Mechanism

and
Machine Theory

Mechanism and Machine Theory 41 (2006) 316

www.elsevier.com/locate/mechmt

Compliant design for apping mechanism: A minimum

torque approach
J.P. Khatait a, S. Mukherjee

b,*

, B. Seth

b
c

Design Technology Institute Limited, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119260, Singapore
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110 016, India
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai 400 076, India
Received 4 July 2004; received in revised form 21 April 2005; accepted 2 June 2005
Available online 10 August 2005

Abstract
Compliant mechanisms are suggested as alternates for simplication of assembly and for miniaturization. It is shown here that a signicant reduction in running torque could be achieved through proper
design. The dynamics of a four-bar crank-rocker mechanism, suitable as a apping mechanism and consisting of two exural hinges is analyzed. The peak driving torque is minimized by modifying the stiness of the
exural hinges and the unstrained positions of the exural hinges. A reduction of the order of 2.85 in the
peak driving torque is achieved in a specic mechanism considered.
2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Compliant mechanism; Flexural hinges; Driving torque optimization

1. Introduction
Miniaturization of a multi-jointed mechanism would require reduction in the size of the joints.
This would in turn require manufacturing of micro sub components to high tolerances and their
assembly. Large friction is a known problem in this scale of assembly. Instead of scaling of all
*

Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 11 26591138; fax: +91 11 26858703.

E-mail address: sudipto@mech.iitd.ernet.in (S. Mukherjee).

0094-114X/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2005.06.002

J.P. Khatait et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 41 (2006) 316

components, a known alternative for design of such small mechanism is the use of compliant
structures to eliminate the requirement of joints. In some cases, a whole mechanism can be designed as a consolidated single-piece member, facilitating miniaturization. These mechanisms
can be made by injection molding, such as used in toy mechanism fabrication, or can be manufactured using MEMS technology for even smaller sizes.
Compliance in mechanism was analyzed initially to eliminate design problems. Kineto-elastodynamic analysis of linkages has been investigated extensively by many authors like Viscomi and
Ayre [3], Winfrey [4], Imam et al. [5], Sadler and Sandor [6], Imam and Sandor [7], Midha et al.
[8,9], Nath and Ghosh [10], Cleghorn et al. [11], and Lowen and Chassapis [12]. Today compliance
is also utilized to gain some advantages over rigid link mechanisms. Design equations and curves
for calculating the critical spring rates of a single axis and two axes exure hinges have been presented by Paros and Weisbord [13]. Shoup et al. have made use of undulating elastica [14] and
nodal elastica [15] for the analysis of exible link mechanisms. Zeid [16] has presented mathematical model for planar mechanisms with compliant joints. Midha et al. [17] have proposed a standard nomenclature for the components of compliant mechanisms. Howell and Midha [18]
introduced the concept of pseudo-rigid-body model and a large deection nite element type algorithm to aid in the design of compliant mechanisms wherein the exible sections are small in
length compared to the relatively rigid sections. Kota and Ananthasuresh [19] have given a detailed account of the amazing ways in which nature uses compliance. They have discussed applications of compliant mechanisms in MEMS. Howell and Midha [20] have investigated the eect of
a compliant work piece on the input/output characteristics of rigid-link toggle mechanisms. They
have also done the parametric deection approximations for end-loaded, large-deection beams
in compliant mechanisms [21]. Howell et al. [22] have investigated the pseudo-rigid-body equivalent spring stiness and proposed new modeling equations. Murphy et al. [23] have developed an
enumeration process for compliant mechanisms which builds on the rigid-body type-synthesis
techniques and terminology. They have addressed a mathematically rigorous process for the topological synthesis of compliant mechanisms which was lacking earlier. Salamon and Midha [24]
have utilized an energy approach to determine mechanical advantage in compliant mechanisms
by duly accounting for lost work due to deformation. A design methodology based on the globallocal modeling method is described along with its application to the design of the optimum
layout of compliant mechanisms and the microstructure of composite materials by Kikuchi
et al. [25]. Midha et al. [26] introduced a method for determining the limit positions of compliant
mechanisms for which an appropriate pseudo-rigid-body model may be created. Su and Yang [27]
have presented the design theory and synthesis of compliant microleverage mechanism including
single-stage and multistage microlevers. Lobontiu et al. [28] have introduced the parabolic and
hyperbolic exure hinges as new rotation joints to be utilized in two-dimensional monolithic
mechanisms. Closed-form equations have been formulated for compliances to characterize both
the active rotation and all other in-plane and out-of-plane parasitic motions. The stress levels
are also evaluated in terms of compliances.
In literature, we have not seen investigations into the eect of link compliance on input torque
requirements. In the present work this has been studied extensively for the case of compliant fourbar crank-rocker mechanism where two of the oscillating joints are replaced with exural pivots.
As can be expected, introduction of compliance will modify the dynamics of the mechanism.
To study the change, compliance is introduced locally in the form of exural hinges at the two

J.P. Khatait et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 41 (2006) 316

oscillating revolute joints of the four-bar crank-rocker. Pseudo-rigid-body approach is used to

compute the torque required for constant angular velocity of the crank using MATLABTM.
Since a numerical procedure is used, a specic problem that we were working with, i.e., a mechanism for wing apping for a micro-air-vehicle (MAV), was used for a case study. Each exural
hinge has two parameters that characterize the linear spring, viz, stiness and unstrained position.
The eect of these parameters on the torque input requirement is studied. An optimum design of
the exural hinge for minimum input torque is deduced and used to modify the conventional
mechanism.
The rigid body mechanism was designed in multiple planes to avoid interference between links.
An ADAMSTM model of the exible mechanism was used to modify the geometry of links to
eliminate interference. Finally, a compliant mechanism is designed for apping to minimize the
maximum input torque required for constant crank angular velocity inputs.

2. The candidate mechanism

We worked with a mechanism designed for micro-air-vehicle. A brief background is presented
to put the need of miniaturization in context. Based on the ight of Encarsia formosa, WeissFogh
has proposed a model for lift generation [1]. Many insects during hover and low-speed ight use
the clap and ing motions of wings analyzed by him. Small birds to maximize lift during takeo
also exploit this mechanism. Fig. 1 illustrates the sequence of the typical clap and ing consisting
of two stages. First, the wings are clapped together at the completion of a stroke (A). The aerodynamic benet of this procedure is minimal, except to prepare for the wings for the next stage:
the ing (BD). The ing begins when the wings rotate about their trailing edges (B), forcing air to
ow into the region once occupied by the wings (C). This airow causes two counter-rotating
bound vortices to form around the wings. From classical uid mechanics, setting up of net circulation around wings generates lift, which happens when Lanchester vortices are shed from the
Prandtl boundary layer as the KuttaZukhovski condition is satised [2]. The WeissFogh mechanism sets up circulation without vortex shedding, thus lift is generated even before Kutta
Zukhowski condition is reached. As the ing progresses, the wings fully separate and begin their
stroke (D).
The motion of the wing is characterized by a rotation, followed by a coupled rotation and
translation. The problem of achieving this motion using a single drive can be reduced to a classical

Fig. 1. Clap and ing motion of wings.

J.P. Khatait et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 41 (2006) 316

Fig. 2. Flapping wing mechanism developed at IIT Delhi, India.

motion generation problem. A six bar apping wing mechanism (Fig. 2) with a crank rocker driving a double rocker has been developed in IIT Delhi, India to mimic the WeissFogh model (the
wings in the picture are a graduate students ight of fancy). The mechanism shown produces the
desired wing motion. The size of the rigid link apping-wing mechanism is of the order of
100 mm, which is to be reduced to a size of 20 mm if we want to use this mechanism for MAV
(total wingspan of the order of 50 mm or even smaller) applications which is feasible through
the use of compliant systems. In this paper, though we have used the kinematic geometry of
the above mechanism for the study, the methodology is not specic to it.

3. Four-bar compliant crank-rocker mechanism

Introduction of compliance in the form of exural hinges changes the dynamics of the mechanism in comparison to the corresponding rigid link mechanism. In order to understand these
changes, a driving crank-rocker four-bar mechanism is considered. Two of the oscillating revolute
joints are replaced with exural hinges as shown in Fig. 3(a). The crank has to be connected with
other members through conventional revolute joints. Pseudo-rigid-body model approach is considered for the dynamic analysis. The pseudo-rigid-body model is shown in Fig. 3(b). The exural
pivots (the relatively more exible sections in the compliant mechanism in Fig. 3(a)) are modeled
as torsional springs attached to rigid body joints in Fig. 3(b).
The pseudo-rigid-body model may be analyzed by constructing a free-body diagram for each
link, as shown in Fig. 3(c). The torque at successive joints due to deection of the torsional springs
may be written as
T 3 k 3 h4s  h4 h3  h3s
T 4 k 4 h4s  h4

1
2

where Ti is the torque caused by torsional spring i, with spring constant ki. The unstrained position of the joint, where the exural hinge applies no force, is his. The joint forces acting on link j
due to link k in x and y directions are Hjk and Vjk respectively. Fokx, Foky and Tok are inertia forces
in x and y directions and inertia torque of kth link respectively,

J.P. Khatait et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 41 (2006) 316

Fig. 3. (a) Four bar compliant mechanism, (b) pseudo-rigid-body model and (c) free-body diagrams of moving links.

F okx mk agkx

F oky mk agky

T ok I mk ak

4
5

where agkx and agky are the x and y components of the accelaration of the center of gravity of link
k, and ak is the angular accelaration of link k. For constant angular speed for input link 2, linear
acceleration and angular acceleration of various links are given as follows [29]:
ag2x rg2 x22 cos h2
ag2y
ag3x

rg2 x22 sin h2

r2 x22 cos h2  rg3 a3

6
7
sin h3 

rg3 x23

cos h3

J.P. Khatait et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 41 (2006) 316

ag3y r2 x22 sin h2 rg3 a3 cos h3  rg3 x23 sin h3

ag4x rg4 a4 sin h4  rg4 x24 cos h4

ag4y rg4 a4 cos h4 
r2 x22

rg4 x24

10
11

sin h4

r3 x23

r4 x24

cosh4  h2
cosh4  h3 
r3 sinh4  h3
2
r2 x2 cosh3  h2 r4 x24 cosh3  h4  r3 x23
a4
r4 sinh3  h4
a3

12
13

Writing equilibrium equations for each link we have

H 21 H 23 F o2x

14

V 21 V 23 F o2y

15

H 21 rg2 sin h2  V 21 rg2 cos h2  H 23 r2  rg2 sin h2 V 23 r2  rg2 cos h2  T in 0

16

H 32 H 34 F o3x

17

V 32 V 34 F o3y

18

H 32 rg3 sin h3  V 32 rg3 cos h3  H 34 r3  rg3 sin h3 V 34 r3  rg3 cos h3 T o3 T 3

19

H 43 H 41 F o4x

20

V 43 V 41 F o4y

21

 H 43 r4  rg4 sin h4 V 43 r4  rg4 cos h4 H 41 rg4 sin h4  V 41 rg4 cos h4

T 3  T o4  T 4  T load

22

Since, Hjk = Hkj, and Vjk = Vkj.

Rewriting these equations in matrix form, we have
X fY g fZg

23

where
T

fY g H 12 V 12 H 23 V 23 H 34 V 34 H 41 V 41 T in  ;
T
fZg F o2x F o2y 0 F o3x F o3y T o3 T 3 F o4x F o4y T 3  T o4  T 4  T load 

3
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0 7
6
7
6
7
6 rg2 sin h2 rg2 cos h2 r2  rg2 sin h2 r2  rg2 cosh2
0
0
0
0
1 7
6
7
6
7
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0 7
6
6
7
6
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0 7
X  6
7
6
7
rg3 cos h3
r3  rg3 sinh3 r3  rg3 cos h3
0
0
0 7
0
0
rg3 sinh3
6
6
7
6
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0 7
6
7
6
7
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0 5
4
0
0
0
0
r4  rg4 sin h4 r4  rg4 cosh4 rg4 sinh4 rg4 cos h4 0

J.P. Khatait et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 41 (2006) 316

Plot of 3 and 4 with crank angle

125
120
115

3 and 4, degrees

110
105
100
95
90
85
80

75
70
65
60
55
50
45
0

30

60

90

120 150

180 210 240

270 300 330

360

crank angle, degrees

Fig. 4. Plot of h3 and h4 with crank position.

Therefore,
24
fY g X 1
fZg
The equation above can be solved repeatedly for values of h2 to yield the joint forces and torque
required for constant crank speed. Specically, element Y(9) yields the torque input required for
constant crank speed.
We chose to carry out kinematic and dynamic analysis of the crank-rocker component of the
MAV mechanism, shown in Fig. 2, with the following link parameters:
r1 50 mm
r2 15 mm
r3 70 mm
r4 65 mm
and width and thickness of links at the rigid sections were 4 mm and 2 mm, respectively. The
exural zone has to be designed from the point of fatigue strength. Material can be chosen to
be polypropylene [30] as the piece would be possible to be manufactured by injection molding.
It was found that h3 varies from 45 to 82 and h4 from 85 to 125 as shown in Fig. 4.
4. Eect of unstrained positions and torsional stiness on the torque input required
Fig. 5 shows the plot of torque required to drive the crank at constant speed of 100 rpm when
all the joints are revolute. When two of the oscillating joints are replaced with exural hinges, the
torque requirement will change. The unstrained position of the exural hinges and the bending
stiness has an eect on the maximum torque requirement at the crank to execute a uniform crank
motion. The unstrained positions of the joints and the joint stiness are taken as the design
parameters and the problem of minimum peak torque in a cycle is considered. For reducing

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J.P. Khatait et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 41 (2006) 316

-5

x 10
3

Plot of Tin with time for k=0 Nm/rad

2.5

required input torque, Nm

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

time, second

Fig. 5. Plot of input torque to drive the crank at constant speed of 100 rpm.

the dimensionality of the search space for the optimum input torque, the stiness is assumed to be
the same in joint 3 and 4. The motivation is to optimize the mechanism so that it may be driven by
the smallest size motor.
Fig. 6(a) shows the peak torque required at 100 rpm crank speed as a function of the bending
stiness of the exural hinges for unstrained spring angles, h3 and h4 of 0. From the gure it is
clear that the optimum value is obtained for approximately 0.3 mNm/rad stiness at 100 rpm
crank speed. Fig. 6(b) and (c) shows the surface and contour plot of peak value of torque for
dierent values of unstrained positions, h3s and h4s for 0.3 mN m/rad of torsional stiness.
From Fig. 6(b) and (c), it is clear that the minimum value of peak torque occurs at approximately 65 and 104 of h3s and h4s respectively, which lie around the middle of the range of motion
of h3 and h4. Corresponding to these values of unstrained position, torque variation is plotted for
one cycle with dierent values of torsional stiness. The surface plot is shown in Fig. 6(d) for
100 rpm crank speed.
From the surface plot we nd that when the stiness is zero, i.e. the joints are freely rotating;
crests and troughs are quite prominent. There is relatively large variation in input torque over a
cycle. As we move along the axis corresponding to increase in torsional stiness, these variations
start decreasing. The plot of input torque becomes atter. Thus, minimum variation is achieved
for a certain value of torsional stiness. As we increase the torsional stiness, these variations
again start increasing. Crests and troughs are again prominent. These variations can be clearly
seen in Fig. 6(e), which has been obtained from Fig. 6(d) by viewing it along the time axis. The
variation in input torque on either side of the optimum increases with change in torsional stiness.
Fig. 6(f) shows the variation in input torque in a cycle for dierent values of torsional stiness.
Variation is the minimum for an intermediate value of torsional stiness as indicated by the dark
line in Fig. 6(f). On either side of it, the variation goes on increasing.
The values of bending stiness and unstrained positions for the smallest peak torque in a cycle
are expected to depend on the crank speed. Therefore, crank speed is varied from 100 rpm to

J.P. Khatait et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 41 (2006) 316

11

Fig. 6. (a) Variation of peak torque with bending stiness at 100 rpm, (b) surface plot of peak torque for dierent
values of unstrained positions for 0.3 mN mS/rad stiness at 100 rpm, (c) contour plot of peak torque for dierent
values of unstrained positions for 0.3 mN m/rad stiness at 100 rpm, (d) surface plot of torque variation in one cycle for
dierent values of torsional stiness at 100 rpm, (e) plot of torque variation in one cycle for dierent values of torsional
stiness at 100 rpm and (f) variation of input torque in a cycle for dierent values of torsional stiness.

12

J.P. Khatait et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 41 (2006) 316

Fig. 7. (a) Variation of peak torque with bending stiness at 3000 rpm, (b) surface plot of peak torque for dierent
values of unstrained positions for 0.3 Nm/rad stiness at 100 rpm, (c) contour plot of peak torque for dierent values of
unstrained positions for 0.3 Nm/rad stiness at 100 rpm, (d) surface plot of torque variation in one cycle for dierent
values of torsional stiness at 3000 rpm (e) plot of torque variation in one cycle for dierent values of torsional stiness
at 3000 rpm and (f) variation of input torque in a cycle for dierent values of torsional stiness.

J.P. Khatait et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 41 (2006) 316

13

4000 rpm. For each value of the crank speed, the maximum value of the torque required to drive
the mechanism is obtained with respect to unstrained positions, h3s and h4s, of exural hinges and
their stiness.
All six plots shown in Fig. 6 were plotted for dierent crank speeds (upto 4000 rpm) with the
unstrained position being the middle of the range and analyzed. The nature of all the corresponding plots is the same. The minimum value of peak torque decreases when torsional stiness increases from zero. It attains the minimum value for some intermediate value of torsional
stiness. It again starts increasing with torsional stiness. The unstrained position is also a design
parameter and was also varied in the study. The one corresponding to the minimum torque value
was found to lie about, though not exactly, the middle of the ranges of h3 and h4. As a rst design
approximation, setting the unstrained position to the middle of the range is indicated.
All plots are again drawn for crank speed of 3000 rpm and are shown in Fig. 7.

5. Simulation results
5.1. Eect of crank speed on torsional stiness corresponding to minimum value of peak torque
For unloaded mechanism, it is observed that as the crank speed is increased, the value of torsional stiness corresponding to minimum peak torque also increases. Variation of the optimal
torsional stiness with crank speed is shown in Fig. 8. The relationship is approximately quadratic
as inertial forces dominantly vary as the square of rotational speed.
5.2. Optimal value of unstrained positions of the exural hinges
It is observed that for the unloaded mechanism the minimum peak torque occurs for the same
values of unstrained positions irrespective of the crank speed, i.e. 65 for h3s and 104 for h4s.
These values lie at the middle of the range of h3 and h4 respectively.

torsional stiffness, milli Nm/rad

Variation of torsional stiffness corresponding to minimum peak

torque with crank speed
600
y = 3E-05x2.0342
500
400
300
200
100
0
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

crank speed, rpm

Fig. 8. Plot of optimal torsional stiness with speed.

4500

14

J.P. Khatait et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 41 (2006) 316

Torque reduction factor
4.00
3.50

T_0 / T_opt

3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

crank speed, rpm

Fig. 9. The variation of the ratio of the peak torque when the joints are revolute and the peak torque when two exural
hinges of optimum stiness are used as a function of the crank speed.

5.3. The ratio of the peak torque when the joints are revolute and the optimum torque
For each crank speed and the corresponding optimal value of torsional stiness, the peak
torque when the joints are revolute (T_0), the optimum torque (T_opt) and their ratio is calculated.
The variation of the ratio with respect to the input crank speed is shown in Fig. 9.
In Fig. 9 the ratio is seen to be almost constant irrespective of the operating speed. For this
particular problem, the ratio is about 2.85. It shows that if the exural hinges are designed based
on the optimum torque input requirement, the reduction in torque can be by a factor of about
2.85 which can help greatly in reducing the size of the motor.
These results can be used to design exural hinges that will require the minimum peak torque
in a cycle for constant crank speed. Although in real operation speed is likely to vary, a good
estimate of exural hinge stiness can be obtained from the optimal value corresponding to the
average crank speed.

6. Conclusion
From the dynamic analysis, we observe that the bending stiness of the exural hinges and the
unstrained positions signicantly aect the input torque required to drive the compliant mechanism. Although we have solved a simplied problem, it is indicative of the nature of compliant
mechanism. The minimum value for maximum input torque in a cycle is achieved when the unstrained joint conguration lies towards the middle of angular movement of the exural hinge.
The maximum input torque value is smaller than that for the corresponding rigid body mechanism using freely revolving joints. This will reduce the power requirement of the driving motor
and, therefore, the overall size. A signicant result is that this reduction factor is of the order
of 2.85 for optimally designed mechanism for any speed of operation for this candidate
mechanism.

J.P. Khatait et al. / Mechanism and Machine Theory 41 (2006) 316

15

Only inertial loading of the mechanism has been considered. An external loading mimicking the
aerodynamic forces should be added when available for improved optimization process.

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