Three Christian Capitals

THREE CHRISTIAN CAPITALS

UNA’S LECTURES

Una’s Lectures, delivered annually on the Berkeley campus, memorialize Una Smith, who received her B.S. in History from Berkeley in 19 n and her M.A. in 1913. They express her esteem for the humanities in enlarging the scope of the individual mind. When appropriate, books deriving from the Una’s Lectureship are published by the University of California Press:

The Resources of Kind: Genre-Theory in the Renaissance, by Rosalie L. Colie. 1973

From the Poetry of Sumer: Creation, Glorification, Adoration, by Samuel Noah Kramer. 1979

The Making of Elizabethan Foreign Policy, 1558-1603,, by R. B. Wernham. 1980

Three Christian Capitals: Topography and Politics, by Richard Krautheimer. 1982

THREE CHRISTIAN CAPITALS

TOPOGRAPHY AND POLITICS

Richard Krautheimer

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS Berkeley • Los Angeles • London

University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California

University of California Press, Ltd. London, England

© 1983 by

The Regents of the University of California Printed in the United States of America 123456789

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Krautheimer, Richard, 1897-

Three Christian capitals.

(Una’s lectures; 4)

Four rev. and enl. lectures originally given at the University of Calif., Berkeley, in May 1979.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Rome (Italy)-Description-Addresses, essays, lectures. 2. Istanbul (Turkey)-Description-Addresses, essays, lectures. 3. Milan (Italy)—Description—Addresses, essays, lectures. 4. Christian antiquities-Italy-Rome-Addresses, essays, lectures. 5. Christian antiquities —Turkey—Istanbul—Addresses, essays, lectures. 6. Christian antiquities-Italy-Milan- Addresses, essays, lectures. 7. Church historyPrimitive and early church, ca. 30-600-Addresses, essays, lectures. I. Title. II. Series. DG63.K7 937’.08 81-13148 ISBN 0-520-04541-6 AACR2

The publication of this book has been supported by a generous grant from the Una Lecture Committee of the University of California, Berkeley.

Contents 1

Contents 1

List of Illustrations

Preface

Introduction

I ROME

II CONSTANTINOPLE

III MILAN

IV ROME AGAIN

Notes

Index

List of Illustrations

For sources of illustrations, the following abbreviations are used: AFMV Archivio Fotografico Musei Vaticani, Vatican City

FU Fototeca Unione, American Academy, Rome

DAI Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Rome and Istanbul PCAS Pontificia Commissione di Archeologia Sacra, Rome SAL Soprintendenza Archeologica di Lombardia, Milan

For books, the abbreviations used are given in the list of frequently cited works.

1. The Rome of Constantine (based on drawing by J. B. Lloyd)

2. Rome, Aurelian Walls (photo: FU)

3. Rome, Forum Romanum, Palatine, and Imperial Fora as of ca. 320, model; Rome, Museo della Civiltà Romana (photo: FU)

4. Rome, Forum Romanum, audience hall of city prefect, now SS. Cosma e Damiano, vestibule rotunda, ca. 320 (photo: FU)

5. Rome, Basilica Nova (of Maxentius or Constantine), north side (photo: FU)

6. Rome, Temple of Venus and Roma (foreground) and Colosseum (photo: FU)

7. Rome, Forum of Trajan, hemicycle, and Market of Trajan (photo: FU)

8. Rome, Castel Sant’Angelo (Mausoleum of Hadrian) and bridge (photo: GFN)

9. Rome, Minerva Medica as of 1820, drawing F. J. B. Kobell; Munich, Graphische Sammlung (photo: GFN)

10. Rome, Colosseum as of ca. 1870 from the south, showing olive groves and gardens (photo: W. H. Parker)

11I. Rome, tenement house, foot of Capitoline Hill, model; Rome, Museo della Civiltà Romana (photo: DAI, Rome)

12. Rome, Clivus Scauri spanned by arches and SS. Giovanni e Paolo, as of câ. 1955 (photo: FU)

13. Rome, S. Giovanni in Laterano as of ca. 1860 (photo: anonymous photographer, rephotographed O. Savio)

14. Rome, S. Giovanni in Laterano, foundation wall of Constantinian nave (photo: PCAS)

15. Rome, S. Giovanni in Laterano, Constantinian basilica, reconstruction (Krautheimer-Corbett; drawing J. B. Lloyd)

16. Rome, S. Giovanni in Laterano, interior, reconstruction, fresco, G. B. Gagliardi, 1650, S. Martino ai Monti (photo: AFMV)

17. Dura-Europos, Christian meeting house (domus ecclesiae), reconstruction (P. Lampi, based on C. Kraeling, The Christian Building, The Excavations at Dura-Europos 8, 2 [New Haven, 1967], plan 3, drawing Pearson)

18. Rome, garden hall below S. Pietro in Vincoli, reconstruction (drawing Leporini, after A. M. Colini and G. Matthiae, Ricerche intorno a 5. Pietro in Vincoli, Atti Pont Accad, Memorie, 9, fase. 2 [1966], fig. 73 bis)

19. Rome, Basilica Ulpia, interior, reconstruction (L. Canina, from L. Canina, Ricerche sulParchitettura più propria dei tempi cristiani [Rome, 1846], pl. 10)

20. Rome, audience hall of city prefect?), now SS. Cosma e Damiano, interior and plan as of ca. 1550, drawing P. Ligorio (Vatican Library, Vat. lat. 3439, fol. 13r; photo: Bibliotheca Apostolica Vaticana)

21. Trier, basilica (sedes iustitiae), interior (photo: FU)

22. Rome, S. Pudenziana, mosaic, Christ enthroned (photo: GFN)

23. Rome, S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, covered cemetery and catacomb chamber, reconstruction (Krautheimer-Frankl; drawing W. Frankl)

24. Rome, Old St. Peter’s (and crossing of New St. Peter’s) as of 1536, drawing M. van Heemskerck (from H. Egger and Chr. Hülsen, eds., Die Skizzenbücher des Marten van Heemskerck [Berlin, 1916], vol. 2, pl. 52)

25. Rome, S. Croce in Gerusalemme, reconstruction (Krautheimer-Frankl; drawing W. Frankl, from Corpus, 1: fig. 117)

26. Rome, showing roads, cemeteries, and sanctuaries outside the walls (based on drawing courtesy L’Elefante, publishers, Rome)

27. Rome, Thermae of Constantine on Quirinal as of 1575, engraving

E. Du Pérac (photo: FU)

28. Rome, Quirinal, horse tamers and other statuary, as of 1546, painting

M. van Heemskerck, detail; private collection (photo: FU)

29. Rome, Janus Quadrifrons (photo: FU)

30. Rome, Arch of Constantine from the north (photo: FU)

31. Constantine and Divus Comes, gold solidus, 313; Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, Collection Bestégui (photo: courtesy David Wright)

32. Constantine, head of colossal statue; Rome, Palazzo dei Conservatori (photo: DAI, Rome)

33. Heads of tetrarchs; Vatican Library (photo: DAI, Rome)

34. Constantine wearing the Chi-Rho on helmet, silver medallion, 315; Munich, Staatliche Münzsammlung (photo: Münzsammlung, Munich)

35. Constantinople, first half of seventeenth century; Berlin, Staatsbibliothek (photo: DAI, Istanbul)

36. Road map, Roman Empire, Europe (based on drawing by J. B. Lloyd)

37. Constantinople, showing growth to the fifth century (based on Janin, Constantinople, plan 1)

38. Constantinople, Theodosian Walls, early fifth century (photo: DAI, Istanbul)

39. Constantinople, aerial view as of 1918 (photo: DAI, Istanbul)

40. Constantinople, hippodrome in fifteenth century(?), engraving, 1580 (from Müller-Wiener, Bildlexikon, fig. 48)

41. Constantinople, hippodrome, obelisk, base showing emperor enthroned in kathisma (photo: courtesy W. Schiele)

42. Constantinople, hippodrome and palace site, fourth century, plan (from: Müller-Wiener, Bildlexikon, fig. 263)

43. Emperor subduing monster, gold solidus, 365-75; Trier, Rheinisches Landesmuseum (photo: Landesmuseum, Trier)

44. Constantinople, view as of ca. 1930 (photo: courtesy W. Schiele)

45. Constantinople, H. Sophia, fifth century, propylaeum, stairs and bases of colonnade (photo: Krautheimer)

46. Constantinople, H. Sophia, fifth century, propylaeum, arch, detail (photo: Krautheimer)

47. Constantinople, H. Sophia, fourth-century plan, hypothetical reconstruction overlaid on Justinian’s church (drawing J. B. Lloyd)

48. Bread mold, seventh to eighth century, showing Constantine’s buildings at Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem: from left, propylaeum(?), basilica, Anastasis Rotunda; below, interior of basilica(?) and paving of courtyard; Cleveland Museum of Art (photo: Cleveland Museum)

49. Thessalonik, H. Demetrios, interior (photo: Hirmer, Munich)

50. Madaba, mosaic map, sixth century, detail showing Jerusalem with colonnaded streets and, in center, churches on Golgotha (from M. Avi Yonah, The Madaba Mosaic Map [Jerusalem, 1954], pl.7)

51. Constantinople, Column of Constantine as of ca. 1880-90 (photo: DAI, Istanbul)

52. Constantinople, Column of Constantine, socle, reconstruction (from Müller-Wiener, Bildlexikon, fig. 288)

53. Constantinopolis, personified, with Constantine’s Column, Tabula Peutingeriana, detail; Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna (photo: Nationalbibliothek)

54. Helios, coin; British Museum, London (photo: by permission of the Trustees of the British Museum)

55. Constantinople, Fatih mosque from the northwest (photo: courtesy Renata Schiele)

56. Antioch-Kaoussié, St. Babylas, cross plan (drawing S. Gibson, based on J. Lassus, in Antioch-on-the-Orontes, ed. R. Stilwell [Princeton, 1938], vol. 2, fig. p. 219)

57. Gerasa, church of the Apostles, Prophets, and Martyrs, plan (from J. W. Crowfoot, in Gerasa …, ed. C. Kraeling [New Haven, 1938], plan 41)

58. Rome, St. Peter’s, Mausoleum of Julii, mosaic showing Christ as Helios (photo: Reverenda Fabbrica di San Pietro)

59. Ampulla, detail showing canopy over Holy Sepulchre; Monza, Cathedral, Treasury (photo: D. Fourmont)

60. Constantine’s consecration coin, showing him rising to Heaven; Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale (photo: courtesy David Wright)

61. Milan ca. 300, with location of imperial mausoleum at S. Vittore al Corpo and cemeteries (revised from Lewis, 1969, p. 91)

62. Milan, S. Vittore al Corpo and adjoining mausoleum, drawing, ca. 1570, Anonymous Fabriczy, Stuttgart, Staatsgalerie (photo: Staatsgalerie)

63. Milan ca. 400, showing location of fourth-century churches (revised from Lewis, 1969, fig. 9)

64. Milan, Piazza del Duomo, excavation of S. Tecla (photo: SAL)

65. Milan, S. Simpliciano, from the southwest (photo: Soprintendenza ai Monumenti per la Lombardia)

66. Milan, S. Nazaro, from the east (photo: Paoletti, Milan)

67. Milan, S. Tecla, plan (drawing S. Gibson, adapted from M. Mirabella Roberti, Congresso per il Duomo di Milan, i [Milan, 1969], fig. 32)

68. Milan, S. Tecla, foundation of nave column (photo: SAL)

69. Milan, S. Ambrogio, foundation of fourth-century nave column (from Landriani, La Basilica Ambrosiana [Milan, 1889], fig. 12)

70. Milan, S. Simpliciano, herringbone masonry (photo: courtesy Charles McClendon)

71. Milan, S. Nazaro (Basilica Apostolorum), isometric reconstruction (after Lewis, 1969, fig. 4)

72. Milan, S. Simpliciano, plan (drawing J. B. Lloyd, based on E. Arslan, Arte Lombarda 6 [1961], fig. 17)

73. Milan, S. Lorenzo, exterior from the southeast (photo: Krautheimer)

74. Milan, S. Lorenzo, plan (based on M. Mirabella Roberti, Studi…

C. Castiglione [Milan, 1957], opp. p. 477)

75. Milan, S. Lorenzo, stone platform below S. Aquilino (photo: SAL)

76. Milan, S. Lorenzo, interior (photo: SAL)

77. Milan, S. Lorenzo, interior as of 1577-95; drawing Raccolta Bianconi, Castello Sforzesco, Milan (from CCC, pl. 61)

78. Milan, S. Lorenzo, interior, reconstruction (from CCC, fig. 43)

79. Milan, S. Lorenzo, exterior, reconstruction (from Kleinbauer, Gesta 15 [1976], fig. 1)

80. Milan, S. Lorenzo, propylaeum, colonnade (photo: SAL)

81. Milan, S. Aquilino, interior (photo: SAL)

82. Milan, S. Aquilino, exterior (photo: SAL)

83. Milan, S. Aquilino, interior, brick masonry, and fourth-century sinopia of Victory (Christ?) (photo: SAL)

84. Rome, Forum, Temple of Saturn (photo: FU)

85. Rome, Forum, porticus deorum consentium (photo: FU)

86. Rome, S. Vitale, interior, reconstruction (drawing Leporini)

87. Rome, S. Sabina, interior (photo: GFN)

88. Rome, S. Sabina, interior, detail showing opus sectile decoration above arcades (photo: Alinari)

89. Rome, S. Sabina, exterior (photo: FU)

90. Rome ca. 500, showing regions, ancient monuments, old community centers, and new basilicas (based on drawing by J. B. Lloyd)

91. Rome, S. Paolo fuori le Mura, interior as of ca. 1750, engraving G. B.

Piranesi

92. Rome, S. Maria Maggiore, interior (photo: Leonard von Matt)

93. Rome, S. Maria Maggiore, interior, reconstruction (Spencer Corbett, adjusted J. B. Lloyd)

94. Rome, Sto. Stefano Rotondo, exterior, isometric reconstruction (Spencer Corbett, adjusted J. B. Lloyd)

95. Rome, Sto. Stefano Rotondo, interior (photo: Leonard von Matt)

96. Rome, Sto. Stefano Rotondo, interior, reconstruction showing opus sectile decoration on nave wall (J. B. Lloyd)

97. Rome ca. 500, showing hypothetical density of settled areas and distribution of new* churches (drawing J. B. Lloyd)

98. Rome in 1593, A. Tempesta, map of Rome, detail showing Tiber island and three bridges

99. Rome, S. Crisogono, baptistery, reconstruction (courtesy: B. M. Apollonj- Ghetti)

100. Rome, Lateran baptistery, narthex (photo: G. Fichera)

101. Rome, Lateran baptistery, reconstruction, 1575, engraving A. Lafréri

102. Rome, Lateran, chapel of the Holy Cross as of ca. 1500, drawing

Giuliano de Sangallo (Vat. lat. 4424, fol. 3ov)

103. Rome, Old St. Peter’s as of ca. 330, exterior, reconstruction (A. Frazer)

104. Roma, personified and marked by representation of Old St. Peter’s, Tabula Peutingeriana, detail; Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna (photo: Nationalbibliothek)

105. Rome in 1576, M. Cartaro, map of Rome, detail showing Lateran, S. Croce in Gerusalemme, S. Maria Maggiore, and Sto. Stefano Rotondo (from A. P. Frutaz, Le Piante di Roma [Rome, 1962])

106. Rome, Lateran, view as of ca. 1650, painting G. Dughet; Chatsworth (photo: Courtauld Institute, London; courtesy The Trustees of the Chatsworth Settlement)

Preface

The four lectures included in this book in revised and slightly enlarged form were delivered at the University of California, Berkeley, in May 1979 in memory of Una Smith Ross, a graduate of the university, class of 1901.1 am deeply indebted to Mr. Hunter Ross, her husband, who has generously funded the series of Una Lectures to be given annually; to the members of the committee, headed by Professor Thomas G. Barnes, for the hospitality extended to my wife and myself in their homes as well as at the faculty club; and to the faculty and students who attended the lectures and received them, I feel, without disapproval. Among the faculty my particular thanks are due to Professors Peter Brown, Gerard E. Caspary, and David Wright for valuable suggestions proffered in many friendly talks.

The lectures represent an experiment. They are the attempt of an old historian of art to explore the borders of his field and to transgress into that of political history: to view the architectural monuments of the Christian capitals of the fourth and fifth centuries and their location within the urban texture as reflecting the political realities and ideologies of Constantinian Rome, Constantinople, Milan, and early papal Rome. Whether I have succeeded in achieving this aim I must leave to the reader, but I hope at least to have stimulated further research along lines which I deem important.

Originally I had hoped to be able to deal in a fifth chapter with one more Christian capital—Trier—where since 1943 excavations have brought to light remains of the imperial palace and of a huge twin cathedral. A thorough study of the material published so far and a correspondence with Dr. Theodor K. Kempf, who is in charge of the work at Trier, have convinced me that an attempt at summing up the results of the excavation before the publication of the final report would be premature.

Thus, much as I regret it, I must resign myself to omitting Trier. Hence, this book will have to remain Three Christian Capitals.

For help in preparing the lectures and the present final version, I am equally indebted to my assistant of many years, Joan Barclay Lloyd, at present of Latrobe University, Melbourne. Her clever hand also supplied both the maps and the reconstruction drawings of S. Giovanni in Laterano and of the interior of Sto. Stefano Rotondo in Rome, as well as adjusting a number of other drawings. Mrs. Elizabeth Schwartzbaum and Miss June Taboroff undertook the task of deciphering my handwriting and typing the manuscript. Mrs. Marilyn Schwartz of the University of California Press and Miss Helen Tartar as editors saw the manuscript through press. Mrs. Cothran W. Ceen, finally, was good enough to share with me the tedious and ever so necessary task of proofreading. My warm thanks go to all of them.

Rome, September 1980

Introduction

Topography, so say the dictionaries, is a scholarly discipline given over to the description or the discovery of a particular locality and the location within it of specific sites. It thus identifies a structure or its remains or simply the place it once occupied with a building known from historical sources to have risen in that neighborhood: a set of walls mentioned by ancient writers as having been located on the Roman Forum at the foot of the Palatine turns out to have been the compound of the Vestals; the ruins of a large basilica on another part of the Forum are revealed by a number of passages in Livy, Tacitus, and other Roman historians as those of the Basilica Aemilia, founded in 179 B.C. by the consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and his colleague; or, closer to home, Wall Street is easily identified through old maps and archeological finds as the site of the early city wall of New York. Topography, then, combines a knowledge of the terrain, its monuments, and archeological evidence with that of the historical written sources. Correctly interpreted, they illuminate one another and thus make essential contributions to such fields as archeology, whether classical, post-classical, or medieval; to the history of city planning; and to religious, military, social, and also general history.

The identification of a building through historical sources is not too inspiring, except for the specialist. It becomes more stimulating within a broader context as one probes deeper into the evidence, both archeological and historical, to explore the reasons—more than one as a rule—for a given site’s being occupied by a particular building. These reasons are usually very down to earth: easy access by land or water; a preexistent street system; the commercial value of the site, which may be on a street corner or near a marketplace or on a much-traveled thoroughfare; or the defensive strength of the location. Or else the lot has been for a long time in the hands of the owner, be it an individual or a corporation:

large numbers of churches in Rome rise over or incorporate the remains of private houses or tenements that, from literary evidence, appear to have served as meeting houses for Christian congregations long before these churches were built. Beyond these practical reasons for the location of a building, other factors must be taken into consideration. A building may have been erected on a particular site so as to eradicate the memory of a structure formerly in that place: a contemporary source reports at length how Bishop Porphyry in 401 had the great sanctuary of Gaza demolished stone by stone and replaced by a church in cross shape on the same site. Alternatively, a church may commemorate a site or an object long held sacred by the Christian community and thus ensure its continued veneration: the basilica on the Vatican Hill over the grave of Saint Peter; the church in