Assignment I

REAL ANALYSIS
January 8, 2016

Group Members
Name
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Abebe Aogale . .
Abener Tewodros
Miliyon Tilahun .
Sisai Bekele . . .
Tarekegn Dinku .

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ID No
GSR/1427/08
GSR/1417/08
GSR/1401/08
GSR/1426/08
GSR/1415/08

Exercise 1
Show that
1. R the set of real numbers is uncountable.
2. The set of all polynomial
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + + an xn
with ai Z, i {1, 2, . . . , n} is countable.
3. The set of algebraic number is denumerable.
4. Is the set irrational countable?
5. There exist real number which are not algebraic.
Solution:
1. First, we show the subset (0, 1) of the real numbers is uncountable, then it follows R is uncountable.
The set of real numbers in (0, 1) can be written as decimals of the form
0 . d11
0 . d21
0 . d31
0 . d41
..
..
.
.

d12
d22
d32
d42
..
.

d13
d23
d33
d43
..
.

d14
d24
d34
d44
..
.

...
...
...
...
..
.

where dij s are all digit from the set {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9}.
Assume, there exist a one-to-one correspondence between the decimals in (0, 1) and N.

3
..
N
.

..

..
.

0 . d11
0 . d21
0 . d31
..
.

d12
d22
d32
..
.

d13
d23
d33
..
.

d14
d24
d34
..
.

..
.

0.

dn2
..
.

dn3
..
.

dn4
..
.

dn1
..
.

...
...
...

(0, 1)

...

..

We will now construct a decimal in (0, 1), which is missed by this correspondence.
Construct x = 0.c1 c2 c3 . . .
where c1 6= d11 , 0, 9.
c2 6= d22 , 0, 9.
c3 =
6 d33 , 0, 9.
..
.
We forbid 0 and 9 so that x 6= 0.000 . . . = 0, x 6= 0.999 . . . = 1, and to have a unique representation.
By construction this number x is in (0, 1) and differ from the nth decimal number in the sequence in
the nth decimal digit. So, x is missed by the supposed correspondence. Hence, our assumption that
there exist a correspondence between (0, 1) and N is incorrect. Thus, the set (0, 1) is uncountable.
Therefore, R is uncountable.

2. For each pair of integers (n, m) N N, let Pnm denote the set of polynomials of degree m in which
|a0 | + |a1 | + + |am | = n
Pnm is finite for each n, m N. Hence
P =

[
{Pnm : (n, m) N N}

is countable since it is a countable union of countable sets.

3. Let Pn [x] be the set of polynomial functions with rational coefficients. Then there is a bijection from
Pn [x] into Qn . Since Q is countable, there exists a bijection f : Q N. Hence the map F : Qn Nn
defined by F (r1 , . . . , rn ) = (f (r1 ), . . . , f (rn )) is a bijection. Since Nn is countable, we conclude that
Qn is countable and consequently Pn [x] is countable. The set
[
Rn =
{x R; P (x) = 0}
P Pn [x]

is countable since it is a countable union of finite sets. Note that Rn is infinite since Q Rn , for any
n 1. Since the set of algebraic numbers A(R) is given by
[
A(R) =
Rn ,
n1

then it is countable being a countable union of countable sets.

4. The set of real number is a union of the set of rational and irrational numbers.
Suppose the set of irrational numbers R Q, is countable. Since we know that Q is countable and the
union of countable set is countable, Q (R Q) = R is also countable which is a contradiction(since
R is uncountable).
5. Suppose not, that is R = {all algebraic numbers}. But this leads us to conclude that R countable(since
the set of algebraic number is countable). Hence, a contradiction! Because R is uncountable.

Exercise 2
1. Show that the function d : R2 R2 R defined by
d(x, y) = |x1 y1 | + |x2 y2 |
define a metric on R2 .
2. For x, y R determine for each of the following whether it is a metric or not.
d1 (x, y) = (x y)2
p
d2 (x, y) = |x y|
d3 (x, y) = |x2 y 2 |
d4 (x, y) = |x 2y|
d5 (x, y) =

|x y|
1 + |x y|

3. Define a metric d on c[a, b] by

b

|f (x) g(x)|dx,

d(f, g) =

f, g c[a, b].

Show that hc[a, b], di is a metric space.

4. Let (X, d) be metric space. Prove that
d0 (x, y) =

d(x, y)
1 + d(x, y)

d(x, y) = min{d(x, y), 1}

define metric on X. Moreover, show that d0 and d are bounded by 1.
Solution:
1. (i) Positive definite
d(x, y) = |x1 y1 | + |x2 y2 | 0
For x = (x1 , x2 ) and y = (y1 , y2 ) if d(x, y) = 0,
|x1 y1 |+|x2 y2 | = 0
|x1 y1 | = 0, and |x2 y2 | = 0
x1 y1 = 0 and x2 y2 = 0
x1 = y1 and x2 = y2
x=y
And when x = y, x1 = y1 and x2 = y2 , then
d(x, y) = |x1 y1 | + |x2 y2 | = 0
(ii) Symmetric
d(x, y) = |x1 y1 | + |x2 y2 | = |y1 x1 | + |y2 x2 | = d(y, x)
(iii) Triangle inequality
d(x, y) = |x1 y1 | + |x2 y2 |
= |x1 z1 + z1 y1 | + |x2 z2 + z2 y2 |
|x1 z1 | + |z1 y1 | + |x2 z2 | + |z2 y2 |
= |x1 z1 | + |x2 z2 | + |z1 y1 | + |z2 y2 |
= d(x, z) + d(z, y)
4

Hence,
d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y)
2. d1 , d3 and d4 are not metric because
For d1 take x = 3, y = 1 and z = 2, then d(x, y) = 4, d(x, z) = 1 and d(z, y) = 1. Hence triangle
inequality is not satisfied.
For d3 take (x, y) = (1, 1), then d3 (1, 1) = 0 (Positive definite fails).
For d4 take (x, y) =p
(1, 1), then d4 (1, 1) = 1 6= 0 (Positive definite fails).
To show d2 (x, y) = |x y| is a metric (a) Positive definite
p
d2 (x, y) = |x y| 0
If d2 (x, y) = 0
p
|x y| = 0
|x y| = 0
x=y
and if x = y, then x y = 0. Which implies
d2 (x, y) =

|x y| = 0

(b) Symmetric
d2 (x, y) =

p
p
|x y| = |y x| = d2 (y, x)

(c) Triangle inequality. We have |x y| |x z| + |z y|

p
p
p
|x y| |x z| + |z y|
d2 (x, y) d2 (x, z) + d2 (z, y)
Therefore, d2 is a metric.
To show that d5 is a metric, (a) Positive definite
d5 (x, y) =

|x y|
0
1 + |x y|

d5 (x, y) =

|x y|
=0
1 + |x y|

If x = y, then

and if d5 (x, y) = 0,
|x y|
=0
1 + |x y|
|x y| = 0 x = y.

(b) Symmetric
d5 (x, y) =

|x y|
|y x|
=
= d5 (y, x)
1 + |x y|
1 + |y x|

(c) Triangle inequality

Let a = |x y|, b = |x z| and c = |z y|. Now
d5 (x, y) d5 (x, z) + d5 (z, y)

a
b
c

+
1+a
1+b 1+c

But we know that a 0, b 0, c 0 and a b + c. Claim that the inequality

b
c
a

+
1+a
1+b 1+c

(1)

holds. Thus
a
b
c

+
1+a
1+b 1+c
a(1 + b)(1 + c) b(1 + a)(1 + c) + c(1 + a)(1 + b)
a + ac + ab + abc (b + ab + bc + abc) + (c + ac + bc + abc)
a b + c + 2bc + abc)
The last inequality holds because we know that a b + c and a 0, b 0 and c 0. Hence our claim
is true. Consequently,
d5 (x, y) d5 (x, z) + d5 (z, y)
3. (i) Positive definite
b

|f (x) g(x)|dx 0

d(f, g) =

(by the property of integral)

If f (x) = g(x), x [a, b], then f (x) g(x) = 0, x [a, b]. which implies
Z

|f (x) g(x)|dx = 0

d(f, g) =
a

and if d(f, g) = 0 =

Rb
a

|f (x)g(x)|dx, then |f (x)g(x)| = 0, x [a, b]. Thus, f (x) = g(x), x [a, b].

(ii) Symmetric
Z

Z
|f (x) g(x)|dx =

d(f, g) =
a

|g(x) f (x)|dx = d(g, f )

a

(iii) Triangle inequality

Let f, g, h c[a, b]. We have
|f (x) g(x)| |f (x) h(x)| + |h(x) g(x)|

(2)

(2) together with the properties of continuous function(since f, g and h are all continuous) gives us
Z b
Z b
Z b
|f (x) g(x)|dx
|f (x) h(x)|dx +
|h(x) g(x)|dx
a

Thus,
d(f, g) d(f, h) + d(h, g)
That was to be shown!
4. (i) To show d0 (x, y) define a metric on X
(a) Positive definite
d0 (x, y) =

d(x, y)
0
1 + d(x, y)

Because d is a metric and d(x, y) 0. When d0 (x, y) = 0, d(x, y) = 0. Since d is a metric x = y. If

x = y, d is a metric so d(x, y) = 0 and hence
d0 (x, y) =

d(x, y)
=0
1 + d(x, y)

(b) Symmetric; since d is a metric d(x, y) = d(y, x). So

d0 (x, y) =

d(x, y)
d(y, x)
=
= d0 (y, x)
1 + d(x, y)
1 + d(y, x)

(c) Triangle inequality: Let a = d(x, y), b = d(x, z) and c = d(z, y). Since d is a metric the following
holds; a b + c and a 0, b 0 and c 0. In order to show
d0 (x, y) d0 (x, z) + d0 (z, y)
We need only to show that the inequality
b
c
a

+
1+a
1+b 1+c
holds. But this is the same inequality (1) in #2 which weve already shown to be true. Hence, it
follows
d0 (x, y) d0 (x, z) + d0 (z, y)
To show d0 (x, y) is bounded by 1.
For x = y, d(x, y) = 0, then
d0 (x, y) =

d(x, y)
= 0 < 1.
1 + d(x, y)

For x 6= y, d(x, y) > 0, thus

d0 (x, y) =

d(x, y)
d(x, y)
<
=1
1 + d(x, y)
d(x, y)

(ii) To show d(x, y) define a metric on X

(a) Positive definite
Since d is a metric d(x, y) 0. Then d(x, y) = min{d(x, y), 1} 0. If d(x, y) = min{d(x, y), 1} = 0,
then d(x, y) = 0. Hence x = y, since d is a metric. If x = y, then d(x, y) = 0.
Hence d(x, y) = min{d(x, y), 1} = 0.
(b) Symmetric: Again we the fact that d is a metric.
d(x, y) = min{d(x, y), 1} = min{d(y, x), 1} = d(y, x)
(c) Triangle inequality
Since d is a metric, we have
d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y)
min{d(x, y), 1} min{d(x, z), 1} + min{d(z, y), 1}
Therefore,
d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y)
To show d is bounded by 1,
If d(x, y) > 1, then d(x, y) = min{d(x, y), 1} = 1 and if d(x, y) < 1, then d(x, y) = min{d(x, y), 1} =
d(x, y) < 1. Hence, d(x, y) 1.