followed as the basis for most electrical installations.
Article 430 of the NEC describes the requirements for installations
involving motors, motor circuits, and controllers. In Article 430, the
requirements for motor branch circuit short-circuit, and ground fault
protection and motor overload protection are specified. Figure below
identifies the control and protection components required for a motor
branch circuit.
Motor Branch Circuit Requirements Based

192

4.1 Motors protection

Every electric motor has operating limits. Overshooting these limits will
eventually destroy it and the systems it drives, the immediate effect being
operating shutdown and losses.
This type of receiver, which transforms electrical energy into mechanical
energy, can be the seat of electrical or mechanical incidents.
Electrical
a. Power surges, voltage drops, unbalance and phase losses causing
variations in the absorbed current.
b. Short circuits where the current can reach levels that can destroy
the receiver.
Mechanical
a. Rotor stalling, momentary or prolonged overloads increasing the
current absorbed by the motor and dangerously heating its
windings.
The cost of these incidents can be high.
a. It includes production loss
b. Loss of raw materials,
c. Repair of the production equipment,
d. Non-quality production and delivery delays.
The economic necessity for businesses to be more competitive implies
reducing the costs of discontinuous output and non-quality.
These incidents can also have a serious impact on the safety of people in
direct or indirect contact with the motor.
Protection is necessary to overcome these incidents, or at least mitigate
their impact and prevent them from causing damage to equipment and
disturbing the power supply. It isolates the equipment from the mains
power by means of a breaking device which detects and measures
electrical variations (voltage, current, etc.).

193

Every starter motor unit should include

1. Protection against short circuits, to detect and break abnormal
currents usually 10 times greater than the rated current (RC)
as fast as possible.
2. Protection against overloads to detect current increase up to
about 10 RC and open the power circuit before the motor heats
up, damaging the insulation.
These protections are ensured by special devices such as fuses, circuit
breakers and overload relays or by integral devices with a range of
protections.
Ground fault protection, which covers personal protection and fire safety,
is not dealt with here because it is normally part of the electrical
distribution in equipment, workshops or entire buildings.
4.2 Protection against short circuits
Overview
A short circuit is a direct contact between two points of different electric
potential:
1. Alternating current: phase-to-phase contact, phase-to-neutral
contact, phase-to-ground contact or contact between windings in
a phase.
2. Direct current: contact between two poles or between the ground
and the pole insulated from it.
This can have a number of causes: damage to the varnish insulating the
conductors, loose, broken or stripped wires or cables, metal foreign
bodies, conducting deposits (dust, moisture, etc.), seepage of water or
other conducting fluids, wrong wiring in assembly or maintenance.
A short circuit results in a sudden surge of current which can reach
several hundred times the working current within milliseconds. A short
circuit can have devastating effects and severely damage equipment. It is
typified by two phenomena.
194

A thermal phenomenon
A thermal phenomenon corresponding to the energy released into the
electrical circuit crossed by the short circuit current I for at time t based
on the formula I2t and expressed as A2s. This thermal effect can cause:
1. Melting of the conductor contacts.
2. Destruction of the thermal elements in a bimetal relay if
coordination is type 1.
3. Generation of electrical arcs.
4. Calcinations of insulating material.
5. Fire in the equipment.
An electrodynamics phenomenon
An electrodynamics phenomenon between conductors producing
intensive mechanical stress as the current crosses and causing:
1. Distortion of conductors forming the motor windings.
2. Breakage of the conductors insulating supports.
3. Repulsion of the contacts (inside the contactors) likely to melt
and weld them.
These results are dangerous to property and people. It is therefore
imperative to guard against short circuits with protection devices that can
detect faults and interrupt the short circuit rapidly, before the current
reaches its maximum value.
Two protection devices are commonly used for this:
1. Fuses, which break the circuit by melting and must be replaced
afterwards.
2. Magnetic circuit breakers which automatically break the circuit
and only require to be reset.
Short-circuit protection can also be built into multifunction devices such
as motor starter protection and contactor breakers.

195

Definitions and characteristics

The main characteristics of short-circuit protection devices are:
1. Breaking capacity: the highest value in the estimated shortcircuit current that a protection device can break at a given
voltage.
2. Closing capacity: the highest value a protection device can reach
at its rated voltage in specified conditions. The closing value is k
times the break capacity as shown in the table below.

Break and closing capacities for circuit breakers by the IEC

60947-2 standard.
Fuses
Fuses are over-current protective devices that are placed in an electrical
circuit to protect the control components, wiring, insulation, and motor
from damage caused by excessive current and associated heat.
Overcurrents are considered any increase in continuous current above the
normal operating current level.
In motor circuits, overcurrents are classified in two different categories.
Motor overloads are any overcurrents up to or slightly above locked rotor
current (6-8 times FLA). This range of overcurrent is protected by
overload relay protection devices which will be discussed in more detail
later. Short-circuit overcurrents are those produced by short-circuit or
ground fault conditions with fault current levels in excess of 8 times

196

FLA. In todays industrial facilities, short-circuit overcurrents can easily

reach 50,000A. If the short-circuit overcurrents are not interrupted within
fractions of a second, severe damage to the electrical installation can
occur including motor damage, conductor and controller damage or even
fires. In motor circuits, fuses best provide protection from damage
caused by shortcircuit currents.
Throughout the world, many different types of fuses are used for shortcircuit protection in motor circuits. In North America, UL and CSA fuses
are most commonly used. In other parts of the world, DIN (German) and
BS88 (British) fuses are dominant. Even though the construction and
fastening means are quite different (See different types of fuses below),
all these fuses still perform the same essential function of short-circuit
protection.
Different Types of Fuses
BS88 Fuses

IEC fuse type: Fuse-link for bolted

connection
Voltage rating: 660V AC
Interrupting rating: 80,000A
Standard cartridge sizes: A1, A2, A3,
A4, B1, B2, B3, and B4
Typical ampere ratings: 2400A
Construction: Blade type for bolted
connection
Where
commonly used:
United
Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand,
Asia, and Middle East

197

DIN Fuses

IEC fuse type: Fuse-link with blade

contacts
Voltage rating: 660V AC
Interrupting rating: 100,000A
Standard cartridge sizes: 00, 0, 1, and 2
Typical ampere ratings: 2400A
Construction: Blade type
Where commonly used: Europe, South
America, Middle East, and India

UL/CSA Fuses

Operation: Time-delay; Current-limiting

UL fuse type: Class CC
CSA fuse type: HRCI-MISC
Voltage rating: 600V AC
Interrupting rating: 200,000A
Standard cartridge sizes: 30A
Typical ampere ratings: 130A
Construction: Ferrule type
Where commonly used: North America

UL/CSA Fuses

Operation: Time-delay; Current-limiting

UL fuse type: Class J
CSA fuse type: HRCI-J
Voltage rating: 600V AC
Interrupting rating: 200,000A
Standard cartridge sizes: 30A, 60A,
100A, 200A, 400A and 600A
Typical ampere ratings: 1600A
Construction: 160A; Ferrule type 61
600A; Blade type for bolted connection
Where commonly used: North America

198

Operation: Dual-element, Time-delay, Current-limiting

UL fuse type: Class RK1, RK5

CSA fuse type: HCR-R
Voltage rating: 250 and 600V AC
Interrupting rating: 200,000A
Standard cartridge sizes: 30A, 60A,
100A, 200A, 400A and 600A
Typical ampere ratings: 1/10600A
Construction: 160A Ferrule Rejection
type; 61600A; Blade type for wedge
clamp connection
Where commonly used: North America

Operation: Fast-acting; Current-limiting

UL fuse type: Class T

CSA fuse type: HCR-T
Voltage rating: 300 and 600V AC
Interrupting rating: 200,000A
Standard cartridge sizes: 30A, 60A,
100A, 200A, 400A, 600A, 800A, 1200A
Typical ampere ratings: 11200A
Construction: 160A; Ferrule type; 61
1200A; Blade type for bolted connection
Where commonly used: North America
CSA fuse type: HRCII-C
Voltage rating: 600V AC
Interrupting rating: 200,000A
Standard cartridge sizes: 30A, 60A,
100A, 200A, and 400A
Typical ampere ratings: 1400A
Construction: Blade type for bolted
connection
Where commonly used: Canada

199

Fuse Performance Requirements

Fuses are designed to meet specific standard performance requirements.
In the case of UL and CSA fuses, specific characteristics such as current
ratings, voltage rating, fuse dimensions, rejection features, withstand
ratings, maximum I2T and Ip current let-through limits, trip time
parameters (time-delay) and more are specified in the standards.
Table below compares the performance requirements of various UL and
CSA fuse classes. As you can see, different class fuses with similar
current ratings can have significantly different results on I2T and Ip letthrough values.

200

Fuses perform phase-by-phase (single pole) protection with a high break

capacity at low volume. They limit I2t and electrodynamics stress
(Icrte). They are mounted:
1. On special supports called fuse holders.
2. Or on isolators in the place of sockets and links.

Fuse holder switch

Note that trip indicator fuse cartridges can be wired to an all-pole
switching device (usually the motor control contactor) to prevent singlephase operation when they melt.
The fuses used for motor protection are specific in that they let through
the overcurrents due to the magnetizing current when motors are
switched on. They are not suitable for protection against overload (unlike
gG fuses) so an overload relay must be added to the motor power supply
circuit.
In general, their size should be just above the full load current of the
motor.
Magnetic circuit breakers
An increasingly popular method of providing short-circuit protection in
motor circuits is with the use of circuit breakers. Circuit breakers have
become very popular due to the fact that following a fault condition,
circuit breakers can be easily reset once proper troubleshooting and
maintenance procedures are completed. The ability to reset a circuit
breaker following a fault condition, allows the manufacturing process to
begin operation with minimal downtime.

201

International Circuit Breakers

Motor circuit protectors that meet IEC 947 requirements are most
common outside North America. The IEC type circuit protector
incorporates several functions within a single device including On-Off
push buttons for local control and motor circuit isolation, adjustable
bimetallic elements for overload protection, and magnetic trip elements
for short-circuit protection.
These circuit breakers protect plant from short circuits within the limits
of their breaking capacity and by means of magnetic triggers (one per
phase).

Magnetic Circuit-Breaker and its graphic symbol

Magnetic circuit breaking is all-pole from the outset: one magnetic

trigger will simultaneously open all the poles.
For low short-circuit currents, circuit breakers work faster than fuses.
This protection complies with the IEC 60947-2 standard.
To break a short-circuit current properly, there are three imperatives:
1. Early detection of the faulty current.
2. Rapid separation of the contacts.
3. Breakage of the short-circuit current.

202

Most magnetic circuit breakers for motor protection are current-limiting

devices and so contribute to coordination. Their very short cut-off time
breaks the short-circuit current before it reaches its maximum amplitude.
This limits the thermal and electrodynamics effects and improves the
protection of wiring and equipment.

Curves of magnetic circuit breaker tripping

4.3 Protection against overload
Overview
Overload is the commonest fault in motors. It is revealed by an increase
in the current absorbed by the motor and by thermal effects. The
insulation category sets normal motor heating at an ambient temperature
of 40C. Any overshoot of this operating limit leads to a reduction in
lifetime by premature ageing of the insulating material.
It should however be noted that overloads leading to overheating will not
have any immediately detrimental effects if they are short and infrequent.
They do not necessarily involve stopping the motor but it is important to
restore normal conditions very quickly.

203

The importance of proper protection against overload is easy to

understand:
1. It preserves the lifetime of motors by preventing them from
working in overheating conditions.
2. It ensures operating continuity by:
a. Preventing motors from stopping abruptly.
b. After tripping, enabling restart in the best conditions of
safety for people and equipment.
Actual operating conditions (temperature, altitude and standard duty) are
requisite for determining a motors operating values (power, current) and
choosing adequate protection against overload. Operating values are
given by the motor manufacturer.

204

Depending on the level of protection required, overload protection can be

provided by relays:
1. Overload, thermal (bimetal) or electronic relays, which provide
minimum protection against:
a. Overload, by controlling the current absorbed on each phase.
b. Unbalanced or missing phase, by a differential device.
c. Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor probe
relays.
d. Over torque relays.
e. Multifunction relays.
Reminder: A protection relay does not break a circuit. It is designed to
open a breaking device with the requisite breaking capacity for the faulty
current, usually a contactor.
For this purpose, protection relays have a fault contact (NC) fitted in
series with the contactor coil.
Overload relays (thermal or electronic)
Overview
These relays protect motors against overload but must sustain the
temporary overload of starting and only trip when starting lasts too long.
Depending on its use, motor starting can range from a few seconds (noload starting, low resistant torque, etc.) to a few dozen seconds (high
resistant torque, high inertia of the driven load, etc.).
Hence the necessity for relays adapted to the starting time. To meet this
need, the IEC 60947-4-1 standard has several categories of overload
relay each defined by its tripping time.

205

The relay size should be chosen on the basis of the motors rated current
and the estimated starting time.
Limits of use are characterized by curves based on the time and value of
the current setting (in multiples of Ir).
These relays have a thermal memory (apart from some electronic ones,
indicated by their manufacturers) and can be connected:
i.
ii.

In series with the load.

Or, for high powers, to current transformers fitted in series with
the load.

206

Bimetal thermal overload relays

These are linked to a contactor to protect the motor, the power supply
and the equipment against low prolonged overload. They are thus
designed to enable the motor to start normally without tripping.
However, they must be protected from strong over currents by a circuit
breaker or fuses.
The operating principle of a thermal overload relay is based on the
distortion of its bimetal strips heated by the current that crosses them.
As the current crosses them, the strips distort and, depending on the
setting, cause the relay contact to open suddenly.
The relay can only be reset when the bimetal strips have adequately
cooled down.
Thermal overload relays work with alternating and direct current and are
usually:
1. 3-pole.
2. Compensated, i.e. insensitive to ambient temperature variations
(same tripping curve from 0C to 40C on a standard gauge.
3. Graduated in motor amperes: current indicated on the motor
plate displayed on the relay.

Operating limit of a differential thermal overload relay (responding

to loss of a phase)

207

They can also respond to a loss of a phase: this is the differential. This
feature prevents the motor from working in single-phase and complies
with standards IEC 60947-4-1 and 60947-6-2.

Operating limit of a differential thermal overload relay (responding

to loss of a phase)

Widely used, this relay is very reliable and cost-effective. It is especially

recommended if there is a risk of rotor locking. It does however have the
disadvantages of imprecision with regard to the thermal status of the
motor and sensitivity to the thermal conditions where it is installed
(housing ventilation, etc.).
Electronic overload relays
These relays have the advantages of electronic systems and build a more
detailed thermal image of the motor. Using a template with the motors
thermal time constants, the system continuously calculates the motor
temperature based on the current crossing it and operating time.
Protection is hence closer to the reality and can prevent inadvertent
tripping. Electronic overload relays are less sensitive to the thermal
conditions where they are installed.

208

Apart from the usual functions of overload relays (protection against

motor overload, unbalance and lack of phase) electronic overload relays
can include options such as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

PTC probe temperature control.

Protection against locking and overtorques.
Protection against phase inversion.
Protection against insulation faults.
Protection against no-load operation, etc.

PTC thermistor probe relays

These protection relays control the actual temperature of the motor to be
protected.
Probes are imbedded into the motor and because they are small, their
thermal inertia is very low, ensuring a very short response time and
hence a very accurate temperature reading.
They directly control the temperature of the stator windings so can be
used to protect motors against: overload, increase in ambient
temperature, ventilation circuit faults, too frequent starting processes,
inching, etc. They consist of:

One or more Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistor

probes in the windings themselves or at any other point likely to
heat (bearings, etc.).

These are static components with resistance that increases suddenly

when the temperature reaches a threshold called the Nominal Operating
Temperature (NOT) as shown by the curve.

209

An electronic device
An electronic device powered by alternating and direct current for
continuous control of the resistance of the probes linked to it. If the NOT
is reached, the strong increase in resistance is detected by a threshold
circuit which then orders a change in the status of the output contacts.
Depending on the probes chosen, this protection mode can be used to:
1. Set off an alarm without stopping the machine (NOT of the
probes lower than the maximum temperature set for the element
to be protected).
2. Or order the machine to stop (the NOT has reached the
maximum level).

210

Electronic device for three thermistor probes

This protection system should be organized upfront because the probes

have to be set in the windings when the motor is manufactured, though
they can be included when new windings are fitted after an incident.
The choice of PTC probes depends on the insulation category and motor
structure. It is usually made by the motor manufacturer or winding fitter
who are the only ones with the requisite skills.
These two conditions mean that PTC probe protection really only applies
to high-end equipment with expensive motors or processes.
Overtorque relays: extra protection

The Overtorque relay

211

In addition to thermal protection by relays or PTC probe, these ensure

protection of the drive chain in the event of rotor locking, mechanical
seizing or inching.
These, unlike most overload relays, have no thermal memory. They have
a set operating time (adjustable current threshold and timing).
An overtorque relay can be used to protect motors against overload when
their starting process is long or very frequent (e.g. inching).
4.4 Multifunction relays
Electromechanical or electronic relays
Electromechanical or electronic relays protect the motor using the
current flowing into the motor. They are perfectly suitable for regular
operation. However, they are not able to take into consideration multiple
potential problems due to voltage temperature or specific application.
Furthermore users requirements as maintenance or production
management has become a major concern and electrical manufacturers
has introduced to the market new products which can be tailored to the
application and offer a global protection for the motor and the driven
load.
Features
These relays has been developed using the following technologies:
voltage and current sensors, the latters use ironless devices (Rogowsky
sensors) which are fast and offer an outstanding linearity:
1. Electronic combining numerical and analogic technologies, the
result being a good capacity for treatment and data storage.
2. Use of field buses to exchange data to and from the PLCs and
other devices.
3. Use of accurate motor modelisation algorithms.
4. Use of embedded programmes whose parameters can be defined.

212

This new generation of product allow to reduce the costs from the design
of the equipment, as PLCs programming are made simple, to the
operation as maintenance cost and downtime are dramatically cut down.
Protection relay selection guide
Main functions are given in the table bellow. More in depth information
can be found in the manufacturer data sheets.

213

Protection relay selection guide

Main functions are given in the table bellow. More in depth information
can be found in the manufacturer data sheets.

Type of relays

Type of control
Current
Protection classes
Overcurrent
Ground Fault
Phase imbalance
Mechanical
locking
during/after starting
No load operation
Voltage and power
supply
Voltage imbalance
Phase loss
Phase inversion
Undervoltage
Overvoltage
Power in power factor
Temperature
PTC probes
PT100 probes
Numerical functions
Truth table
Timer
Starting mode
Direct on line
Reversing
Star delta
Part winding two
speed motors

Overload
relay
(thermorelay
or electronic
relay)

PTC probe
relay

Overtorque
relay

10 et 20
++

+++

++
+

++

Multifunction relay

Segregated
motor
monitor

Built in the
starter

Outside the
starter

5 to 20
+++

5 to 20

5 to 30
+++

++

++

+++

++

++

+++

module

module

+++

+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
module
module

module
module

+++
+++

3 I/O

10 I/O

10 to 20 I/O
++

+++
+++
+++

+++
+++
+++

+++
+++
+++

+++

+++

+
module

+
module

+++
+++

module

module

+++

module

module

+++

Operation/maintenance

Dignostics
Log
Links/communication
Local display
Remote
display
(communication bus)

214

4.5. Motor circuit breakers

Overview
This device is a thermal and a magnetic circuit breaker in the same
package which protects a motor against short circuits and overload by
rapidly opening the faulty circuit. It is a combination of a magnetic
circuit breaker and overload relays. It complies with the IEC 60947-2
and 60947-4-1 standards.

Motor circuit breaker

In these circuit breakers, the magnetic devices (protection against short

circuits) have a non-adjustable threshold, usually about 10 times the
maximum current setting of thermal release units.
The thermal elements (protection against overload) are compensated for
fluctuations of the ambient temperature. The thermal protection threshold
can be adjusted on the front of the unit. Its value must correspond to the
rated current of the motor to be protected.
In all these circuit breakers, coordination (type II) between the thermal
elements and short-circuit protection is built into the device.

215

Moreover, in the open position, the insulation distance (between

contacts) in most of these units is adequate to ensure isolation. They also
have a padlocking device.
Tripping curves
A motor trip switch is characterized by its tripping curve, which
represents the time it takes to trip based on the current (multiple of Ir).
This curve is divided into four zones:
1. lc normal operating zone 1. As long as I < Ir, there is no tripping.
2. Thermal overload zone 2. Tripping is ensured by the thermal
feature; the greater the overload, the less time it takes to trip. The
standards refer to this as inverse time.
3. Strong high current zone 3, monitored by the instant magnetic
or short-circuit feature which works instantaneously (less than
5ms).
4. And on some circuit breakers (electronic), an intermediate zone
4, monitored by a timed-delay magnetic feature with a delay
function (0 to 300ms). The standards refer to this as definite
time-lag. This prevents accidental tripping at switch-on with
magnetizing peak currents.

Thermal magnetic circuit breaker operating zones

216

Their limits are:

Ir : setting current for protection against overload; should
correspond to the rated current value (In) of the motor to be
protected.
Im : tripping current of timed magnetic protection.
Iinst: tripping current of instant magnetic protection. This can range
from 3 to 17 times Ir but is usually close to 10 Ir.
Ics : service rated breaking capacity in short circuit.
Icu : ultimate (maximum) breaking capacity in short circuit.
Conclusion
Motor protection is an essential function for ensuring the continuity of
machine operation. The choice of protection device must be made with
extreme care. The user would be wise to select devices that include
electronic communication features to foresee and prevent any faults.
These greatly improve the detection of abnormalities and the speed with
which service is restored.

217

218

Motor Starter Co-ordination

5.1 Concepts
The need for co-ordination
All motor starters include devices which provide short-circuit protection,
power switching and overload protection. The devices may be separate
components, such as a set of fuses or an MCCB, a contactor, and a
thermal overload relay.
Alternatively, the functions may be combined in a single component - a
fully integrated starter.
Under overload conditions, the overload protection will trip the supply to
the motor in a time which depends upon the current. The greater the
current, the faster the overload will trip, but in the event of a short
circuit. Its response time is still not fast enough to prevent damage to the
motor or starter. Separate protection against short circuits is, therefore,
necessary.
Motor starters may, however, be subjected to a whole range of fault
conditions, from a minor overload to a high-current short circuit. If the
devices making up the starter are not properly coordinated, certain levels
of fault may not be correctly handled. Possible consequences include
overheated cables and equipment, with an associated risk of fire: contact
welding in the switching device, rendering it unfit for further service, and
permanent degradation of the characteristics of the overload protection
device, rendering it unreliable - or even unsafe - for future use.
Standards
Telemecanique have offered certified motor starters for a number of
years. The original combinations were tested to IEC 292 providing Type
'c' co-ordination.
The current standards were introduced as the IEC 947 series for Low
Voltage Switchgear and Control-gear in the early 1990s. These were then
adopted by CENELEC in Europe and published as the EN 60947 series
of standards.
219

More recently the IEC has adopted the EN numbering system for
standards, with many standards now being developed in parallel by the
IEC and CENELEC and published at the same time. Thus IEC 60947-1
and EN 60947-1 are basically the same standard with possible minor
differences in the text.
CENELEC EN standards are published as an identical version by the
Standards organization of each European country using the prefix of that
body. For example, in the United Kingdom- EN 60947-1 has been
published as BS EN 60947-1, All standards shown in the catalogue as
IEC/EN can therefore be read as the equivalent BS EN standard.
5.2 Solutions
Three products
Telemecanique 'd' and 'F' range contactors, used in conjunction with
Merlin Gerin magnetic-only (MA) trip MCCBs or GEC Alsthom brand
type T HRC fuses (marketed by GE Power Controls), and LR2 bimetal
thermal or LR9 electronic overload relays, offer an exceptional versatile
choice of motor starting options. The range of options is increased still
further by choosing an LT6 multifunction protection relay in place of
standard overloads.
Two products
Many users prefer the convenience of a resettable circuit breaker to the
use of replaceable HRC fuses. In this situation, Telemecanique 'd' and 'F'
range contactors, used in conjunction with GV2 or GV7 motor circuit
breakers having a motor overload characteristic, provide an attractive
solution, GV2 and GV7 motor circuit breakers are specifically designed
for use in motor starter circuits, and combine overload and short-circuit
protection in a single device.
Single product
For the vast majority of straightforward motor starting requirements up
to 30kW, fully integrated single-component products in the Integral

220

range are an ideal and economical choice. Integral Control and

Protection Switching (CPS) devices offer a true black-box solution, with
fit-and-forget performance, even after being subjected to short circuit
fault conditions. All products in the range are fully tested to IEC/EN
60947-6-2, and automatically offer total co-ordination under all
operating conditions.
Fuse and MCCB Type 2 combinations
IEC / EN 60947-4-1
This standard covers both contactors and motor starters. Provisions relate
specifically to motor starters assembled from separate components typically a set of fuses or magnetic-only MCCB, a contactor, and a
thermal overload relay. Starters comprising other combinations of
components are, however, not excluded.
This standard defines two levels of co-ordination:

Type '1' providing complete protection for individuals in the case

of a fault, but not directly limiting the amount of damage which
may be caused to the starter, meaning costly downtime after a
fault, together with the inconvenience and expense of having to
replace damaged equipment.
Type '2' co-ordination also offers complete protection for
individuals against injury, in the event of a fault, but additionally
offers an improved level of protection for the starter, potentially
reducing plant downtime.

The table below shows the tests which are required for Type '2' coordination but it's important to note that only the r test is compulsory.
Manufacturers who have only carried out the "r' test can still claim Type
2' co-ordination - here is no obligation to carry out the subsequent
making and breaking tests to ensure that the starter is fit for further
service.

221

Test requirements

222

Control and protective switching (CPS)

IEC / EN 60947-6-2
This standard relates specifically to control and protective switching
(CPS) devices, which are more usually referred to as integrated starters.
Because no welding of contacts is allowed under any short circuit fault
condition, this standard does not usually cover starters made up of
separate components, such as a motor protection circuit breaker and a
contactor, mounted on a common baseplate, even though these are
sometimes loosely described as "integrated starters".
It only applies to starters which are designed, manufactured and
marketed as a single, totally-integrated unit meeting all the requirements
of the test sequences specified. This distinction is important, as the
standard demands higher levels of performance than those required by
IEC/EN 60947-4-1 starters assembled from separate components. For
example, IEC/EN 60947-6-2, in addition to a no contact welding
requirement under short circuit conditions, provides guaranteed
continuity of electrical life, even after a number of fault clearances.
The standard ensures the highest level of co-ordination, with
comprehensive protection for personnel and equipment. In addition, as
the table below shows, comprehensive performance testing, involving
thousands of making/breaking capacity operating cycles, both before and
after short-circuit testing, closely resembling the normal operating
conditions of a starter. Users selecting Integral CPS products which
conform to this standard can, therefore, be sure of black-box convenience
with fit-and-forget safe efficient performance with downtime and
stoppages for maintenance reduced to a minimum.
Component selection criteria
Component co-ordination in motor starters
Selection of components for use in a motor starter combination should be
based on the following criteria:

Thermal overload selected to allow a current setting for the rated

full-load current of the motor.
223

SCPD (Fuse, circuit breaker or CPS device) selected to provide

an overload/SCPD crossover current value, which allows correct
motor starting, protection of the overload and contactor under
short circuit conditions, and is suitable for use at the prospective
short circuit current.

Contactor having a suitable AC3 rating with a breaking capacity

greater than the SCPD/overload crossover current, and, when
used with class 20 or class 30 overloads, an adequate
time/current withstand capability.

Coordinate Motor Circuit Protection

In international markets, the IEC motor circuit protectors are recognized
and utilized as stand-alone short-circuit protection devices. Not until the
available fault current exceeds the interrupting capability of the motor
circuit protector, do back-up short-circuit protection devices need to be
used. See diagram below.

224

Several key benefits of using IEC circuit breakers include:

Provide useful group motor ratings

Resettable after fault occurs
Visible trip indication
Overload protection
Provide local On-Off and isolation

Type 2 Coordination
Type 2 Coordination is a term used to describe a level of protection that
can be achieved by properly coordinating the selection of the shortcircuit protection device with the withstand capability of the motor
controller and overload protection device in the circuit. The concept of
Type 2 Coordination originated from the IEC (International
Electrotechnical Commission) standard 947-4-1. In this standard, two
levels of short-circuit coordination are identified.
Type 1 Coordination is defined as follows:
Under short-circuit conditions, the contactor or starter shall cause no
danger to persons or installation and may not be suitable for further
service without repair and replacement of parts.
In other words, contact welding is allowed in the contactor and overload
burnout is acceptable. In either case, replacement of the control
components is required.
Type 2 Coordination on the other hand, limits the effect of a short-circuit
on the control components. Type 2 Coordination is defined as follows:
Under short-circuit conditions, the contactor or starter shall cause no
danger to persons or installation and shall be suitable for further use.
The risk of contact welding is recognized, in which case the
manufacturer shall indicate the measures to be taken in regard to the
maintenance of the equipment.

225

Figure 5.2 illustrates the results of a short-circuit if a motor branch

circuit was protected by current limiting device vs. a circuit without a
current limiting device. In circuits using a current limiting device, the letthrough energy is limited to less than 1/2 cycle. This limited level of letthrough energy allows the control components to survive a short-circuit
and continue operation with little or no maintenance required. In general,
fuses have had much better current limiting capabilities than do circuit
breakers, although some current limiting circuit breakers can provide
Type 2 Coordination results. It is best to consult the control manufacturer
for recommended short-circuit protection devices required to achieve
Type 2 Coordination. Control manufacturers can provide component
selection data (see Table 5.2) that has already been proven during Type 2
testing programs. By following the manufacturers guidelines, you can
be assured of achieving Type 2 Coordination in your motor branch
circuit installation.
Benefits of Type 2 coordination include:

Increased productivity and less down time

Reduced component replacement costs
Simple selection of SCPDs and motor circuit components with
manufacturer supplied data

226

Table 5.2 Manufacturer Fuse Recommendation for Type 2

Coordination

227

Figure 5.2 - Let-through Heat and Current

228

5.3 Motor Overload Protection

Overload relays are used in a motor circuit to protect
motors and circuit conductors from damage caused by
prolonged periods of overcurrent conditions. If motors
are exposed to increased levels of continuous current and
prolonged periods at locked rotor condition, damage to
the motor and circuit conductors can occur.
Motors can be damaged or destroyed under any of the
following conditions:

Low or high supply voltage

Phase unbalance
Continuous excessive loading
Single-phasing
Jam or stall conditions
Ground/earth faults
Mechanical failures such as seized motor
bearing or binding mechanical linkages

By selecting the proper type of overload relay with the

appropriate functionality, the motor can be protected
from damage caused by these conditions.
Types of Overload Relays
Today three basic types of overload relays are available: eutectic alloy,
bimetal, and solid-state. Lets take a closer look at each type of overload
relay and review the basic features of each.
Eutectic Alloy Overload Relays
Eutectic alloy overload relays are typically used with NEMA motor
starters. These overload relays utilize a solder type alloy within heater
elements. As current moves through the heater element, the solder is
heated until a predetermined melting point (trip point) is reached. At the
trip point, the solder is instantaneously changed from a solid to a liquid,
229

allowing the ratchet mechanism to open a normally closed contact,

dropping out the starter coil circuit.

Key features of a eutectic alloy overload relay:

Tamper-proof
Not effected by nuisance tripping caused by vibration
Manual reset only
Single-phase sensitive
Selectable trip classes 10, 20, 30

Bimetal Overload Relays

230

Two types of bimetal overload relays are available, NEMA and IEC.
The NEMA type bimetal overload relay utilizes replaceable heater
elements that indirectly heat bimetal strips. As the bimetal strips are
heated, they flex towards a trip point, at which time a normally closed
contact will open, dropping out the starter coil.
Key features of a NEMA type bimetal overload relay:

Flexibility of changeable heater elements.

Automatic reset
Selectable trip classes 10, 20, 30
Ambient temperature compensation
Single-phase sensitive

IEC bimetal overload relays are similar to the NEMA devices except that
the heater/bimetal are integral to the overload relay. To allow for added
flexibility, the overload trip setting is adjustable over a range of motor
full load current settings. The typical FLA setting range would be 1.0:1.5
(min. to max. setting). IEC bimetal overload relays are typically designed
to Class 10 trip characteristics. This means that the overload relay will
trip in less than 10 seconds at locked rotor current.
Key features of an IEC type bimetal overload relay are:

Manual or automatic reset

Ambient temperature compensated
Single-phase sensitive
Wide current adjustment range (1:1.5)
231

Solid-state Overload Relays

Solid-state (electronic) overload relays are the newest and fastest

growing type of overload protection devices. Until recently, solid-state
overload relays were large, costly, and impractical for use on the vast
majority of small motors used in industry today. With recent
development in solid-state overload technology, the cost and size of the
solid-state devices have been significantly reduced while the
functionality has been greatly increased. The latest solid-state overload
relay technology utilizes integral current transformers, application
specific integrated circuits (ASIC), and/or microprocessors along with
electromechanical design principles to produce a compact, high
functionality overload protection solution. Available in either NEMA or
IEC versions, the principle of operation is the same. As motor current
passes through the integral current transformers, power is available to
supply the integrated circuit. By monitoring the three-phase power, the
ASIC can process current data, and activate a trip mechanism on
overload conditions, opening a normally closed contact and dropping out
the motor starter coil circuit.

232

Key features of solid-state overload relays:

Trip classes 10, 15, 20, 30
Ambient temperature compensation
Single-phase protection
Manual or automatic reset
Low power consumption (less heating and smaller panels)
Advanced Motor Protection

233

As a result of integrating a microprocessor or an application specific

integrated circuit (ASIC) as the brains of a solid-state overload relay, the
opportunity to add advanced protective functionality to the overload
relay becomes very practical.
Besides basic overload protection, advanced solid-state overload relay
devices can offer additional functionality that previously would have
required several additional protection devices to be used in the motor
circuit. By consolidating many protective features into a single device,
installation costs, component costs, panel size, and maintenance time can
be significantly reduced while performance and efficiency of the system
can be increased.
An additional benefit of solid-state devices is its ability to function via
network communications. Through a communication network, vital
motor information can be collected, processed and displayed in order to
take corrective action prior to reaching fault conditions. Examples of
data that can be obtained through the solid-state overload relay include:

% Thermal capacity used (0100%) How close is the motor to a

trip condition (100%)?
Phase unbalance
Average current
FLA settings
Fault frequency
Fault cause indication

Through triac outputs, control via a communication network can occur.

Control functions include:

Start/Stop
Reset
Restart limit

234

Advanced Solid-State vs. Traditional OLRs

Advanced Protection
Feature
Jam/Stall protection
selectable
- I/O selectable
Ground (earth) fault
protection selectable
- I/O selectable

Single-phase protection
Trip setting accuracy
Repeat accuracy of trip
setting
LED trip indication

Solid-state OLRs
Trips within 0.5 sec at
400% of FLA setting
Monitors phase vector
angles
Trips at ower level prior
to fault level
Trips within two se. on
fully loaded motor
Dip switch setting
increased accuracy
2.5%
Increased accuracy 1%
Fault cause indication
- Jam/Stall
- Ground earth fault
- Improper setting
- Comunication loss
- Test
- Phase loss
- Overload

Traditional OLRs
Relays on overload trip
curve response
None-rely on SCPD

Sensitive to singlephase conditions

Potentiometer or heater
elements: 10%
5% - 10%
None

3.2:1 and 5:1

Wide current adjustment
range
Low power requirement
and low heat dissipation.
Trip classes 10, 15, 20,
30
Network communcations

150 mW per device

Selectable by DIP switch
setting
Control, data acquisition
and fault cause indication
Control
- Start/stop
- Reset
- Restart limit
Data acquisition
- % thermal capacity
used (trip warning)
- Trip frequency
- Phase unbalance
- FLA trip setting
- Average current
Fault cause indication
(see above)

235

1.6:1 and 1.1:1

6W or greater per device
Dedicated components
per trip class
None

Coordinated Motor Circuit Protection

Coordinated motor circuit protection for a branch circuit consists of
providing a continuous level of damage protection from minor overloads
through major short-circuit currents. Such protection provides benefits of
reduced down time and replacement costs as well as greater safety. The
purpose of the overload protection in any branch circuit is to provide
starting and running protection from overcurrents caused by such
problems as binding bearings or jammed parts in the machine. These
overcurrents range up to motor locked rotor current, usually about six
times the motor full load current. Since locked rotor current is also initial
starting current, overload protective devices require some designed in
time delay in order to prevent nuisance tripping during start up. The
time/current curve of an overload protective device shows that the time
to trip is inversely related to the magnitude of overload current.

The purpose of the short-circuit protective device is to prevent higher

levels of overcurrent from damaging components of the motor branch
circuit. Short-circuit currents are considered to range from motor locked
rotor current up to the maximum current available at the motor circuit.

236

Short-circuit currents result from such problems as wiring errors,

insulation breakdown, and accidental contact with the circuit by tools or
other metal objects. Short-circuit protective devices must react quickly to
minimize damage.
The time/current curve for a short-circuit protective device shows its trip
time is also inversely related to current. You can see, however, that the
slope of the curve is very steep.

The National Electrical Code requires short-circuit and overload

protection for the branch circuit. If these curves are overlaid we then
have a time current curve that illustrates the behavior of the protective
devices for all levels of current. If the curves intersect, the point of
intersection is called coordination point. This point should be just
above motor locked motor current (68 x FLC) for proper coordination.
If the curves are properly coordinated, the short-circuit protective device
will react to currents above the overload range, but will not trip if the
overcurrent is in the overload range.

237

If, however, these curves do not intersect, or intersect well above the
motor locked rotor current, the overload protective device will react to
short-circuit currents in the gap between the overload range and shortcircuit protection, and probably be damaged.

238

If the curves intersect in the overload range below the locked rotor
current, the short-circuit protective device will nuisance trip on motor
start-up.

Life of a Typical Motor Installation

Over the life of a typical motor installation, several different fault
conditions can occur, from high level faults such as short-circuits or
ground faults to low level faults such as overloads and jam conditions.
When selecting motor circuit protection devices, several questions
should be raised.

Is the motor circuit critical to the manufacturing process?

What is the total cost of downtime in the application?
Is the application more susceptible to certain types of fault
conditions?
Is Type 2 Coordination important?

239

Do I need to collect motor data and be warned of impending

fault?
Are fuses or circuit breakers preferred for short-circuit
protection?

Dependent on the answers to these questions (and possibly many others),

the process can begin to specify the type of products required to
adequately protect the motor circuit. For less critical applications such as
a fan or blower, where critical manufacturing processes or safety issues
are not a consideration, meeting code requirements with fuses and a
traditional overload relay may be the ideal solution. On the other hand, in
a critical application, where the manufacturing process relies on a
continuous flow of materials and downtime can be very costly, the best
protection solution may require the following capabilities:

Selecting a short-circuit protection device that provides Type 2

Coordination
Selecting a solid-state overload device that provides:
o Ground fault protection
o Jam/Stall protection
o Network communications to more closely monitor the motor
data and application

By properly outlining the application requirements and selecting the

appropriate protection components, the optimum implementation costs
and motor circuit protection scheme can be developed to optimize the
maximum life and performance of the motor and application.

240

Life of a 40 HP Motor

5.4 Terminology
To help understand Coordinated Motor Circuit Protection, it is necessary
to be familiar with the characteristics and definitions related to fuses,
circuit breakers, overload relays, short-circuit, and overload protection.

241

Ampere Rating The continuous current carrying capability of

a fuse or circuit breaker.
Ampere-squared Seconds (I2t) An expression related to the
thermal energy associated with current flow.
Available Fault Current The maximum possible short-circuit
current that can flow in an unprotected circuit.
BS88 Fuse Designations British Standards Institute has
defined basic physical specifications (size, mounting dimensions,
labeling) and guidelines to fuse manufacturers for providing
maximum let-through current and energy for fuses (in a standard
format). Fuse designed to British Standards are described by
their dimension (e.g., Al, A2, A3, A4, B1, etc.) and continuous
current rating.
Circuit Breaker A device designed to open and close a circuit
by non-automatic means and to open the circuit automatically on
a predetermined overload current.
Clearing Time The total time measured from the beginning of
the fault to the interruption of the circuit.
Current Limiting Circuit Breaker A circuit breaker that does
not employ a fusible element and that when operating within its
current limiting range, limits the let-through I2t to a value less
than the I2t of a cycle wave of the symmetrical prospective
current.
Current Limiting Fuse A fuse which will limit both the
magnitude and duration of current flow under short-circuit
conditions. The available fault currents a fuse will clear in less
than 1/2 cycle, thus limiting the actual magnitude of current
flow.
DIN Fuse Designations DIN/VDE Standards specify physical
specifications as well as classes of operation for fuses. The class
of operation is identified by two or three letters (e.g., gL, aM,
gTr). The gL fuse is a general purpose fuse with characteristics
that are well suited for the protection of starters and associated
wiring. These fuses are described by their dimension (e.g., 00, 0,
1, 2, 3 and 4) and continuous current rating.
Dual-element Time Delay Fuse A fuse of special design
which utilizes two individual elements in series inside the the
fuse casing. One element is a spring-actuated trigger assembly
that operates that operates on sustained overloads, but which
242

ignores momentary surges. The other element operates without

intentional delay on currents of fault magnitude up to the
interrupting rating of the fuse.
Fast-acting Fuse A fuse that opens very quickly on currents of
fault magnitude. This type of fuse is designed with no intentional
time-delay characteristics. Fast-acting fuses are commonly used
to protect solid-state electronic devices.
Fuse An overcurrent protective device with a fusible link that
operates to open the circuit on an overcurrent condition.
High Level Fault Short-circuit currents between the threshold
current of a fuse that would be used for the branch circuit
protection of a motor in a given application and the test current
for the controller of that motor, per the short-circuit test of UL
508.
Interrupting Rating The maximum short-circuit current that
an overcurrent protective device can safely open or clear.
Let-through Energy (I2t) A measure of thermal energy
developed within a circuit during the total clearing time of the
fault current.
Low Level Fault Short-circuit currents that are less than the
threshold current of a fuse that would be used for the branch
circuit protection of a motor in a given application.
Overcurrent A condition existing in an electrical circuit when
normal current is exceeded. Overcurrents occur in two distinctly
separate forms overloads and short-circuits.
Overload An overcurrent that exceeds the normal full-load
current of a circuit.
Overload Current A level of current above the motor full
load current, but generally not greater than six times the full load
current. Overload currents are usually caused by overloading the
motor and are restricted to the normal current path. These
currents are typically detected by the overload relay.
Peak Let-through Current (Ip) The maximum instantaneous
peak current passed through a short-circuit protective device
when clearing a fault current of specified magnitude.
RMS Current The effective, root-mean square value of
current, and the measure of its heating effect. The RMS value is
calculated as the square root of the mean of the squares of all the
instantaneous values of the current throughout one cycle. RMS
243

alternating current is the value of an alternating current that

produces the same heating effect as a given value of direct
current.
Short-circuit Current Excessive current caused by insulation
breakdown or wiring error. Short-circuit currents leave the
normal current carrying path of the circuit, such as line-to-line or
line-to-ground. Short-circuits are typically detected and cleared
by the branch circuit protective devices.
Single-phasing The condition that exists when one phase of a
three-phase power system opens. Single-phasing results in
unbalanced currents and overheating in polyphase motors and
other three-phase inductive devices. Proper selection of dualelement time-delay fuses and/or protective relays will help
protect motors from damage during single-phasing conditions.
Threshold Current The magnitude of current which an SCPD
becomes current limiting.
Time-delay Fuse A fuse with a built-in time delay that allows
temporary a harmless inrush currents to pass without opening,
but is designed to open on sustained overloads and currents
short-circuit magnitude.
UL Class of Fuse/CSA Fuse Designations Underwriters
Laboratories and the Canadian Standard Association have
developed basic physical specifications (size, rejection features,
labeling) and electrical performance requirements (interrupting
rating, maximum Ip and I2t) for fuses with voltage ratings of 600
volts or less. If a fuse meets these requirements, it can be
designated by a UL class of fuse or a CSA fuse designation.
Typical UL fuse classes are K1, K5, RK1, RK5, J, T, and CC.
Typical CSA fuse designations are HRCI-T HRCI-R, HRCI-J,
and HRCII-C.
Voltage Rating The maximum value of system voltage in
which a fuse can be used and safely interrupt an overcurrent.
Exceeding the fuse voltage rating impairs its ability to clear an
overload or short-circuit safely.

244

Motor Efficiency
Introduction
Electric motors are key components in most industrial plants and
equipment. They account for two-thirds of all the electrical energy used
by industrial/commercial applications in the developed world with
lifetime energy cost normally totaling many times the original motor
purchase price. In Europe and the USA alone, the annual cost of energy
used by motors is estimated at over US$ 100 billion. Yet motor failure
can cost more in terms of lost production, missed shipping dates and
disappointed customers. Even a single failure can adversely impact a
companys short-term profitability; multiply or repeated failures can
reduce future competitiveness in both the medium and long term.
Clearly, industrial companies need effective motor maintenance and
management strategies to minimize overall motor purchase and running
costs while avoiding the pitfalls caused by unexpected motor failures.
Experienced users long have known and complained that having motors
repaired or rewound by a service center reduces capital expenditures
while assuring reliable operation. Rising energy cost in recent years,
however, have led to questions about the energy efficiency of
repaired/rewound motors.
It is common experienced that repair/rewinding inevitably decreases
motor efficiency. Based largely on a handful of studies of mostly smaller
motors (up to 30 hp or 22.5 kW, they often asserted that efficiency drops
1 5% when a motor is rewound even more with repeated rewind. One
reason is quality of materials and workmanship where the lowest bidder
took the task. As a result, low quality and cheap materials were used. The
process of rewinding had been marginalized so us to not affect the
profitability of doing business.
EASA and AEMT had conducted a study to find definitive answers to
efficiency questions, particularly as regard repaired/rewound motors.
Observations here in the Philippines pointed out mostly on rewinding
motors with no specific controls on stripping and rewind procedures,
using different winding configurations and slot fills, and physical
(mechanical) damage to stator core, rotor and its shafting.
245

There are also many cases where repairing the existing motor is the best
choice. This is especially true if an upgrade is required to address the
cause of failure, or in some cases, where cost, availability or unique
performance is an issue. The motor service center is in an excellent
position to make this assessment.
Quite often when a motor fails, the procedure is to remove the damaged
motor from service and replace it without thorough evaluation of the
root cause of the failure. Depending on the motor size and the amount
of damage, the old motor may be repaired and placed into spares
inventory or even scrapped.
The problem with this approach is that the replacement motor, whether
new or rebuilt, may fail again for the same reason. If a root cause failure
analysis is conducted, it is often possible to identify and correct the
underlying cause. All that may be required is to modify the motor, driven
equipment or system to extend the mean time between failures (MTBF)
significantly.
In most cases, where a standard motor is no longer suitable for the
application, the service center is able to make the required modification
faster than the motor manufacturer can produce a unique model.
6.1 Repair-Replace Decision Model
The decision whether to repair or replace an electric motor has been one
of economics. Replacement of an older electric motor with a more
efficient model often makes sense for a motor operating continuously.
However, in most cases the decision is more complex (Refer to figure
below). A motor that operates infrequently, a motor with special
mounting or design features, an EPACT motor or a motor larger than
those covered by EPACT are all examples where the repair option may
be the better choice.

246

247

When comparing the cost to replace or repair an electric motor, the

equation should include not only operating cost and payback period, but
also downtime and associated factors such as capital depreciation, lost
opportunities and customer good will. A replacement EPACT motor that
fails within a year or two may have significantly higher cost than a repair
that optimizes the motor for its unique application.
Annual energy savings of several million pesos are quickly wiped out by
unscheduled downtime when a motor fails unexpectedly.

248

Much todays literature emphasizes efficiency and the cost of energy as

stand-alone factors in the repair-replace decision matrix. Frequently, the
cost of the motor or its repair is a small fraction of the total cost of
downtime when lost production is factored in.
Considerations (other than efficiency and simple payback) include
reliability, performance and anticipated motor life as well as availability
of a replacement. Of these, the most critical may be reliability. A motor
customized to its application will offer the greatest chance of long life.
Zero Downtime is a noble goal, one that requires commitment and
planning.
Unusual Service Conditions

It makes economic sense to identify the weak link in any process, and to
detect imminent failure before it occurs. When link is strengthened, the
entire process becomes stronger. A motor subject to harsh environment
should be of a suitable enclosure, and can be modified to further protect
the motor from this hazard.
10% of motor losses are caused by friction and windage loss, thereby
reducing motor efficiency. The pictures on the right side are typical
examples of improvement after the repair.

249

More than 50% of electric motor failures start as bearing failures, bearing
temperature detectors or vibration probes are logical options in many
cases, or implementation of predictive maintenance program to prevent
any catastrophic failures. Vibration analysis is one of the best tools for
predictive maintenance that can detect bearing problems.
Whether the concern is winding temperature, vibration or bearing
temperature, specific accessories can be incorporated into the repair
process to enhance motor life and permit the end-user to monitor the
critical feature.
With most companies returning to their core business, and outsourcing
maintenance, the competent service center is best qualified to assess the
cause of each motor failure and develop a plan to reduce the possibility
of a repeat failure. The service center warranty ensures the repairer has a
vested interest in identifying the root cause of the motor failure, and
performing a quality repair.

250

Examples of upgrades and modifications

Once a cause of failure is determined, the service center can work with
the equipment owner to identify specific remedies to extend MTBF. The
following are but a few examples of frequent problems and solutions
service centers encounter.
Voltage Optimization
When a winding failure is the result of low applied voltage, the
replacement motor regardless of efficiency will be subject to the

251

same low line voltage. The solution then is to redesign the motor to
optimize performance at the actual applied voltage. It is common to
apply a 230 volt motor to a 200 or 208 volt application. Compounding
the problem, the utility supplying 208 volts is allowed to deviate and
may supply even lower voltage.
The table below illustrates the effect on efficiency and winding
temperature.

Low voltages are common problems in any facility. While many

manufacturers can deliver a motor to optimize non-standard line voltage,
typical manufacturer lead times of five to eight weeks may be
prohibitive. The service center can accomplish the same voltage
optimization during a motor repair.
An added benefit: It is common practice for manufacturers to produce
motors with up to 12 leads, so that the motor may be used on multiple
voltages, often as part-winding start or Wye-start, delta run. This means
the electrician may deal with 9 to 12 leads in the junction box, increasing
the chances of a ground failure from abraded leads. When electric motor
is repaired, the service center has the option of installing only the number
of leads required. With only 3 or 6 leads, there is more room in the
junction box and less chance of lead damage or misconnection during
installation.

252

Corrosion Resistance
A chemical plant removed a 600 hp motor for routine repairs. The
corrosive environment had rusted through the motor frame in numerous
places, even the mounting feet. Although running when removed from
service, the motor was beyond repair and had to be replaced.

When a motor (new or rebuilt) is placed into a known corrosive

atmosphere, the service center can take precautions to greatly improve
motor life. At the simplest corrosion-resistant paint can be used to protect
the frame. In extreme cases, the shaft can be chrome plated, or replaced
with a stainless steel shaft to better resist corrosive materials. When
caustic solutions are evident, aluminum parts may be quickly eroded.
Preventive measures may be as simple as dipping the rotor with varnish
to protect it. The rotor might even be rebarred using bronze alloy of
similar resistivity to avoid changing the torque characteristics (rotor cage
resistance should be maintained to avoid changing motor performance).
The rotor should also be balanced after work is done to the rotor. A
precision balance requires only slightly more time than a standard
balance.

253

The exploded view of an open motor below illustrates the ease with
which various degrees of weather protection can be accomplished by the
addition of covers, filters or guards. While an open motor is ill-suited to
outdoor operation, the upgraded WPII enclosure was designed for
outdoor service.
Protection from Abrasive Dust
An electric motor operates downwind of a rock quarry and abrasive dust
sandblasts the windings.
Unprotected windings do not last very long in this type of environment.
The service center can topcoat the windings with a special material that
absorbs impact energy, thus protecting the windings. Filters can be added
to exclude the dust from the motor enclosure, or additional covers can be
installed to upgrade the enclosure.
Motors operating in rock quarries, cement mills or power plants benefit
from this treatment. These treatments can also be applied to new motors
before they are placed into service.
Energy Efficiency Improvement
There are occasions when rewinding a motor where the opportunity may
exist to enhance the motor performance and reliability by modifying the
winding configuration and copper content. For many designs, the copper
loss (I2R) is the largest loss component as shown in the right side picture.
In some cases, this loss can be reduced by converting from a concentric,
machine-wound configuration to a traditional, hand-inserted lap winding.
In many cases, the copper content (slot fill) can also be increased. Figure
below (Example of slot fill) shows the contrast between a relatively low
slot fill (40 to 50% where the wire is PD2/4) and one of a much higher
percent slot fill (60 to 64%).
Stator I2R loss can be reduced by increasing the conductor crosssectional area and/or decreasing the mean length of turn (MLT).
Changing the winding configuration can also increase the stator I2R loss,
although some changes (e.g., increasing the cross-sectional area) will
reduce it.
254

255

Mean length of turn (MLT). Allowing the MLT to increase will

increase stator I2R losses and therefore decrease motor efficiency.
Conversely, decreasing the MLT where possible will reduce stator I2R
losses to help maintain or even improve efficiency. The goal is to reduce
the straight section of the coil where it exits the slot to the minimum
required to avoid mechanicals train on the slot cell. Whatever coil shape
is used, make sure the coil end turns are no longer than those of the
original winding.

Avoid reducing the MLT too much. Doing so could make the stator
difficult or even impossible to wind. It may even affect cooling, in
extreme cases causing winding temperature to rise.
The table below contains the results of an earlier EASA study that show
the impact on efficiency of a 10% change in end turn length (about a 5%
change in MLT) for typical TEFC (IP54) motors. Where it was feasible,
reducing the MLT improved the efficiency over the nominal value. From
this it is clear that end turn length and MLT are critical to motor
efficiency.

256

Effect of Changes to the End Turn

Length on Typical TEFC/IP54, 460V Designs
HP/kW

Poles
4

50/37
4
100/75
4
200/150
2
50/37
2
100/75
2
200/150

Full load
efficiency
(%)
93.1
93.0
92.8
94.9
94.8
94.6
95.6
95.5
95.3
92.7
92.5
92.3
93.9
93.7
93.5
95.1
95.0
94.9

End turn
length
10% short
Nominal
10% long
10% short
Nominal
10% long
10% short
Nominal
10% long
10% short
Nominal
10% long
10% short
Nominal
10% long
10% short
Nominal
10% long

Total losses
(watts)
2746
2825
2911
4020
4129
4243
6921
7099
7278
2935
3024
3122
4881
5047
5212
7697
7975
8075

Change in
total losses
(%)
-2.8
3.0
-2.6
2.8
-2.5
2.5
-2.9
3.2
-3.3
3.3
-2.3
2.5

This modification will improve heat transfer, reduce the copper loss and
winding temperature and improve motor efficiency. There will be less
coil movement, and increased resistance to moisture, due to better
varnish retention. Even though these improvements are difficult for the
service shop to quantify, they are none the less real and will usually
improve motor performance and reliability. With this modification, the
motors service factor will be improved and it will be able to withstand
wider variations in voltage, ambient and starting conditions.

257

Information on original winding data of motor is available from

Electrical Apparatus Service Associations Rewind Software as shown
right side corner. The latest technology for rewinding of motors is now
available using SAMATIC Computerized Coil Winder.
The MLT is achieved with the use of patented Adjustable Concentric
Heads - one set of heads fit thousands of different motor sizesperfectly. Each element of the heads moves up and down independently,
producing a perfect sized coil every time. The adjustments are made in
seconds with the special Set Up jig.

SAMATIC , with its special Adjustable Concentric Heads, and special

layering and tensioning features is the perfect tool to achieve the
HIGHEST SLOT DENSITY/ FILL RATIO, in any coil shape, and
particularly in the concentric winding method.

258

259

Table below shows the possible efficiency improvements that can be

made for a generation of T frame motors produced during the 1970s and
80s. Not all motors offer this opportunity, but for those that do this
option should be considered as a possible product improvement.

260

Conclusion
By incorporating effective technology as it becomes available, it is
possible to reduce downtime, improve productivity and operate more
efficiently. Reduced costs make an organization more profitable. Savings
can be redirected to improve other maintenance problems. The savvy
maintenance professional is always looking for ways to improve
processes, and the competent service center is able to assist in this task.
When evaluating the operating cost of an electric motor, the cost of
energy is only one variable (and often not the biggest one) in the
equation. The key to maximizing productivity is to eliminate downtime.
While zero downtime is not always possible, any significant reduction in
downtime improves profitability. When downtime is measured in
millions of pesos per hour, the payback reaped from extending motor life
can be enormous.
The economics of the repair or replace decision process are complex. All
variables must be considered in order to select the best option.
6.2 Premium Efficiency Motors
Note: (This article is excerpted from "Premium-Efficiency Motors and
Transformers", a CD-ROM available from CDA by calling 888/480MOTR)

There is a capital investment that can repay many times its original value
over the next 20 years. At the same time, it can improve equipment
reliability, reduce downtime and repair costs, and result in lower releases
of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
The investment is straightforward: install electric motors having the
highest electrical energy efficiency commensurate with your needs.
Energy-efficient motors pay for themselves in a few years or sometimes
even a few months, after which they will continue to pile up savings
worth many times their purchase cost for as long as they remain in
service. That's another way of saying that operating costs, not just first
cost, are what you should look at when buying a new motor.
The rule applies to all motors, although this article is limited to the
widely used motors that fall under the requirements of the Energy Policy
261

Act of 1992 (EPAct) and to those that additionally meet or exceed the
National Electrical Manufacturers Association's NEMA Premium
efficiency ratings. We'll explain what the ratings mean in a moment.
Before we begin, however, there are three factors to keep in mind,
whether you're replacing an old worn out motor or specifying a motor for
a new piece of equipment. First, energy-efficient motors only provide
savings when they're running, and the more the motors run, the more
energy and money they save. Second, maximum savings and the
fastest returns on investment are attained in regions of the country
where utility rates are highest. Even so, energy-efficient motors are
highly recommended even in low energy-cost areas because they
eventually provide savings that more than adequately justify their cost.
And third, remember that any motor selection has to be properly
engineered for its intended application.
It can even be worthwhile to replace fully serviceable standard efficiency
(pre-EPAct) motors, including ones that were recently overhauled. That's
certainly not a simple decision, and it should only be made after
conducting a thorough analysis of the economic and technical factors
involved. On the other hand, large companies like Cummins Engine and
Weyerhaeuser did perform such analyses and found that the savings were
large enough to make motor replacement programs a part of their
corporate energy policies.
Background
Until the energy crises in the 1970s, most general-purpose motors were
designed to provide rated output and operating characteristics at
reasonable cost, period. Efficient operation was at best a secondary
consideration. As energy prices began rising, however, manufacturers
began promoting improved motors they called "high-efficiency" and
"energy-efficient", although the terms were not specifically defined at the
time.
Old-style "standard efficiency" motors remained popular because they
generally cost less than the new models. Purchasing agents were seldom
inclined to spend a little more money up front in order to save on energy
costs later on. Because of the national energy implications of motor

262

efficiency, Congress enacted the Energy Policy Act of 1992, which

granted the USA Department of Energy (DOE) the authority to set
minimum efficiency standards for certain classes of electric motors.
EPAct rules for motors became effective Oct. 24, 1997. All covered
motors sold in the USA after that date are required to have efficiency
ratings equal to or better than those listed in NEMA MG 1-1993, Table
12.10. EPAct covers general-purpose motors rated from 1 to 200 hp; 2-,
4- and 6-pole (3600, 1800 and 1200 rpm); horizontal; T-frame; single
speed; continuous duty, 230V, 460V or 230/460V; NEMA Designs A
and B. Efficiencies of these so-called "EPAct motors" are from one to
four percentage points higher than the previous "standard-efficiency"
motors.
EPAct didn't bring about the manufacture of an entirely new type of
motor; it simply set standards for motors that could be sold in the U.S.A.
EPAct also provided grandfather protection to existing standardefficiency motors no matter how often they were rewound or repaired.
NEMA Premium Motors, the New Standard
EPAct was a step in the right direction, but its requirements were based
on minimum efficiency levels that industry and the DOE agreed were
reasonable at the time. In fact, many motors that were available before
EPAct became law exceeded the statute's minimum requirements, and as
motor manufacturers continue to improve their products, they are now
able to offer significantly more efficient motors, sometimes at little if any
cost premium, model for model.
In June 2001, NEMA granted such "better-than-EPAct" motors special
recognition by creating a designation called NEMA Premium. Going a
step beyond EPAct, NEMA Premium applies to single-speed, polyphase,
1 to 500 hp, 2-, 4-, and 6-pole (3600, 1800 and 1200 rpm) squirrel cage
induction motors, NEMA Designs A or B, 600V or less, (5kV or less for
medium voltage motors), and continuous rated.
The Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE), a non-profit organization
that includes many electric utilities among its members, recognizes
NEMA Premium motors up to 200 hp as meeting their criteria for
possible energy efficiency rebates.

263

Many motors exceed NEMA Premium efficiency ratings; however, some

such motors are manufactured by companies that are not members of
NEMA and who may therefore not use the NEMA premium trademark.
Other manufacturers, while they may be NEMA members, voluntarily
choose not to apply the label to their products. The point is that, while
the NEMA Premium label assures the buyer of a certain minimum yet
high level of efficiency, lack of the label does not necessarily imply that
the motor doesn't meet the high standards. It therefore pays to check
nameplate efficiencies and use tools such as MotorMaster+, MotorSlide,
or other free publications from Copper Development Association to help
identify those motors that do offer high efficiency, possibly even
exceeding that of NEMA Premium.
Defusing the Energy Explosion
It goes without saying that more-efficient motors will consume less
energy and reduce their owners' electric bills over the long run, but a
rapid return on investment is most likely when the motors operate at high
duty cycles. Motors that operate intermittently may or may not save
enough to justify replacement except in cases where utility rates are
especially high. But, in evaluating motors that operate at a high duty
cycle, or continuously, replacement with energy-efficient motors can
usually result in very rapid payback, and save many times their initial
cost.

On a nation wide basis, high-efficiency motors promise truly

enormous energy savings. The DOE estimates that there are
about 12.4 million motors of more than 1 hp in service in U.S.
manufacturing facilities.1 CEE reports that about 2.9 million of
these motors fail each year, of which 600,000 are replaced.2
According to DOE estimates, potential industrial motor system
energy savings, using mature, proven, cost-effective
technologies range from 11-18 percent of current annual usage
or 62 to 104 billion kWh per year in the manufacturing sector
alone. This savings is valued up to $5 billion. It would also avoid
the release of up to 29.5 million metric tons of carbon equivalent
emissions to the atmosphere annually.
Industrial electric motor driven systems used in production
account for about 679 billion kWh, or about 23% of all the
264

electricity sold in the USA. Motors used in industrial space

heating, cooling and ventilation systems use an additional 68
billion kWh. Process motor systems account for 63% of all
electricity used in industry.1
It is estimated that the NEMA Premium motor program could
save over 5,800 GWh (5.8 billion kWh) of electricity and
prevent the release of nearly 80 million metric tons of carbon
into the atmosphere over the next 10 years. That would be the
equivalent of keeping 16 million cars off the road.2

Today, many industrial organizations are seeking ways to display their

concern for the environment. Establishing and implementing a policy to
use high-efficiency motors is one way to demonstrate environmental
concern (and, at the same time, save energy and money). In fact,
numerous companies have already won national recognition by including
high-efficiency motors in their corporate energy policies.
As to the cost of the motors themselves, a number of utilities and state
agencies now offer incentive programs in the form of rebates and costsharing programs that encourage their customers to install the efficient
devices. Utilities benefit from these demand-side management programs
because the improved motors reduce the need to bring new power
sources on line.
MotorMaster+ Makes it Easy to Decide Which Motor to Choose
Many business owners hesitate to replace old motors because the capital
cost of a new motor usually exceeds the cost of repairing the old one.
This is a valid concern, but it is important to recognize that motors
themselves may be quite inexpensive compared with the cost of power
they consume.
Example # 1: Replacing a Serviceable Standard-Efficiency Motor
To illustrate that point and also compare the true cost of owning motors
of several efficiencies, we'll use software called MotorMaster+, which
was developed for the DOE by engineers at Washington State
University. (MotorMaster+ can be obtained free of charge from the
Copper Development Association by calling 1-888-480-MOTR.)

265

For this example, assume you have a serviceable standard-efficiency

(pre-EPAct), 5-hp, 1800-rpm, 208-230/460-V, general-purpose, T frame,
TEFC, NEMA Design B motor, one that might have been produced until
not too many years ago. Assume the motor operates 8000 hours (11
months) per year at 75% of full load, and that power costs $0.075/kWh,
the national average. Such motors have an average efficiency rating of
84% at full load. (Efficiency ratings for motors of this type at 75%
loading range from 81% to 88.8%, averaging 84.06%.) Millions of old
motors like this remain in service today, most of them having been
rewound several times. Unfortunately, rewinding cannot and does not
improve a motor's efficiency beyond the motor's original nameplate
rating.
Using the operating parameters and power cost given above,
MotorMaster+ calculates the motor will consume 26,644 kWh of energy
annually, and the annual cost of operating this motor will be:
[0.746(W/hp) X 5(hp) X 0.75(load factor) X 8000(h/y) X
$0.075/kWh)]/0.84(efficiency) = $1998.21,
or about 7 to 9 times the cost of a new replacement motor! The old
motor's operating cost will total $39,960 over a 20-year lifespan.
MotorMaster+ can compare that motor with one that just meets EPAct's
minimum efficiency requirements (87.5% at full load for this size and
type of motor). A motor of this type would cost around $233 after a
typical 35% discount from list price. Operating continuously for 8000
h/y at 75% load, and at 88.2% efficiency (efficiency usually peaks near
75% of full load), the annual cost to operate the EPAct motor would be:
(0.746 X 5 X 0.75 X 8000 X 0.075)/0.882 = $1,903.06.
This is $95 less per year ($1,900 less over 20 years) than the standardefficiency model it replaces. MotorMaster calculates a simple payback
period of 2.44 years.

266

If on the other hand we upgrade to a NEMA Premium motor that has an

efficiency of 90.5% at 75% of full load, annual energy and cost savings
rise to 1914 kWh and $144, respectively, over the standard model. One
such motor would cost approximately $302 after discount, and it would
pay back its purchase price in only 2.10 years.
The table below lists comparisons made by MotorMaster+ for the cost of
owning and operating motors of various sizes against keeping a standardefficiency motor in service. For each size, comparisons are made using
average efficiency values for standard-efficiency motors, and nameplate
efficiency values for commercial motors that meet EPAct efficiency
requirements and for motors that qualify for the NEMA Premium
designation, respectively. All motors listed are 208-230V/460V, generalpurpose, 4-pole, TEFC, T-frame, NEMA Design B types. Cost
comparisons are based on 8000 h/y at 75% of rated power, and a
$0.075/kWh utility rate.
Energy and Cost Savings Available When Replacing Serviceable
Standard Efficiency Motor with an EPAct-level or NEMA Premium
Motor

HP
5
10
15
20
25
50

Std Efficiency
Motors,
Average Efficiency
Annual
Energy
Eff. at
Use
75%
(kWh),
load
cost
84.0%
26,644
$1,998
86.75
51,653
$3,874
87.55
76,771
$5,758
89.3%
100,206
$7,515
89.9%
124,457
$9,334
91.6%
244,211
$18,316

Purchase
Price
(35%
disc)
$233
$375
$562
$666
$800
$1617

Replace with EPAct Motors

Annual
Energy
Annual
% Eff. at
Use
Saving
75%
(kWh),
kWh,
load
cost
$
88.2
25,374
1,270
$1,903
$95
90.0
49,773
1,919
$3,730
$144
91.0
73,780
2,991
$5,534
$224
92.6
96,626
3,579
$7,247
$268
93.1%
119,952
4,505
$8,996
$338
93.9
238,027
6,185
$17,852
$464

267

Payback
Period
2.44
2.60
2.50
2.48
2.36
3.48

HP
5
10
15
20
25
50

Std Efficiency
Motors,
Average Efficiency
Annual
Energy
Eff. at
Use
75%
(kWh),
load
cost
84.0%
26,644
$1,998
86.75
51,653
$3,874
87.55
76,771
$5,758
89.3%
100,206
$7,515
89.9%
124,457
$9,334
91.6%
244,211
$18,316

Replace with NEMA Premium Motors

Annual
Purchase
Energy
Annual
Price
% Eff. at
Use
Saving
(35%
75%
(kWh),
kWh,
Payback
disc)
load
cost
$
Period
90.5
24,729
1,914
2.10
5
$1,855
$144
92.2
48,547
3,106
2.22
10
$3,641
$233
92.6
72,815
3,955
2.11
15
$5,461
$297
93.4
95,846
4,360
2.52
20
$7,188
$327
94.0%
119,043
5,415
2.62
25
$8,928
$406
94.5
236,825
7,386
2.42
50
$17,852
$464

Note: MotorMaster may produce apparent small mathematical errors due to

rounding.

In most cases, replacing an older, serviceable, standard-efficiency motor

with an EPAct-minimum motor results in significant energy and cost
savings, as well as payback periods of three years or less.
Replacing that serviceable, standard-efficiency motor with a NEMA
Premium motor usually increases the savings and decreases the payback
period. Remember: a payback in 2.4 years is equivalent to a 34% return
on investment.
Example #2: Replacing a Failed Motor
A different type of comparison to consider involves choosing between
two different motors for a new application, or when replacing a failed
motor. The savings and payback figures will be significantly better than
those listed above, because the initial capital cost must be expended in

268

any event, so only the difference in initial cost between motors that meet
EPAct requirements and ones that meet or exceed NEMA Premium
standards enters the equation. For the operating parameters used above
(8000 h/y, 75% load, $0.075/kWh), paybacks can be achieved in as little
as 7 to 12 months for some motors, with 1-2 years being more typical, as
in the following table.

Comparison of Annual Savings and Simple Payback When Comparing

Replacement of a Failed Motor With an EPact-level or NEMA Premium
Motor

HP
5
10
15
20
25
50

Std Efficiency Motors,

Average Efficiency
Annual
Energy
% Eff. at
Use
75%
(kWh),
load
cost
88.2
25,374
$1,903
90.0
49,773
$3,730
91.0
73,780
$5,534
92.6
97,030
$7,277
93.1
120,248
$9,019
93.9
238,316
$17,874

Replace with NEMA Premium Motors

Annual
Motor
Energy
Annual
Purchase
Use
Saving
Cost
(kWh),
kWh,
Payback
Premium
cost
$
Period
$70
24,729
1,855
1.43
$1,855
$48
$143
48,547
1,187
1.60
$3,641
$89
$115
72,505
1,275
1.20
$5,438
$96
$158
95,846
1,185
1.77
$7,188
$89
$265
119,043
1,205
2.93
$8,928
$90
$177
235,331
2,985
2.64
$17,650
$224

Note: MotorMaster may produce apparent small mathematical errors due to

rounding

Several other examples, worked out using MotorMaster+ software, can

be found elsewhere on this Web site.

269

Example #3: Motors for OEM Equipment

OEM equipment suppliers sometimes but not always! offer their
products with a choice of motors. If the customer looks at first-cost price
alone and selects the cheapest option, it is likely that the equipment will
be fitted with an EPAct motor (assuming it qualifies under the EPActlisted types described above), or one even lower efficiency. However, a
smart customer will run the numbers through MotorMaster+ and specify
the most energy efficient motor that meets the equipment's requirements
at a reasonable first cost. Paybacks will be similar to those listed in
Example #2. An example describing one major industrial company's
successful experience with this practice can be found in Cummins Case
Study.
Additional Savings
Another point to consider: premium efficiency motors are generally
made to higher manufacturing standards and tighter quality controls than
the old standard-efficiency motors they are meant to replace. The new
motors run cooler because they generate less I2R heat, producing less
stress on windings. This is generally taken to be an indication that the
motors will last longer, and it can translate in reduced downtime and
lower repair costs over the life of the motor.
The MotorMaster+ calculations summarized in the table, above, make no
allowance for incentives offered by some utilities, which can be
substantial. The calculations also ignore the sharp increase in utility rates
recently seen in certain regions. When these factors are taken into
account, payback periods may become as short as a few months.
While the savings described above are impressive, they are only an
indication of what can be gained in an entire facility, even if it only
operates a few motors. Many companies have examined their entire
motor inventory, including motors in service as well as those held in
reserve, to determine which ones could be replaced profitably. In at least
one instance, a company instituted a corporate energy policy to replace
all standard-efficiency motors rated at less than 50 hp, regardless of how
recently they had been rewound. That action may or may not be suitable
for all organizations since it involves many factors, such as utility rate

270

structures, that can vary significantly. However, developing a corporate

energy policy is always a smart idea, and calling CDA at 1-888-480MOTR to obtain a free copy of MotorMaster+ 3 is a very good place to
start. You can also obtain a free MotorSlide calculator, case histories,
and other energy efficiency information as well as a copy of the new CDROM "Premium Efficiency Motors & Transformers."

271

272

Installation, Testing, and Maintenance

Overview
Establishing clean and sustainable energy systems is one of the preeminent issues of our time. This is due to two mega-issues: global
warming and energy security. On the one hand, the global warming issue
has led to significant discussions about reductions of carbon dioxide
emissions from our power plants. One way we can contribute is to reduce
our energy consumption through the implementation of energy efficient
programs, thereby reducing the emission of carbon dioxide from power
plants.
7.1 Installation and maintenance
Foundations
The motor foundation must be flat and, if possible, free from vibration. A
cast concrete foundation is therefore recommended. Foundation studs or
a base plate should be used to secure the motor. Motors for belt drives
should be mounted on slide rails.
The foundation must be stable enough to withstand the forces that can
arise in the event of a three-phase short-circuits. The short-circuit torque
is primarily a damped sinusoidal oscillation, and can thus have both
positive and negative values. The stress on the foundation can be
calculated with the aid of details in the data tables of the motor catalogue
and the formula below.
F = 0.5 * g * m
where:
F
g
m
Mmax
A

4 * Mmax
A

= stress per side, N

= acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
= weight of motor, kg
= maximum torque, Nm
= lateral distance between the holes in the motor
feet. The dimension is taken from the dimension
drawing and is expressed in meters.
273

The foundation should be dimensioned to give a large enough resonance

distance between the natural frequency of the installation and any
interference frequencies.

Motor whose foundation has no grout generates a lot of resonance that

shorten bearing life.

Example of pump-motor foundation with grout and

its piping has a support.

274

Alignment
Misaligned rotating machinery has caused, and will continue to cause, a
tremendous financial loss to every industry worldwide. No one has ever
really calculated how much money has been wasted on prematurely
damaged machinery, lost production, and excessive energy consumption
due to shaft misalignment.

Despite the best efforts to precisely align rotating machinery shafts,

dynamic movement (commonly believed to be due to the thermal growth
of the machine casings) has resulted in machines operating at less than
optimum alignment conditions. This vexing problem has plagued
machine reliability professionals for decades.
What is shaft alignment?
Shaft alignment is the positioning of the rotational centers of two or more
shafts such that they are co-linear when the machines are under normal
operating conditions. Proper shaft alignment is not dictated by the total
indicator reading (TIR) of the coupling hubs or the shafts, but rather by
the proper centers of rotation of the shaft supporting members (the
machine bearings).
There are two components of misalignmentangular and offset.
Offset misalignment, sometimes referred to as parallel misalignment, is
the distance between the shaft centers of rotation measured at the plane
of power transmission. This is typically measured at the coupling center.
The units for this measurement are millimeters.

275

Angular misalignment, sometimes referred to as "gap" or "face," is the

difference in the slope of one shaft, usually the moveable machine, as
compared to the slope of the shaft of the other machine, usually the
stationary machine. The units for this measurement are comparable to the
measurement of the slope of a roof (i.e., rise/run). In this case the rise is
measured in mm and the run (distance along the shaft) is measured in
inches. The units for angular misalignment are mm/100mm.
As stated, there are two separate alignment conditions that require
correction. There are also two planes of potential misalignmentthe
horizontal plane (side to side) and the vertical plane (up and down). Each
alignment plane has offset and angular components, so there are actually
four alignment parameters to be measured and corrected. They are
horizontal angularity (HA), horizontal offset (HO), vertical angularity
(VA), and vertical offset (VO).
Shaft alignment tolerances
Historically, shaft alignment tolerances have been governed by the
coupling manufacturers design specifications. The original function of a
flexible coupling was to accommodate the small amounts of shaft
misalignment remaining after the completion of a shaft alignment using a
straight edge or feeler gauges. Some coupling manufacturers have
designed their couplings to withstand the forces resulting from as much
as 3 degrees of angular misalignment and 1.905 mm of offset
misalignment, depending on the manufacturer and style of the coupling.

276

Another common tolerance from coupling manufacturers is the gap

tolerance. Typically this value is given as an absolute value of coupling
face TIR (as an example, a specification might read "Face TIR not to
exceed 0.127 mm). This number can be deceiving depending on the
swing diameter of the face dial indicator or the diameter of the coupling
being measured. In fairness, it should be noted that the tolerances offered
by coupling manufacturers are to ensure the life of the coupling with the
expectation that the flexible element will fail rather than a critical
machine component.
If this angular tolerance was applied to a 203.2 mm (8) diameter
coupling, the angular alignment result would be 0.0625/100 mm. If the
coupling was doubled, the result of the alignment would be twice as
precise as 0.03125/100mm. This would lead one to conclude that an
angular alignment tolerance based on mm/100mm. would be something
that could be applied to all shafts regardless of the coupling diameter.
Misalignment Forces
Calculating the forces due to shaft alignment is a far more difficult task
than this manual needs to address. However, it is worthy to note that the
following simple rule always applies when misalignment is present.
Rule: Any Parallel or angular misalignment produces radial and axial
forces.
The misalignment situation depicted in Figure on the right illustrates the
severe nature of static misalignment forces. Note that the static forces
due to misalignment are similar to U-joint systems that are misaligned
identically.
Torque = Force x Distance, or
Force = Torque / Distance

277

Example: For a 15kW drive with 0.254 mm (0.000254 meter) parallel

offset misalignment:
15kW @ 1750 rpm = 112.98 Newton-meter
Force =
=

112.98 Newton-meter/0.000254 meter

444,803.10 Newton

We know 444,803.10 Newton of radial force would be instantly

destructive to most 15kW drives. To assume absolute shaft rigidity is a
faulty assumption because there are no absolutely rigid shafts or
structures in machines.
Harmonic forces are dangerous
When shafts are misaligned, forces are generated. These forces can
produce great stresses on the rotating and stationary components. While
it is probably true that the coupling will not fail when exposed to the
large stresses as a result of this gross misalignment, the bearings and
seals on the machines that are misaligned will most certainly fail under
these conditions. Typically, machine bearings and seals have small
internal clearances and are the recipient of these harmonic forces, not
unlike constant hammering.

278

Excessive shaft misalignment, say greater than 0.06/100mm for a 3600

rpm machine under normal operating conditions, can generate large
forces that are applied directly to the machine bearings and cause
excessive fatigue and wear of the shaft seals. In extreme cases of shaft
misalignment, the bending stresses applied to the shaft will cause the
shaft to fracture and break.
Bearing life expectancy

The most prevalent bearings used in machinery, ball and roller bearings,
all have a calculated life expectancy, sometimes called the bearings L10 life a rating of fatigue life for a specific bearing. Statistical analysis
of bearing life relative to forces applied to the bearings has netted an
equation describing how a bearings life is affected by increased forces
due to misalignment.
Wear of mechanical components such as shaft seals yields oil leakage.
As the force applied to a given bearing increases, the life expectancy
decreases by the cube of that change. For instance, if the amount of force
as a result of misalignment increases by a factor of 3, the life expectancy
of the machines bearings decreases by a factor of 27.

279

Quite a bit of research in shaft alignment has been conducted over the
past 20 years. The results have led to a much different method of
evaluating the quality of a shaft alignment and to increasingly accurate
methods of correcting misaligned conditions. Based on the research and
actual industrial machine evaluations, shaft alignment tolerances are now
more commonly based on shaft rpm rather than shaft diameter or
coupling manufacturers specifications. There are presently no specific
tolerance standards published by ISO or ANSI, but typical tolerances for
alignment are shown in the above table.
Energy Savings
The correct alignment can reduce energy consumption with anything up
to 15%, sometimes more.

280

To calculate savings

Measure amperage before and after alignment

Find the difference
Get motor data
Find cost of energy
Calculate kW savings with formula below:
=

Volts * amps * pf * 1.732

1000

281

Pre-alignment Check
Preparations Off-site
1. Is Safety regulations complied?
2. Do you have the working
permits?
3. Time limit for the production
stop?
4. What is the alignment tolerance?
5. Any thermal offsets?
6. Is there any available working
space?
7. What is the shaft rotation?
8. Indicate shim sizes
On Visual Check
a. Is working area safe to work?
b. What is the foundation condition?
c. What is the bedplate condition?
d. What is the bolt condition?
e. What is the adjustment capability?
f. What are the shims conditions?
g. Is there a leak in the machine?
Pre-Alignment Procedures On-site
actions
1.
What is the machine
temperature?
2. Is there a gross soft foot?
3. Have you replaced the old shims?
4. Have you check coupling
specifications or loosen its bolts
prior to alignment?
5. Have you double check if there is
mechanical looseness on basebolts
or bearings?
6. Have you measure and record the
runout?

Answer

Findings

Findings

282

Machine Casing to Baseplate Interface Problem (aka soft foot)

One of the most prevalent problems with alignment rotating machinery
can be traced to machine case to baseplate interface problems. When
rotating machinery is set in place on its base / frame / soleplate, one or
more than one of the feet are not making good contact at the foot
points on the frame. This can be attributed to warped or bowed frames,
warped or bowed machine cases, improper machining of the equipment
feet, improper machining of the baseplate, or a combination of a warped /
uneven frame and warped / uneven machine case. This problem is
commonly referred to as soft foot. Soft foot generally describes any
condition where poor surface contact is being made between the
undersides of the machine casing feet and where they contact the
baseplate or frame.
Soft foot problems seem to be worse on fabricated baseplates as opposed
to cast baseplates. A fabricated baseplate is frequently made from
sections of channel iron, angle iron, structural tubing, or I beams.
These pieces are then welded together to construct a machine frame. The
chances of making true 45 or 900 cuts on the frame pieces and welding

283

them all together and insuring that everything is flat, square, and in the
same plane is very slim. However, cast baseplates are not exempt from
this problem either. Even in cast baseplates where the base is sand cast
and the machinery feet are machined, it is possible that during the
installation process the frame was warped when it was placed on the
concrete pedestal introducing a soft foot problem.

Shaft Alignment Techniques and Measuring Tools

The techniques and tools shown here illustrate some methods used to
measure the position of the one shafts centerline of rotation with respect
to another shafts centerline of rotation when the machinery is off-line.
There is no one method or measuring device that will solve every
alignment problem that one can possibly encounter on the various types
of rotating machinery drive systems in existence. Understanding each
one of these techniques will enable you to select the best measurement
method for the alignment situation confronting you.
Face and Rim Method
Perhaps the oldest dial indicator technique used to align rotating
machinery shafts is the face and rim or face-peripheral method shown
below.

284

Advantages:

This is a good technique to use in situations where one of the

machinery shafts cannot be rotated or it would be difficult to
rotate one of the machinery shafts.
A good method to use when the face reading can be captured on
a fairly large diameter greater than 203.2 mm (8). This method
begins to approach the accuracy of the Reverse Indicator
Technique when the diameter the face readings are being
captured on equals or exceeds the span from the bracket location
to the point where the rim indicator readings are being capture.
Many people who use this method understand that the rim (or
perimeter) dial indicator shows centerline offset or parallel
misalignment and the face indicator indicates angular
misalignment.

Disadvantages:

Not as accurate as the reverse indicator method if both shafts can

be rotated and particularly if the face measurements are being
taken on diameters less than 203.2 mm (8).
If the machinery shaft(s) are supported in sliding (plain/sleeve)
bearings, it is very easy to axially float the shafts toward or
away from each other when rotating the shaft(s) resulting in bad
or inaccurate rate face readings.
Bracket sag must be measured and compensated for.
285

Reverse Indicator Method

This method is also often called the Indicator Reverse method or the
Double Dial method.
The reverse indicator method can be used on 60 70% of the rotating
machinery in existence and is the currently preferred dial indicator
method for measuring rotating machinery shafts. It is best suited for use
when the distances between measuring points on each shaft range from
76.2 to 762 mm (3 to 30).

Advantages:

Typically more accurate than the face-rim method since the

distance from the mounting point of the bracket to the point
where the indicators capture the readings on the shafts is usually
greater than the distance a face reading can be taken.
If the machinery is supported in sliding type bearings and the
shafts are floating; back and forth axially when rotating the
shaft to capture readings, there is virtually no effect on the
accuracy of the reading being taken.
Can be performed with the flexible coupling in place.

286

Disadvantages:

Both shafts must be rotated.

Difficult to visualize the positions of the shafts from the dial
indicator readings being collected.
Bracket sag must be measured and compensated for.

Laser Alignment

From relying on the accuracy of our eyesight to using straightedges and

feeler gauges and then eventually to shaft brackets and dial indicators,
the art of measuring machinery shaft positions has been continually
refined to improve accuracy and reduce the amount of time required to
achieve acceptable machinery alignment.
It was inevitable, however, that all was not to stop here, particularly in
light of the technological explosion in electronics. With the advent of the
microprocessor chip, the semiconductor junction laser, and silicon
photodiodes, new inroads have been forged in the process of measuring
rotational centerlines that utilize these new electronic devices instead of
the mechanical measuring instruments.
287

Express alignment adapting the reverse indicator method within a

maximum of seven (7) meters measuring distance.
Flexible & Rigid Couplings
One of the most important components of any drive system is the device
connecting the rotating shafts together known as the couplings. Since it is
nearly impossible to maintain perfectly collinear centerlines of rotation
between two or more shafts, flexible couplings are designed to provide a
certain degree of yielding to allow for initial or running shaft
misalignment. There is a wide assortment of flexible couplings designs,
each available in a variety of sizes to suite specific service conditions.
Coupling and Shaft Misalignment Tolerances Whats the
Difference?
It is important for the person selecting the coupling not to be confused by
the term allowable misalignment in a coupling. The coupling
manufacturers will often quite information on allowable misalignment
for the coupling and not necessarily the equipment it is coupled to. These
tolerances seem to lull the user into a sense of complacency leading one
to believe that accurate shaft alignment is not necessary since the
coupling can take care of any misalignment (famous last words).

288

It is imperative that you can differentiate between coupling tolerance and

alignment tolerances. Coupling misalignment tolerances quoted by
flexible coupling manufacturer typically specify the mechanical or
fatigue limits of the coupling or components of the coupling. These
misalignment tolerances are frequency excessive compared to the
alignment tolerances mentioned above. The said alignment tolerance is
concerned with the survivability of not the coupling, but also the shafts,
seals, and bearings of the machinery over long periods of time.
The Role of the Flexible Coupling
Exactly what is coupling supposed to do? If a perfect coupling were to
exist, what would its design features include:

Allow limited amounts of parallel and angular misalignment

Transmit power
Insure no loss of lubricant in grease-packed couplings despite
misalignment
Easy to install and disassemble
Accept torsional shock and dampen torsional vibration
Minimize lateral loads on bearings from misalignment
Allow for axial movement of shafts (end float) even under
misaligned shaft conditions without transferring thrust loads
from one machine element to another
Stay rigidly attached to the shaft without damaging or fretting
the shaft
Withstand temperatures from exposure to environment or from
heat generated by friction in the coupling itself
Ability to run under misaligned conditions when equipment is
initially started to allow for equipment to eventually assume its
running position
Provide failure warning and overload protection to prevent
coupling from bursting r flying apart
Produce minimum unbalance forces
Have a minimal effect on changing system critical speed(s).

289

Types of Flexible Couplings

290

V-Belts with Cogged or Synchronous Belt Drives

291

About one-third of the electric motors in the industrial and commercial

sectors use belt drives. Belt drives provide flexibility in the positioning
of the motor relative to the load. Pulleys (sheaves) of varying diameters
allow the speed of the driven equipment to be increased or decreased. A
properly designed belt transmission system provides high efficiency,
decreases noise, requires no lubrication, and presents low maintenance
requirements. However, certain types of belts are more efficient than
others, offering potential energy cost savings. The majority of belt drives
use V-belts. V-belts use a trapezoidal cross section to create a wedging
action on the pulleys to increase friction and improve the belts power
transfer capability. Joined or multiple belts are specified for heavy loads.
V-belt drives can have a peak efficiency of 95% to 98% at the time of
installation. Efficiency is also dependent on pulley size, driven torque,
under or over-belting, and V-belt design and construction. Efficiency
deteriorates by as much as 5% (to a nominal efficiency of 93%) over
time if slippage occurs because the belt is not periodically re-tensioned.
Cogged belts have slots that run perpendicular to the belts length. The
slots reduce the bending resistance of the belt. Cogged belts can be used
with the same pulleys as equivalently rated V-belts. They run cooler, last
longer, and have an efficiency that is about 2% higher than that of
standard V-belts. Synchronous belts (also called timing, positive-drive,
or high-torque drive belts) are toothed and require the installation of
mating toothed-drive sprockets. Synchronous belts offer an efficiency of
about 98% and maintain that efficiency over a wide load range. In
contrast, V-belts have a sharp reduction in efficiency at high torque due
to increasing slippage. Synchronous belts require less maintenance and
re-tensioning, operate in wet and oily environments, and run slip-free.
But, synchronous belts are noisy, unsuitable for shock loads, and transfer
vibrations.
Example: A continuously operating, 100-hp, supply-air fan motor (93%
efficient) operates at an average load of 75% while consuming 527,000
kWh annually. What are the annual energy and dollar savings if a 93%
efficient (1) V-belt is replaced with a 98% efficient (2) synchronous
belt? Electricity is priced at $0.05/kWh.

292

Energy Savings

= Annual Energy Use x (1 1/2 )

= 527,000 kWh/year x (1 93/98)
= 26,888 kWh/year Annual Cost Savings
= 26,888 kWh x $0.05/kWh
= $1,345

Further Considerations:
For centrifugal fans and pumps, which exhibit a strong relationship
between operating speed and power, synchronous belt sprockets must be
selected that take into account the absence of slippage. Operating costs
could actually increase if slippage is reduced and a centrifugal load is
driven at a slightly higher speed. Synchronous belts are the most efficient
choice. However, cogged belts may be a better choice when vibration
damping is needed or shock loads cause abrupt torque changes that could
shear a synchronous belts teeth. Synchronous belts also make a whirring
noise that might be objectionable in some applications. (Reference:
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/bestpractices/pdfs/motor.pdf)
Mounting Pulleys, Sheaves, Sprockets and Gears
In general, the closer pulleys, sheaves, sprocket, or gears are mounted to
the bearing on the motor shaft, the less will be the load on the bearing.
This will give greater assurance of trouble-free service.
The center point of the belt, or system of V-belts, should not be beyond
the end of the motor shaft.
The inner edge of the sheave or pulley rim should not be closer to the
bearing than the shoulder on the shaft but should be as close to this point
as possible. The outer edge of a chain sprocket or gear should not extend
beyond the end of the motor shaft1. (Reference: NEMA, MG 1 2006.
14.7.1. Refer also to Section 11 of this manual: Application of V-Belt
Sheave Dimensions to Alternating Current Motors Having Anti-Friction
Bearings.)

293

V-Belt Tension Forces

A typical belt drive is tensioned using the force-deflection method to
measure the relative tension of the belts. A belt is deflected for a distance
of 1/64 of its span, and the force to obtain this deflection is measured.
Refer to figure on the right side.

Using this general rule, the shaft force per belt (applied at the sheave)
due to belt tension equals 32 x the deflection force. It should be noticed
that the horsepower does not enter into the equation at all.
Set Belt Tension per the Manufacturers Recommendation.
The belt system should be designed to match the load requirements.
Providing excess belt capacity may result in increased belt wear and
decreased efficiency.
Rule: Shaft force = Deflection force x 32 x number of belts
The following chart provides some typical force values for V-belt drives.

294

It is obvious that V-belts produce a significant amount of force,

especially when larger belt cross-sections and numbers of belts are used
on the drive. Flat, synchronous, poly-V and round belts also require
significant levels of tension in order to operate.
Bearing Maintenance
In order for a bearing to function properly it is important that the correct
mounting method be used. The type of bearing used for a given
application and the method of mounting and dismounting is determined
initially at the design stage. Mounting should, wherever possible, be
carried out in a clean and dust-free room and not where there are dustproducing machines.

295

Causes of Premature Bearing Failures in Electric Motor

Root Cause of Premature Failure
Excessive load
Unbalance
Misalignment
Belt tension
Improper bearing installation
Shaft fit
Improper shaft tolerance
Improper shaft surface finish (machining
method)
Housing fit
Improper housing tolerance
Out-oh-round housing condition
Installation error
Force across races (improper pressing
ofbearing)
Bearing cocked on shaft or in bore
(internal misalignment)
Axial pressure (false thrust)
Incorrect bearing installed or bearing
installed backward
Improper maintenance
Over lubrication
Under lubrication (especially in high
temperature applications)
Lubrication incapacity
Shaft Failure
Excessive misalignment
Excessive belt tension
Loose fit with mating drive mechanism
(sheave, pulley, coupling, etc.)

296

% of Failures
50 90%

5 10%

5 10%

0.1 3%

Dirt and debris can affect the internal clearance of the bearing and the fit
of the bearing on the shaft or in the housing. A small speck of dirt can
pinch the outer ring outside diameter. Also it can keep split housing from
being tight. This can cause an out-of-round housing bore in which the
bearing's outer ring may turn. Dirt on a shaft at the seal contact area can
cause seal wear which results in lubricant leakage. Dust and dirt mixes
with the lubricant in the bearing and forms a lapping compound that
causes wear in the bearing.
Do not remove a new bearing from its original package until
immediately before it is mounted. New bearings are thoroughly coated
with slushing compound to keep out air, moisture and rust. The slushing
compound used by most bearing manufacturers is not normally removed
since it is compatible with nearly all petroleum lubricants. When
synthetic oils and greases with synthetic oils are used, the slushing
compound must be removed. However, with synthetic hydrocarbon oils
and greases, the slushing compound does not have to be removed.
Bearings are wrapped in heavy duty, waterproof, polylaminate paper.
Care should be taken not to drop bearings or handle them roughly. They
should not be exposed to large temperature changes which might cause
condensation to form. Do not handle the bearing any more than
necessary. Fingerprints can become a starting point for rust.
Mounting and Dismounting Bearings
Housing Bore Fit
Because the electric motor bearings normally is assembled into its
housing with a slightly loose fit, bearing failures often cause the outer
ring of the bearing to turn in its bore, particularly at the non-drive end.
This turning action causes some wear on the bearings outer ring but
typically much more in the softer metal of the housing. This is especially
true of aluminum housings. When the failed bearing is replaced, it the
housing bore is not brought back to proper dimension (interference fit),
the new bearing turns more easily in the bore. This creates an immediate
wear situation in which the housing wear and subsequent bearing
looseness cause a drastic reduction in bearing life, as well as increase the
vibration level.

297

The proper method to repair a bearing housing is to replace the worn

housing with a new one or to machine and sleeve the worn housing. The
sleeve is bored to proper dimension after being pressed into the old
housing. It is important not only to return the bore to proper dimension
but to maintain concentricity of the new bore with the old bores center
line as well.
It is never adequate to use epoxy or other types of adhesives to maintain
the bearing in intimate contact with its housing. First, it is difficult to
maintain proper concentricity of the bearing with the stator bore once the
housing bore is worn. Then the epoxy or adhesive is never as durable as
the metal of the housing. Use of these materials is confined to emergency
repairs where short duration solutions are needed. This type of repair is
seldom a long-term solution.
Shaft Fit
Often the bearing turns on the shaft during a failure. In that case, the
shaft has to be replaced or built up to proper dimension. Typically, the
rolling element bearings in an electric motor are installed with a tight fit
on the shaft.
The proper dimensional tolerance for a shaft journal may be as small as
0.00635 mm off of nominal dimension. This level of accuracy is difficult
to achieve in many service centers with standard lathes and tooling. It is
more appropriate to use a tool post grinder on the lathe to grind the shaft
to proper dimension. Another alternative is to utilize a grinder designed
to handle cylindrical objects using their centers. Either of these two
methods will achieve the proper tolerance and surface finish if used
properly. A lathe will normally not produce better than a 16 micro inch
rms surface finish. Using a grinder, a surface finish of up to 4 micro inch
rms can be achieved. Pressing a bearing on the ground surface finish
provides more intimate contact between the two surfaces and greater
holding force as a result.
Bearing Installation
Three basic methods to mount bearings are cold mounting, temperature
mounting, and hydraulic mounting.
298

Prior to mount the bearings, it is necessary prepare the shaft where the
bearing is to be mounted. Ensure shaft and housing interference fits are
met, cylindricity of the shafting and pour oil to prevent rush and
corrosion later on.
A. Cold Mounting
Bearings up to a 4"(10.16cm) outside diameter can be cold mounted
using a sleeve and a hammer or a press. An ordinary hammer should be
used. Hammers with soft metal heads are unsuitable as fragments of the
metal may break off and enter the bearing. The end faces of the sleeve
should be flat, parallel and burr free. It should abut the ring with the
press fit.

299

When a shaft is put in a vise in any assembly or disassembly operation, it

is important to protect the shaft from the jaws with sheets of copper or
brass.
A replacement bearing must be an exact duplicate of the failed bearing.
Bearings and shafts are designed for each other and you cannot make any
changes unless a redesign of the machine is made.
If the bearing fits too loosely on a shaft, it can creep or slip. This causes
the bearing to overheat and also results in abrasive wear to the bore of
the bearing and the surface of the shaft. If the press fit is too tight, the
inner ring of the bearing will be stretched so much that there will be no
room for the balls or rollers to revolve freely.
An arbor press can be used for mounting small bearings. Place a sleeve
between the bearing and the press. The end faces of the sleeve should be
flat, parallel and burr free. It should be so designed that it abuts the ring
which is to be mounted with an interference fit, otherwise the rolling
elements and raceways can be damaged leading to a premature failure.
To facilitate mounting and also to reduce the risk of damage, the bearing
seating on the shaft and in the housing should be lightly smeared with
thin oil.

300

At times it is necessary to have a press fit on the inner ring since it

rotates and also on the outer ring if there is some unbalance load that
could cause the outer ring to creep. The pressing force then must go
through both the inner ring and the outer ring at the same time; otherwise
the bearing will be damaged.
If a spherical roller bearing was used for inner ring rotation where there
was an unbalance load, a pin could be put through one oil hole in the
outer ring to prevent outer ring creep. With this arrangement a press fit of
the outer ring would not be necessary.
B. Temperature Mounting
Temperature mounting is the method of obtaining an interference fit by
first introducing a temperature differential between the parts to be fitted,
thereby making the assembly easier. The required temperature
differential can be obtained as follows:
a)
Treating one part (this is, generally speaking, the most common
method).
b)
Cooling one part.
c)
Simultaneously heating one part and cooling the other part.
The temperature differential method is suitable for any bearing size, both
straight-bore and tapered bore. Because of the equipment required, the
cold mounting method is used wherever possible for bearings under a
4"(10.16cm) outside diameter.

301

The most usual bearing mounting is that in which the inner ring is
mounted with an interference fit on the shaft, and the outer ring is
mounted with a line-to-fine to loose fit in the housing. For non-separable
bearings over a 4"(10.16cm) outside diameter, it is necessary to heat the
entire bearing or just the inner ring, depending on the method of heating,
so that the inner ring easily goes over the shaft. In the case of a separable
bearing, it is only necessary to heat the inner ring. The bearing should be
uniformly heated within a maximum temperature of 250F(121C).
Methods for heating a bearing are:

Hot oil bath,

Hot plate,
Induction heater, and
Oven.

A sealed bearing can never be put in a hot oil bath.

The hot oil bath is probably the most common method used. Both the oil
and the container should be clean. Quenching oil having a minimum
flash point of 300F (149C) should be used. The quantity of oil used in
a bath should be large in relation to the volume of the bearing. An
insufficient quantity heats and cools too rapidly, thus introducing the risk
of in adequately or unevenly heating the bearing.
A wire rack should be installed 3"(7.62cm) from the bottom. This
prevents direct contact of the bearing with the higher temperature at the
bottom and also separates the bearing from any contamination that may
have settled at the bottom. Alternatively, the bearing can be suspended in
the bath from above.
After a bearing has been heated in oil, its bore should be wiped with a
clean lint-free cloth before mounting.
Once the bearing is heated it should immediately be placed on the shaft
and locked in place. If a locking device is not used as part of the
mounting, or if it cannot be fitted until later, some mounting tool should
be used to hold the inner ring against the shaft shoulder until the inner

302

ring has cooled sufficiently to be firm on the shaft. If this is not done, the
inner will walk away from the shaft shoulder.
Remove bearings
In many instances, bearings have to be removed from the shaft simply to
allow other parts to be removed. Regrettably it often happens that
bearings that are perfect before removal for inspection or cleaning are
damaged during removal or mounting. It is good practice only to remove
bearings when strictly necessary. Bearing inspections should instead be
done by listening to the sound of the bearing and observing the lubricant.

Normally the removal of small and medium-sized bearings does not

present any difficulty. They are usually removed cold with the aid of a
conventional puller. If the bearing is an interference fit on the shaft, the
jaws of the puller must act on the inner ring of the bearing. If this is not
possible, the puller may be applied to the outer ring, provided that the
outer ring and puller are rotated during pulling.
The removal of large bearings is more complicated. They can be
removed cold with the aid of hydraulic tools for example. It is a good
idea to get expert advice before attempting the removal of large bearings.
Heating Rings
When flangeless inner rings of cylindrical roller bearings (N series), or
those with only one flange, have to be removed infrequently, heating
rings can sometimes be used. The inside diameter of the ring is the same

303

as the raceway diameter of the inner ring. The ring is heated using a hot
plate or naked flame to approximately 280 C and then placed over the
inner ring and clamped using the handles. The heat is transferred from
the heating ring to the bearing inner ring, causing the bearing inner ring
to expand. Once the bearing inner ring expansion has overcome the
interference fit, then it is easy to remove the bearing inner ring

Lubrication
Rolling bearings - ball or roller bearings - are used in most motors.
Sleeve bearings are often used in large motors, especially for high
speeds.
The correct amount of grease for roiling bearings and the grade of oil for
sleeve bearings is normally stated in the manufacturer's maintenance
Instructions that come with the motor. The rolling bearings of motors
from ABB Motors are lubricated before dispatch with full-charge grease
suitable for use in dry or humid conditions at normal ambient
temperature.
Lubrication of rolling bearings in a closed bearing housing
The bearings of small motors are normally mounted in closed bearing
housings. These have no openings for lubrication. When the grease needs
replacing, the bearing housing must therefore be opened and cleaned
before new grease can be put in. However, with the grades of grease in
use nowadays the bearings of small motors can be regarded as lubricated
for life and maintenance-free.

304

If motors are to be used in a wet environment, for example, or in a high

ambient temperature, the bearing may need relubricating. Motors for
such duty can often be modified from a closed bearing housing to some
form of valve lubrication.
Rolling bearings with grease valve lubrication
The principle of valve lubrication is that, while the motor is running,
grease is forced in behind the bearing and so through it. The old grease is
forced out through a gap on to a rotating disc which carries the excess
grease out through an opening in the outer bearing cover. The grease that
remains in the outlet opening serves as a seal against the entry of dust.
The advantages of grease valve lubrication are that the grease can be
changed with the motor in service, and that the bearing can never be
over-lubricated.
A plate stating the lubrication intervals is attached to every motor with
grease valve lubrication. It is important to follow these instructions. The
stated intervals are for a motor installed in a normal environment. If the
place is particularly dusty or wet, the intervals should be shorter.
A low-pressure grease gun is recommended, since it delivers more grease
per stroke. It is advisable to use the grease nipple fitted during
manufacture of the motor, since its opening will be large enough to
preserve the lubricating capacity of the grease as it passes through.
Before lubricating the bearing, clean the nipple to prevent any dirt on it
from being forced into the bearing with the grease.
The bearings should be lubricated when the motor is running, but there is
a procedure for lubricating with the motor stationary. To do this, first
inject about half the recommended amount of grease, and then run the
motor at full speed for about one minute. Then stop the motor and inject
the remainder of the grease. If the entire amount is injected at once with
the motor stationary, there is a risk that some of the grease will force its
way past the inner bearing seal and into the motor.
Always continue until fresh grease comes out through the grease outlet.
The life of new bearings will be extended if they are relubricated after a
few days' running in.

305

Grease valve lubrication allows the grease to be changed while the motor
is running and prevents over lubrication. Fresh grease is forced in
through the nipple, displacing old grease, which is discharged through an
opening in the bearing cover. The bearing housing provides excellent
protection from dust and contamination.
Slip rings and brushes
Motors with brush and slip-ring gear require more inspection than
squirrel-cage motors. There is no way of preventing brush dust collecting
on all surfaces near the brush gear, and the parts must be thoroughly
cleaned by vacuum-cleaning and wiping, generally once or twice a
month. The cable connections of the slip-ring unit and the free movement
of the brushes in the holders must be checked at the same time. Raising
the brushes by pulling on their connecting leads is a good way of
checking the soundness of the leads at the same time as ensuring that the
brushes move freely.

306

Brush wear of 1 to 5 mm per 1000 hours' running is acceptable, but there

may be wide variations as a function of load, environment, vibration etc.
The contact surface of the brushes must be smooth and uniform in
normal service. Faults can therefore be detected with considerable
certainty by studying the appearance of the brush contact surface. If, for
example, the surface is too bright, this is usually due to excessive brush
friction or movement, causing it to hammer on the slip ring. Ideally the
contact surface of the brush should be semi-matt and with fine-pores.
The surface of the slip rings must be even and free from spots, preferably
with a brownish patina after the motor has been in service for a while. A
scratched or scored surface and no patina may be a sign of poor brush
quality. If there are craters due to sparking, or if there is serious scoring,
the rings must be ground or turned. The surface finish after machining
must be Ra 1.5.

For all types of brush holder the distance between the bottom edge of the
holder and the slip ring must be 2 to 2.5 mm. For every brush material,
manufacturers state the brush pressure that will give the best
performance at the slip ring. Usually the brush pressure is around 0.02
N/mm2 (200 g/cm2).
A typical rotor for a slip-ring motor is shown at right side. The three
phases of the rotor winding are connected to the slip rings on the shaft.

307

Brush wear
There are several reasons for abnormal brush wear. These are the usual
ones:
1. Nature of load - Under-loading often leads to high brush wear. If
the motor operates largely at low load, a brush material with a
higher graphite content may have to be used.
2. Brush material - The brush material is a highly important factor
in minimizing brush wear, in doubtful cases, use the trial and
error method and consult your local brush supplier.
3. Humidity too low - The lower the humidity the greater the wear.
It has been found that there is a risk of rapid wear if the water
content per cubic meter of air is below 3 to 4 grams.
4. Brushes binding in holders - If brushes stick or bind in the brush
holders, there will be serious wear.
5. Dust - Abrasive dust, such as concrete dust, increases the-wear;
softer types of dust, such as textiles dust, have a lubricating
effect.

Detail of slip-ring housing on a totally-enclosed slip-ring motor.

308

7.2 Description of Routine Tests

Visual Inspection and Mechanical Inspection
General inspection
Machine to be inspected for cleanliness, all screws are tightened, rating
plate are correct and are legible, earth-connection exists, gaskets for
terminal box, all accessories are mounted (starters, lifting eyes, etc.)
(Such details are noted in the form for workshop use when machine
arrives and should be counter-checked and/or noted). Apart from this, an
inspect ion will take place to make sure that the client's requirements has
been executed, i.e., special grease for heat or coldrooms. Approval label
with date of test shall be sticked-on.
In general, when the machine leaves the test area, the machine shall be in
good condition if not best, to serve as advertising for the workshop thus,
giving the workshop as well as the company a good reputation with
regard to job orders and its execution.
After the final test, the machine shall be painted before delivery to the
customer.
When the machine to be tested has been installed to test bench following
points are checked:
1. The serial number of the machine is marked onto the machine
Fans, fan motors, main terminal box, terminal blocks and other
auxiliary devices are properly connected and their type is correct
Sleeve bearings are filled with oil.
2. Oil connectors if any are correct type
Air gap measurement
Air gap is measured during assembly by a thickness gauge. The air gap
of HX machines is measured only if the machine should be tested in
accordance with some classification society or the protection type of the
machine is "e" (explosive atmosphere).

309

Axial play
Axial play check is done to machines with sleeve bearings. When the
machine is running at rated voltage and speed magnetic and windage
forces are trying to move the rotor. Because there is no axial locking the
stator and rotor should be directed so that there is enough axial play.
When the machine is running at rated voltage and speed the point of a
bearing gasket is marked to the shaft with a drawing ink. After the
machine has stopped, the rotor is moved first to the one direction until it
stops and then to another direction. The displacements to the mark are
measured. It is checked that the magnetic center is in the axial play area.
Electrical Tests and Measurements
Insulation Test Conditions
Test should be performed to indicate the suitability of the insulation for
continued operation. Inspection and insulation resistance tests should be
performed with acceptable results before the high-potential tests. Other
tests, indicated below, may also be applied. All test results should be
retained. Trends in results are often better condition indicators than the
absolute values (Reference: IEEE Stds. 95)
Inspection
Insulation should be examined for evidence of degradation or damage,
such as:
1. Puffiness, cracking, separation or discoloration as indication of
thermal aging.
2. Contamination of coil and connection surfaces.
3. Abrasion or other mechanical stresses.
4. Evidence of partial discharges (corona).
5. Loose wedges, fillers, ties, banding, or surge rings.
6. Fretting at supports, bracing or crossing (an indication of
looseness or movement). (Reference: IEEE Stds. 432, Sec. 5)

310

Insulation Resistance Test

Test voltage should be applied for one minute. (Reference: IEEE Stds.
43, Sec 5.4 and 12.2).
Recommended Minimum Insulation Resistance Values at 40OC
(All Values in M)
Minimum Insulation Resistance
IR1min = kV + 1
IR1min = 100
IR1min = 5

Test Specimen
For most windings made before
about 1970, all field windings,
and others not described below.
For most DC armature and AC
windings built after about 1970
(form-wound coils).
For most machines with randomwound stator coils and formwound coils rated below 1kV.

Notes:
1.

2.

IR1min is the recommended insulation

O
resistance, in meg-ohms, at 40 C of the entire
machine winding.
kV is the rated machine terminal-to-terminal
voltage, in rms kV.

Reference: IEEE Stds. 43, Table 3.

311

Guidelines for DC Voltages to be Applied during Insulation Resistance

Test
Insulation Resistance Test
Direct Voltage (V)

Winding Rated Voltage (V)a

< 1000

500

1000 2500

500 1000

2501 5000

1000 2500

5001 12000

2500 5000

> 12000

5000 10000
a

Rated line-to-line voltage for three-phase AC

machines,
line-to-ground
for
single-phase
machines, and rated direct voltage for DC
machines or field windings

Reference: IEEE Stds. 43, Table 1.

Polarization Index (P-I) Test

The polarization index test should be performed at the same voltage as
the test mentioned in Insulation Resistance Test for ten minutes. The
recommended minimum value of polarization index for windings rated
Class B and highest is 2.0 (Reference: IEEE Stds. 43, Sec 9.2: and IEEE
Stds.432, App. A2).
If the one minute insulation resistance is above 5000 megohms, the
calculated polarization index (P.I.) may not be meaningful. In such cases,
the P.I. may be disregards as a measure of winding conditions
(Reference: IEEE 43, Sec 5.4 and 12.2).
312

High Potential test

High-potential tests should be performed on windings and some
accessories of electrical machines at a specified voltage. To avoid
excessive stressing of the insulation, repeated applications of the highpotential test voltage is not recommended.
Machines to be tested must be clean and dry. Inspection and insulation
resistance tests with acceptable results should be performed before the
high-potential tests. Insulation resistance tests should be repeated at the
completion of the high-potential tests.
When a high-potential test is conducted on an assembled brushes exciter
and synchronous machine filed winding, the brushless circuit
components (diodes, thyristors, etc.) should be short-circuited (not
grounded) during the test.
High-potential test should be successively applied between each
windings or electric circuit under test and the frame (or core) of the
machine. All other windings or electric circuits not under test should be
connected to the frame (or core).
High-Potential Test Using AC
New Accessories
Effective AC HighAccessory*
Rated Voltage**
Potential Test
Voltage
Thermostats
600 volts
1000 volts + 2 times
Thermocouples
the rated voltage of
Thermistors
the accessory or
Resistance
50 volts
equal to the hightemperature
potential test voltage
detectors (RTDs)
of the machine,
whichever is lower.
Space heaters
All
* Accessories not connected in the line circuit
** Unless otherwise stated
Reference: NEMA Stds. MG 1, 3.1.8.

313

Capacitors of capacitor-type motors must be left connected to the

winding in the normal manner for machine operation (running or
starting). Electrical machines may be tested using AC or DC highpotential test equipment. A DC instead of an AC voltage may be used for
high-potential tests. In such cases, the DC test voltage should be 1.7
times the specified AC voltage. Failure under test can be less damaging
to the winding if a DC voltage is used.
Multiply the AC test voltage by 1.7 to obtain the equivalent DC test
voltage.
AC High-potential testing should be performed by applying specified
voltage at 50-60 Hz continuously for one minute.
DC high-potential testing should be performed by applying specified
voltage for duration of one minute after test voltage is reached. The DC
potential should be increased gradually to the desired test voltage in
order to limit the charging current. Caution: after completion of a DC
high-potential test, the winding must be grounded to the frame (or core)
until the charge has decayed to zero. (References: IEEE Stds. 4 and 95;
and NEMA Stds. MG 1, 3.1.1)
High-Potential Test Using DC
New Accessories
Effective AC HighAccessory*
Rated Voltage**
Potential Test
Voltage
1700 volts + 3.4
Thermostats
600 volts
times the rated
Thermocouples
voltage of the
Thermistors
accessory or equal to
Resistance
50 volts
the high-potential test
temperature
voltage of the
detectors (RTDs)
machine, whichever
Space heaters
All
is lower.
* Accessories not connected in the line circuit
** Unless otherwise stated
Reference: NEMA Stds. MG 1, 3.1.8.

314

This test evaluates ground insulation. It will usually detect damaged slot
liners and conductors outside the slot liner. It does not stress insulation
between turns, coils or phases.
Insulation Power Factor
Insulation power factor, dissipation factor, and tip-up test may be
performed on large machines. Interpretation of results is by comparison
with results of tests on similar machines. No standard interpretation of
results has been established (Reference: IEEE Stds. 432, Sec. 8.1).
Step Voltage Test
Step voltage tests are useful if performed at regular maintenance
intervals. Changes in results may indicate insulation degradation
(Reference: IEEE Stds. 95).
Surge Comparison Test
The surge comparison test is most often applied to winding circuits using
a test voltage of twice the circuit rating plus 1000 volts.

315

This will check for shorted wires and misconnections. This is the only
test that stresses insulation between turns, coils, and phases. Although it
stresses the insulation to ground, it usually is not accepted as a ground
insulation test.
Interlaminar Insulation Test
Defects in laminated cores can be detected by loop or core tests
(Reference: IEEE Stds. 432, Sec 9.1, App. A4)
Bearing Insulation Test
Bearing insulation should be tested with a 500V megohmmeter.
Insulation resistance should be 1 megohm or greater.
Winding Resistance measuring
With a resistance bridge the resistance in the windings is measured.
Measuring can be either between terminals or per phase, note in the form
which alternative has been used.

316

No load test
With connectors attached according to rating plate a voltage is applied
from test bench to SI, S2 and S3; and the voltage is adjusted to rated
voltage. Make sure that the frequency is correct and that ammeters are
shorted during start-up- Voltage current, power, speed and frequency are
noted in the form. Measuring is according to the 2-Wattrneter principle.
See sketch below.

kW =
wattmeter
connection
according to
sketch

connection
according to
sketch

VW
skd
AW
kA

317

=
=
=
=

520
130
520V
130
5A
1

x 5 x 1 = 20V

where:
V

W
kW = skd

x AW x kA

VW = the voltage the wattmeter is connected for every

single test
skd = reading on wattmeter
AW = the current the wattmeter is connected for every
single test
kA = current constant

During the test balance vibrations and bearing are checked. No load test
executes at rated voltage. No load current varies with the number of
poles as an average, the following table can be used:

(Valid for machines up to 10 HP) Dissymmetry between phase currents

can be 10% without winding fault.
Speed
For AC motors, no-load running test should be made at rated voltage and
rated frequency. The speed should be measured and compared with
nameplate speed.
Current
No-load current should be compared with full-load current.

318

Cooling System
The cooling system should be verified as being operational.
Bearing Temperature
Ambient and bearing temperature may be measured periodically until
temperatures are stabilized.
Vibration measurement
The vibration tests should be in accordance with NEMA Stds. MG 1, 7
for standard machines, as arranged with the customer, or as necessary to
check the operating characteristics of the machine. When there are
special requirements, i.e. lower than standard levels of vibration for a
machine, NEMA Stds. MG 1,7 for special machines is recommended.
The unfiltered vibration limits for resiliently mounted standard machines
(having no special vibration requirements), based on rotational speed,
and is shown in table at the right. Vibration levels for speeds above 1200
rpm are based on the rms 2.69 mm/s. Vibration levels for speeds below
about 1200 rpm are based on the peak velocity equivalent of 0.0025 inch
(0.0635 mm) peak-to-peak displacement. For machines with rigid
mounting, multiply the limiting values by 0.8. You may also refer to
ISO 10816-3 Vibration Severity Chart in page 115.

RPM @
60 Hz
3600
1800
1200
900
720
600

Unfiltered Vibration Limits

Resiliency Mounted Machines
Velocity Velocity
RPM @
Velocity
in/s peak
mm/s
50 Hz
in/s peak
0.15
3.8
3000
0.15
0.15
3.8
1500
0.15
0.15
3.8
1000
0.13
0.12
3.0
750
0.10
0.09
2.3
600
0.08
0.08
2.0
500
0.07

319

Velocity
mm/s
3.8
3.8
3.3
2.5
2.0
1.7

Machine Sound
The limits specified herein are applicable to motors operating at rated
voltage without load.
Acoustic quantities can be expressed in sound pressure terms or sound
power terms. The use of a sound power level, which can be specified
independently of the measurement surface and environmental conditions,
avoids the complications associated with sound pressure levels which
require additional data to be specified. Sound power levels proved a
measure of radiated energy and have advantages in acoustic analysis and
design.
Sound pressure levels at a distance from the motor rather than sound
power levels, may be required in some applications, such as hearing
protection programs. However, the information provided here is only
concerned with the physical aspect of noise and expresses limits in terms
of sound power level. Reference: NEMA MG 1 -2006, 9.2.
Performance Test
Full-load tests may be made as arranged with the customer or as
necessary to check the operating characteristics of the machine
(Reference: IEEE Stds. 112 and 115 and NEMA Stds. MG 1).

320

7.3 Recommended Winding Tests

Windings should be tested to ensure that there are no grounds, shorted
circuits, open circuits, incorrect connections or high resistance
connections.

321

Stator and Wound Rotor Windings

One or more of the following tests should be performed:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Insulation resistance tests.

Winding Resistance Test
Growler Test.
Phase-balance test
Surge comparison test
Polarity Test
Ball rotation test (low voltage energization).

Squirrel-cage windings
One or both of these tests should be performed:
1. Growler test
2. Single-phase test
7.4 Other Tests
Tan Delta Measurements
Tan , representing the dielectric and discharge energy losses, is
measured in steps of 0.2 x U up to the main voltage U. The rate of rise of
tan as a function of voltage describes the average partial discharge
level both inside and on the surface of the insulation. This makes it
difficult to determine the condition inside the insulation. For old
windings, tan measurements can not estimate the age or predict failure
of the insulation.
Voltage Unbalance
Alternating-current polyphase motors shall operate successfully under
running conditions at rated load when the voltage unbalance at the motor
terminals does not exceed 1 percent. Performance will not necessarily be
the same as when the motor is operating with a balanced voltage at the
motor terminals. [MG 1-12.45]

322

Unbalanced currents resulting from unequal line voltages applied to an

induction motor produces an elevated temperature rise compared to a
motor operating with balanced voltages. Should voltages be unbalanced,
the motor horsepower rating should be derated in accordance with MG 1
Part 14. [MG 1-14.36]
Variation from Rated Speed
The variation from the nameplate or published data speed of alternatingcurrent, single-phase and polyphase, medium motors shall not exceed 20
percent of the difference between synchronous speed and rated speed
when measured at rated voltage, frequency, and load and with an
ambient temperature of 25oC. [MG 1-12.46].
Variation from Nameplate AmperesAlternating-Current Medium
Motors
When operated at rated voltage, rated frequency, and rated horsepower
output, the input in amperes shall not vary from the nameplate value by
more than 10 percent. [MG 1-12.47]
7.5 Motor Starting Capabilities and Considerations
It should not be assumed that because can drive a running load, it also
has the capability to accelerate the load up to rated speed. During
starting, a motor must deliver the energy required to accelerate the load.
To do this, the motor torque must exceed that needed to accelerate the
load. The motor torque value in excess of the load torque requirement is
termed the torque available for acceleration as shown at the right side.

323

Though this explanation appears to be relatively simple and

straightforward, there are some complex conditions: namely, that the
motor torque during starting is not constant. Unless the load is a pure
inertia load (very rare), it does not have a constant speed-torque
relationship. Therefore, the torque available for acceleration is the
difference between the speed-torque curves for the motor and the load.
The acceleration time for the motor and load system can be determine
from the following formula:
Acceleration time = (Wk2 x rpm) / (308 x Tacc)
The inertia of the load is the Wk2 factor in pound-feet squared; the rpm is
the speed change of the load; and Tacc is average accelerating torque in
Newton-meters. The formula using metric units is:
Acceleration time = (Wk2 x rpm) / (9.55 x Tacc)

However, we need to refer back to the comment about torque available

for acceleration not being constant. Calculating acceleration time would
require determining the torque available at every point in the motor and
load speed-torque curves. The practical method of accomplishing this is
to break the curves into parts, or increments, and average the results.
Motor torque ratings are normally based on full rated voltage being
available at the motor terminals. In many applications the voltage at the
motor is less than rated, due to such conditions as voltage drop in the
feeder circuit or reduced voltage starting. The result is a reduction in
motor torque, varying approximately as the square of the ratio of applied
voltage versus rated voltage. The effects or saturation reduce the motor
torque even more. For example, if the voltage at the motor were 80% of
rated, the expected torque reduction would be (0.8/1.0)2 = 0.64, or 64%.
Due to the reduced flux, however, the torque would probably be closer to
57% of rated.

324

Although the motor torque available has been reduced, the load torque
remains unchanged. The result is a longer acceleration time. If the
reduced motor torque is equal to that of the load, leaving none available
for acceleration, the motor and load will not accelerate beyond the speed
point. Further, if the motor torque is less than that of the load at initial
startup, the rotor will not rotate. That is, it will remain in a locked-rotor
condition. Figure below illustrates both of these conditions.

A major limiting factor for the starting capability of a motor is heating of

the stator and rotor. During acceleration, some of the electrical energy is
used to drive the load, and the remainder is absorbed by the stator and
rotor in the form of heat. The primary source of this heating is I2R losses
in the stator and rotor, which are much greater during acceleration than
during normal operating conditions. The starting current of a motor is
frequently between 6 and 8 times rated current. If we take the average
value of this range, 7 times rated current, the ratio of I2R at starting
compared to running would 72 or 49, assuming the resistance remains
unchanged. Since the heating also increases winding resistance, it would
be reasonable to expect at least 50 times normal heating during starting
conditions.

325

Fortunately, under normal stating conditions, the heating period is

relatively short. For example, NEMA MG1 Part 12.49 allows an
acceleration time of up to 12 seconds for motors rate to 500hp (375kW)
and rated 1kV or less. During this period parts of the stator and rotor may
reach temperatures in excess of their rated temperatures. Conservative
motor designers assume that all of the heat generated during staring is
absorbed in the components that produce the heating e.g., the stator and
rotor. Therefore these components heat very rapidly, and to relatively
high temperatures.
However, since the duration of acceleration time is very short, it does not
normally have a negative impact on motor life. Upon attaining rated
speed, the current and temperature drop to normal levels for the load
conditions. For motors larger than 500hp (375kW), or with loads with
greater than normal inertia, the motor manufacturer should be consulted
to determine the time limit for accelerating the load.
Motor starting capabilities are thermally limited by either the stator or
the rotor. If the stator is limiting factor, the motor is termed to be statorlimited; and if the rotor is the limiting factor, the motor is said to be
rotor-limiting. In general, smaller motors, such as in NEMA frames,
tend to be stator-limited; and larger motors well above NEMA frame
size, tend to be rotor-limited.
According to the NEMA standards, there are three conditions that apply
to the maximum inertia rating.
1. Applied voltage and frequency in accordance with 9.9.
2. During the accelerating period, the connected load torque is
equal to or less than a torque which varies as the square of the
speed and is equal to 100 percent of rated-load torque at rated
speed.
3. Two starts in succession (coasting to rest between starts) with the
motor initially at the ambient temperature or one start with the
motor initially at a temperature not exceeding its rated load
operating temperature.

326

If the starting conditions are other than those stated above, the motor
manufacturer should be consulted. When additional starts are required, it
is recommended that none be made until all conditions affecting
operation have been thoroughly investigated and the apparatus examined
for evidence of excessive heating. It should be recognized that the
number of starts should be kept to a minimum since the life of the motor
is affected by the number of starts. [MG 1-12.54]
Failure of motor components may be due to a number of stresses
associated with acceleration. In the rotor, the bars and end rings that
make up the rotor cage are subject to high and cyclic (alternating)
magnetic forces. Heating of the rotor cage results in axial expansion of
the bars and radial expansion of the end rings, creating stress in various
sections of the bars and end rings. Current tends to crowd the tops of
the bars during starting; causing bending stresses as the top of the bars
try to expand more than the bottoms. This is depicted in the figure at the
right. As speed increases during acceleration to the thermal and other
stresses already mentioned.

The mechanical and electrical forces also affect the stator windings. The
excessive starting current leads to rapid heating of the windings and
consequently, rapid thermal expansion resulting in physical stress. The
torque forces associated with starting are many times normal, leading to

327

winding movement and possible motion between adjacent conductors, or

between conductors and frame or core, which can result in a short circuit
or ground fault.
Each acceleration period is a fatigue cycle, and the cumulative effects
results in a finite life for the motor based on the number of starts.
However, there are no standards or guides for the minimum number of
starts for a motor. Returning to our opening statement, use caution with
motor applications. Do not assume that because a motor can drive a
running load, it also has the capability to accelerate that load up to rated
speed.
7.6 Maintenance and Reliability
Rotating Equipment Maintenance Problems
The maintenance department of any industrial plant develops gradually,
over a period of time. The maintenance constitutes a very high
percentage of the plants overall operating costs. In North America it is
not unusual to see companies spending up to 50% of their total operating
budget on what is referred to as maintenance. Performing planned and
cost-effective maintenance on rotating equipment therefore is important,
and more emphasis and planning towards having well managed, costeffective and reliable maintenance programs in place has to be
considered in the companys long range planning.
Maintenance problems are usually caused by: normal wear and tear,
careless or untrained operations and maintenance personnel, improper
lubrication or incorrect lubrication selection, and failure to make small
repairs and adjustments which become catastrophic failures.
Additional maintenance problems are caused by: incorrect equipment or
component design, excessive loads and speeds, incorrect alignment
practices, excessive amounts of vibration, using low quality replacement
parts such as bearings, seals and fasteners, and unwillingness by
management to place meaningful priorities on the maintenance functions.
Note: Others causes of maintenance problems could be listed, but one
thing is abundantly clear; rotating equipment maintenance costs
money and failure to perform corrective maintenance on equipment
eventually costs the company far more over the long term.

328

Current research in North America indicated the following cost related

statistics concerning rotating equipment maintenance and reliability:

Over 25% of bearings used in rotating equipment fail

prematurely due primarily to faulty installation and/or poor
lubrication practices.
Over 70% of the failures experienced in plant and industrial
hydraulic systems are caused by contaminated hydraulic fluids.
Inconsistent and poor lubrication procedures are one of the
principles causes of machinery breakdown.
The average construction/contracting company spend between
25-45% of its operating budget on mobile equipment
maintenance. This value is for parts and labor, not for fuels, lube
or depreciation.

In order to reduce these trends and high costs, management and

employees must consider changing their view of what the maintenance
function is to be. Programs must develop which provide effective
maintenance practices and are seen as investment, rather then costs.
Once this change in thinking takes place, and is put into practice with
management and employee support, long-term maintenance expenditures
can be reduced.
The recommended method for ensuring that reliable maintenance
program works in a particular environment is to have the people in that
environment develop the program. Rather than just copy a maintenance
program from someone else, develop it to respond to the in-plant
equipment maintenance needs and ensure the program is satisfactory for
the companys objectives.
Note: Approximately one third of all maintenance dollars are wasted
because the money is spent on reaction instead of proactive and
prevention activities. This is mostly due to inefficiencies in
maintenance programs which probably do the right things, but at the
wrong time and often for the wrong reasons.

329

Maintenance Program Objectives

The primary objectives of any maintenance programs activities include:
1. To ensure that the equipment operates safely and relatively
trouble-free for long periods of time.
2. To maximize the availability of machinery and equipment
necessary to meet the planned production and operational
objectives.
3. To consistently maintain the plant equipment in order to
minimize wear and premature deterioration.
4. To make the equipment reliable so it can be counted on to
perform to set standards and conditions.
Maintenance Improvement and Reliability Program (MIRP)
The following ten steps outline a plan when a company is considering
developing an effective Maintenance Improvement and reliability
Program (MIRP).
Step 1: Begin by initiating a total maintenance approach. Production
and maintenance must collectively work together. The maintenance
department has to be viewed as being an integral part of the organization.
Step 2: Established a clear vision by having the employees and
management identify the problems, then specify the goals and objectives
that must be set in order to achieve success.
Step 3: Analyze the organization. Will the organization, as a whole,
support the type of improvements required? If not, consider changing the
organizational structure and/or redesign the system to meet the identified
needs. Review the production and operational policies and procedures, as
they may not be suited to the maintenance improvement and reliability
program.
Step 4: Begin to develop an action plan. Identify what is going to be
attempted, who is to be involve, what are the resources required, etc.
Action plans take on many different forms, but it is important that the

330

plan contains inputs drawn from the reviews and analysis rather than
from complaints.
Step 5: Assess the condition of the equipment and facilities. Be objective
in the assessment. Determine which equipment requires immediate
attention.
Step 6: Select the appropriate maintenance program. Is a computerized
maintenance system needed? What technique will be employed, reactive, preventive or predictive maintenance? Determine the order
maintenance activities will be carried out, first, then second, etc.? What
type of reporting system will be used to track and record the data
collected when measuring the performance of each piece of equipment?
Step 7: Measure equipment condition. When measuring for equipment
condition which method(s) will be considered: vibration analysis; fluid
analysis; non-destructive testing; or performance monitoring methods?
Step 8: Prepare the maintenance personnel. As the maintenance program
activities and methods are implemented ensure that the maintenance
personnel are trained to understand the program and why the activities
and methods are performed. Without this step no type of maintenance
improvement and reliability program will succeed.
Step 9: Monitor equipment and machinery effectiveness to the detail the
maintenance program requires. Monitor for performance, reliability and
quality. Overtime, the recorded information can be used to evaluate the
machinery and equipment condition and situation. This is an on-going
activity of any quality maintenance program.
Step 10: Initiate periodic reviews. Equipment and machinery
effectiveness is based on scheduled predictive and preventive
maintenance activities. The reviews of these activities may indicate
common problems and trends which identify any design or operational
changes required. Include engineering, maintenance and production
personnel in these periodic reviews. Ensure that action plans develop
from these review sessions, not just complaints.

331

7.7 Maintenance Programs

Methods of Maintenance
There are three ways to perform maintenance: preventive, and reactive or
breakdown maintenance
Preventive Maintenance Programs:
Normally involve the routine scheduling of maintenance activities. The
schedule is based on the past experience and the manufacturers
recommendations. The activities of the preventive maintenance program
are usually based on periodic sampling and inspections. An unskilled
preventive maintenance team may leave the machine in a worse
condition after the planned shutdown.
Sufficient spare parts and available maintenance personnel are allocated
when overhauls and shutdowns are scheduled. Often there continues to
be unplanned losses, albeit, less than when no form of maintenance
program is in place. Many repairs are often initiated before components
reach their maximum working life, which results in a great deal of
unnecessary expense.
Predictive Maintenance Programs:
This is a systematic method of monitoring the plants rotating equipment
performance and is carried out on a regularly scheduled basis to
determine the equipment condition. Predictive maintenance utilizes
information from past and current performance records to objectively
predict mechanical problems.
Predictions based on the analysis of the information form the basis for
corrective actions to be taken.
Note: Unlike breakdown maintenance and preventive maintenance,
predictive maintenance is an active condition monitoring approach
rather than a reaction or time based approach to maintenance.

To run efficiently in modern industries, the production machinery must

operate near or at the design capacity with a minimum downtime. The
332

specific purpose of a quality predictive maintenance program is to

minimize unscheduled machinery failures, reduce maintenance costs and
loss of production. To accomplish these objectives a program is required
which will:
1. Regularly monitor the mechanical condition of all critical
production equipment.
2. Identify outstanding problems.
From this program, the severity of each problem is quantified, and
scheduled maintenance procedures are performed to prevent failures.
Predictive maintenance program evolved from preventive maintenance
programs. Preventive maintenance program for rotating equipment are
generally based on periodic sampling and inspecting. Most preventive
maintenance programs have established schedules for periodic
inspections of identified equipment which is critical to the operation.
Predictive maintenance programs reduce the frequency and severity of
emergency repairs and can increase equipment life. This system and the
data gathered regarding performance and condition from the basis for
predictive maintenance programs.
In a predictive maintenance program the specific maintenance tasks are
based on actual need. This approach reduces the failures and downtime
as repairs are often now done, and maintenance intervals therefore,
should be extended.
Reactive (Breakdown) Maintenance Programs:
This type of maintenance program occurs by default if problems arent
detected and corrected prior to absolute failure. Typically reactive or
breakdown maintenance is the most expensive of the three maintenance
methods. Reactive maintenance may, however, be justified for certain
non vital machinery, or for machinery where lifetime and cost of
failure does not justify a more planned approach to maintenance
programs are.

333

Predictive Maintenance Program Benefits

Setting up an effective predictive maintenance program will provide
many of the following benefits:

improved operator safety

reduced environmental hazards
increased production
increased machinery availability
provide for scheduled rather than unscheduled downtime
reduced risk of catastrophic failures
minimize unnecessary repairs and repair time
reduce spare part inventories
improve product quality
optimize maintenance department size
better utilization of maintenance personnel

7.8 Machinery Condition Monitoring

In previous machinery and equipment maintenance, a machine was often
permitted to operate until compete failure occurred. Actual machinery
condition monitoring was quite simple, as there was no real sophisticated
method for measuring machine condition, nor did management or the
employees concern themselves with a more proactive approach to
maintenance.
The maintenance plan was to periodically tear down and overhaul the
machine as assurance against failure.
Four techniques were commonly used in the past to monitor the
machinery condition and these techniques continue to be used, although
each technique has come more sophisticated. The techniques described
sense the condition of the machine.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Any increases or decreases in temperature (touch and smell).

Any increases or decreases in vibration (touch).
Any change in noise or sound from the machine (listen).
Any visual or observed changes and problems (sight).

334

Each technique helps in determining to what extent a mechanical fault

exists and if it is progressing. The corrective action is often based on
feel, sound, or appearance.
Temperature
Higher temperature often indicates that a bearing is acting abnormally.
High temperature can be detrimental to the bearing, the lubricant, and the
shaft and seals. This is evident when the machine has continued to
operate for extended periods when the bearing or lubrication
temperatures have been in excess of 260F (125C).
Causes of high bearing and lubrication temperatures include insufficient
or excessive lubrication, contaminated lubricants, overloading, bearing
damage, faulty installation, insufficient bearing clearances, and improper
or failed seals.
It is necessary to check the temperature of bearings periodically, both at
the bearing itself and at other locations on the machine where there is
high temperatures could be cause for concern. Any significant change in
temperature is usually a good indication that a problem exists, especially
if the operating conditions of the machine have not been altered.
Bearing temperatures can be determined roughly by hand feel, or by
routinely and accurately checked with a surface thermometer. A
permanently installed heat sensor may also be installed on or near critical
parts of the machine.
Overheating is often first detected by smell resulting from hot plastics or
oil.
Another method commonly used to feel the condition of a machine is
to determine how much vibration exists at the machine. By touching the
bearing, high temperature and vibrations are felt. The amount of
vibration present is difficult to measure this way, but one may be able to
compare the vibration felt today to how it felt yesterday, or several
weeks ago.

335

Vibration can be more accurately measured by using tools such as

vibrations meters, analyzers, or monitors. Use of a simple vibration
meter. The probe is placed on, or near the bearing and a vibration reading
is given on the meter. The amount of vibration measured is used to
determine the severity of the vibration and the condition of the machine.
Listening
One method used to identify irregularities on machinery and equipment
is to listen for changes in sounds emitted from machines while operating
under conditions of normal loads and speeds. One can do this by placing
a screwdriver blade on the bearing housing and being safely positioned
so the ear contacts the screwdriver handle. The ear is listening to the
internal sounds coming from the bearing. Abnormal noises may be
detected and traced to a specific component of the machine by
experienced maintenance personnel.
More sophisticated methods are used to listen to bearings as well. A
stethoscope can be used to listen to the internal sounds of the bearing
parts. Microphones can be held over the machine or mounted at critical
points to measure the sound amplitude being emitted.
Sound measurements can be used to determine the severity of the
problem. Sound and vibration are closely associated when determining
irregularities in running machinery.
Grinding, squeaking and other irregular sounds can point to worn
bearings. The squeaking noise is often caused by inadequate lubrication.
Insufficient bearing clearances can make a metallic tone. Indentations in
the outer ring raceway will produce smooth, clear tones, and ring damage
caused by shock loads or hammer blows lead to sounds varying in
frequency according to the operating speed of the machine. Intermittent
noises probably indicate damage to certain spots on the rolling members.
Contamination in the bearing produces a rough grinding sound. Damaged
bearings produce irregular and loud noises. Good bearings sound
smoother, fewer irregular sounds, less grinding sounds, and more of a
constant humming sound.

336

Sight
Maintenance personnel, as shown in illustration #3, can simply look at
equipment to see if there is anything out of the ordinary happening.
Check for any apparent oil leaks or grease leaks around seal areas, or if
any of the bearing housings are loose, cracked or improperly assembled.
Check the lubricant. Discoloration or darkening of the oil is usually a
good indication that the lubricant is either contaminated or worn out. It is
also very important to check whether or not there is sufficient lubricant.
Is the lubricant the proper one for the application? Check whether the air
is free of obstructions.
Take a small sample of used oil and compare it with new oil. If it is
cloudy in appearance, water has more than likely mixed with it,
therefore, the oil must be replaced.
Dark or thick oil is a sure sign of contamination or that the oil has started
to carbonize. Overheating may have caused this problem.
Corrective Maintenance
Corrective maintenance work should be planned and scheduled, unless
true emergencies unexpectedly arise. Planning involves identifying all
resources necessary to repair the machinery. This identification of
resources may include:

tradesman man-hours worked

available materials/replacement parts
required special tools and equipment
availability of contract personnel
location of mechanical drawings
supply of assembly/disassembly guidelines
safety orientation
installation and setting procedures
sequence of tasks and time durations
work schedules and shift rotations
job cost estimates
safety and environmental regulations and permits
337

arrangements for restrooms, lunchrooms, lockers, etc.

Note: The maintenance planner responsible for planning and scheduling the
corrective maintenance work must have direct access to records
which contain past maintenance history, information on equipment
design, bill of materials, parts list, assembly/disassembly drawings,
and current inventory status for specific parts and assemblies.

7.9 Maintenance Planning

There are three basic areas of planning administered by maintenance
planners.
Long-Range Planning: These plans for maintenance requirements are
allied with, and dependent on, long-range sales and production forecasts.
Planners work with management to outline what is needed in the way of
decisions in order to reach certain goals in five to twenty years.
Short and Mid-Range Planning: These plans project from one to five
years into the future. Plans are developed under the direct supervision of
the managers responsible for defined maintenance and production
activities. Maintenance program are involved in both short and midrange planning.
Immediate Planning: This type of maintenance planning may be
referred to as day-to-day maintenance planning. This type of planning
is done on a pre-programmed routine and is carried out by the
maintenance teams. These plans are generated from the inspections,
observations and performance measurements regularly performed as part
of the predictive maintenance program.
These plans are primarily concerned with action oriented maintenance
activities for today, tomorrow, and the following week.

338