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Set Theory deals with fundamental questions about the nature of mathematics.
Set theory is a branch of mathematics.
Set theory includes a study of the infinite.
Set theory and logic a symbiotic relationship.
Why we study Set Theory?
To build foundations for the other branches of mathematics.
To understand the fundamental sets of mathematics:
0.1
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N, Z, Q, R, C.
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0.2
Axiom of Extension Two sets are equal iff they have same members:
A = B if x A x B.
Axiom of Empty Set There is a set , with no element.
Powerset Axiom If A is a set, there is a set P(A), whose members
are the subsets of A. Symbolically, P(A) = {T : T A}. Obviously
and A are both element of P(a).
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Union of sets. Let A and B be two sets. Then the union of A and B
is the set of all elements which are either in A or in B. Union of A and B is
denoted by A B.
Mathematically,
A B = {x : x A or x B}.
Intersection of sets. Let A and B be two sets. Then the intersection of A
and B is the set of all elements which are common in A and B. Intersection
of A and B is denoted by A B.
Mathematically,
A B = {x : x A and x B}.
Difference of sets. Let A and B be two sets. Then the difference of A
and B is the set of elements which belongs to A but not belongs to B. The
difference between A and B is denoted by A B, A \ B or A B.
Mathematically,
A \ B = {x : x A and x B c }.
Symmetric difference of two sets. Let A and B be two sets. Then the
symmetric difference of A and B is define as the union of A \ B and B \ A
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Cartesian Product of sets. Let A and B be two sets, then the set
of all distinct ordered pairs whose first coordinate in an element of A and
second coordinate is an element of B is called the cartesian product of A and
B, and is denoted by A B.
Mathematically,
A B = {(a, b) : a A, b B}.
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0.3
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2. 16 mod 14 = 2 14 + 12 = 12.
(Note: The residue cant be negative.)
3. 12 mod 5 = 2 5 + 2 = 2.
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4. 12 mod 10 = 2 10 + 2 = 2.
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5. 2 mod 10 = 0 10 + 2 = 2.
Residue Classes. A residue class [a]n or [a] is the set of integers congruent modulo n, i.e.,
[a]n := {x : a mod n = x.}
Example. For n = 5, we have
[2]5 = {. . . , 8, 3, 2, 7, 12, . . .}.
Now we talk about of few important properties of binary operators.
Associative. A binary operation is called associative iff (a b) c =
a (b c) for all a, b, c S.
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a A.
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3 4
11 16
6=
4 7
8 15
= BA.
0.4
Group.
Groupoid. A groupoid (magma) is a basic kind of algebraic structure. Specifically, a magma consists of a set A equipped with a single binary operation
: A A A. A binary operation is closed by definition, but no other axioms
are imposed on the operation.
Groupoids are often used to capture information about geometrical objects
such as manifolds. Groupoids were first developed by Heinrich Brandt in
1926.
is closed operation,
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10
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0.5
Properties of Groups.
Uniqueness of identity.
Lemma 0.5. A group G has exactly one identity element e satisfying ex =
x = xe for all x G.
Proof. Suppose there are two identity elements e, e1 G. Then
ex =x = xe
e1 x = x = x e1
x G.
x G.
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e e1 = e1
Now consider e1 as identity element, then
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e e1 = e
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Example. For each positive integer n the set of all nonsingular nn matrices is a group, where the group operation is matrix multiplication. These
groups are not Abelian when n 2.
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Integral power of element of a group. Let a G, and multiplicative binary operation. Then be closure property a, a a, a a a, . . . , are all
element of G.
If n is a positive integers, we define an = a a . . . a to n factors. Obviously
an G.
If e is the identity element of G, then we define
a0 = e.
If n is a positive integers, then n is a negative integer.
an = (an )1 ,
(an )1 G.
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Example. A set G = {0o , 120o, 240o}, with the binary operation which
is define as the rotation of a line in the plane, is a group, (G, ). Then order
of 0o is three, 120o is two and 240o is one.
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0.6
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This implies
(HK)L H(KL).
(1)
H(KL) (HK)L.
(2)
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(HK)1
x = (hk)1 ,
h H, k K.
1 1
1 1
= k h K H , sincek 1 K 1 , h1 H 1
K 1 H 1 .
(3)
(4)
a b H,
a, b H.
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x1 , x2 , x3 G.
x1 (x2 x3 ) = (x1 x2 ) x3
x1 , x2 , x3 H.
This implies
Lemma 0.11. Let (G, ) be a group and then a non empty subset H of a set
G is a subgroup of G iff
a b1 H,
a, b H.
a, b H.
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a H, a H a a1 H e H.
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e H, a H e a1 H a1 H.
Thus each element of H possesses inverse in H.
Closure Property. Let b H b1 H. Therefore applying the given
condition, we have
a H, b1 H a (b1 )1 H a b H.
Associativity. The element of H are also element of G. Therefore associativity must hold for H.
Lemma 0.12. Let (G, ) be a group and let H and K be subgroups of a group
G. Then H K is also a subgroup of G.
Proof. The identity element of G belongs to H K, since it belongs
to both the subgroups H and K. If x and y are elements of H K, implies
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Again
(5)
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h H h1 H
(h1 )1 H 1
h H 1
H H 1.
(6)
H = H 1.
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0.7
Cyclic Group.
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Example. The group of all rotations of the plane about the origin
through an integer multiple of 2/n radians is a cyclic group of order n for
all integers n. This group is generated by an anticlockwise rotation through
an angle of 2/n radians.
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0.8
Symmetric Group
Let E n denote ndimensional Euclidean space, so that E 2 denotes the Euclidean plane, and E 3 denotes three dimensional Euclidean space. Let X be a
subset of E n . Then a symmetry of X is a transformation T : E n E n of E n
which sends straight lines to straight lines, preserves all lengths and angles,
and has the property that T (X) = X. The collection of all symmetries of a
geometric figure is a group, the symmetry group on X, the group operation
being that of composition of transformations.
Mathematically, Let X be any non empty set. A group arises from the set
SX of all one-to-one mapping of X on to X, called the symmetry group on
X. This group is usually describe as
SX is the set of all mappings of the non empty set X with itself.
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If , SX then
and . Here we
Suppose x X;
x = x. But is
Consequently
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x ( ) = (x ) = x = x
and hence is onto. If x( ) = y( ), then (x) = y( ) by he
definition of composition of mappings; this means is one-to-one, that
x = y. This in turn implies, since is one-to-one, that x = y.
Therefore is also one-to-one. Thus composition of mapping is a
binary operation in SX .
The identity mapping e : x x is in SX and is an identity element of
SX .
The groupoid (SX , ) is a semigroup since composition of mappings is
associative.
Let SX . Since is one-to-one and onto, then it implies has an
inverse, in MX . Now, = e = means is an inverse of . We
know the only elements in MX which have inverse are those which are
one-to-one and onto mapping. Therefore SX and is the required
inverse of . It completes the proof.
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Permutation Multiplication. It is natural binary operation, and define on the permutations of a set. Let G be a set, and let and be the
permutations of G so that and are both one-to-one functions mapping G
onto G.
Example. Let G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and let and be two permutation of
A. Then
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
.
,
=
=
3 5 4 2 1
4 2 5 3 1
Then,
=
1 2 3 4 5
4 2 5 3 1
1 2 3 4 5
3 5 4 2 1
1 2 3 4 5
2 5 1 4 3
Lemma 0.19. The composite function will be a permutation if it is oneto-one and onto G.
Proof. Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn G. To show composite function on G is
one-to-one. Let x1 ( ) = x2 ( ), then
(x1 ) = (x2 ),
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and g =
3 2 4 1
4 3 1 2
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Theorem 0.20. Let G be a non empty set, and let SG be a collection of all
permutations of G. Then SG is a group under permutation multiplication.
Proof. To show that SG is a group. We have to show that SG satisfies
the three axioms of group. Existence of identity and inverse is very simply
to prove. Now we have to show that function composition is associative, i.e.,
( ) = ( ),
for permutations , and of G. for this we have to show that each composite
function maps each x G into the same image in G, i.e.,
x[( )] = x[( )] x G.
We have
x[( )] = x[( )] = [(x) ] = x[( )].
Thus, ( ) and ( ) map each x G into the same element [(a) ] and
hence the same permutation.
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Example.
[(1 3 5)(2 4)]1 = (1 3 5)1 (2 4)1 = (5 3 1)(4 2).
Even or Odd Permutation. A permutation of a finite set is even and odd
according to whether it can be expressed as the product of an even number of
transposition or the product of an odd number of transpositions, respectively.
Theorem 0.21. If A and B are two disjoint cycles, then AB = BA, i.e.,
the product of disjoint cycles is commutative.
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0.9
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Lemma 0.22. Let (G, ) be a group and H be a subgroup of G. Then the left
cosets of H in G have the following properties:
x xH for all x G;
if x and y are elements of G, and if y = xa for some a H, then
xH = yH;
if x and y are elements of G, and if xH yH is non empty then
xH = yH.
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xh1 = xh2
1
xh1 h1
1 = yh2 h1
xe = y(h2 h1
1 )
1
x = y(h2 h1 )
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Since H be a subgroup, therefore h2 h1
1 H. Let h2 h1 = h3 . Then x = yh3 .
Now xH = yh3 H = y(h3H) = yH, since h3 H, this implies h3 H = H.
Therefore left cosets are identical if they are not disjoint. In the similar way
we can show that any two right coset Hy and Hx are identical if they are
not disjoint.
ab1 Hbb1
ab1 H
Hab1 = H
Hab1 b = Hb
Ha = Hb.
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o(G) = km n = km
n
k=
o(H) is a divisor of o(G).
m
Index. Let G be a group, and let H be a subgroup of G. If the number of
left cosets of H in G is finite then the number of such cosets is referred as
the index of H in G, denoted by [G : H].
Corollary 0.28. Any finite group of prime order is cyclic.
Proof. Let G be a group of prime order, and let x become element of G
that is not the identity element. Then the order of x is greater than one and
divides the order of G. But then the order of x must be equal to the order
of G, since the latter i a prime number. Thus G is a cyclic group generated
by x.
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0.10
Homomorphism.
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0.11
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Example. Let the group operation on the set {+1, 1} be the multiplication, and let f : Z {+1, 1} be the homomorphism that sand each
integer n to (1)n . then the kernel of homomorphism f is the subgroup of Z
consisting of all even numbers.
Isomorphism.
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a G.
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Proof.
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f (a)e = f (a)
= f (ae) = f (a)f (e)
since f is a isomorphism.
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of f (a) is m. Then
an = e
f (an ) = f (e)
f (a . . . a, n times) = f (e)
f (a) . . . f (a), n times = f (e)
[f (a)]n = f (e)
o(f (a)) n.
(7)
[f (a)]m = f (e)
f (a) . . . f (a), m times = f (e)
f (a . . . a, m times) = f (e)
f (am ) = f (e)
am = e
o(a) m.
(8)
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Now,
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0.12
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ix = xax1 ,
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Hence ix is on-to.
on-to. Let a, x G, then x1 G. This implies x1 ax G by closure. Now
ix (x1 ax) = x(x1 ax)x1 = a G.
Hence ix is on-to.
Composition preservation
ix (a)ix (b) = (xax1 )(xbx1 ),
= xa(x1 x)bx1 ,
= x(ab)x1 = ix (ab).
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We denote {x}A and A{x} by xA and Ax, for all elements x of G and subsets
A of G. The Associative Law for multiplication of elements G ensures that
(AB)C = A(BC) for all subsets A, B and C of G. We can therefore use the
notation ABC to denote the products (AB)C and A(BC); and we can use
analogous notation to denote the product of four or more subsets of G.
If A, B and C are subsets of a group G, and if A B then clearly AC BC
and CA C.
Note that if H is a subgroup of group G and if x is an element of G then xH
is the left coset of H in G that contains the element x. Similarly Hx is the
right coset of H in G that contains the element x.
If H is a subgroup of G then HH = H. Indeed HH H, since the product
of two elements of a subgroup H is itself an element of H. Also H HH
since h = eh for any element h of H, where e, the identity element of G,
belongs to H.
Lemma 0.32. A mapping f : G G, such that f (x) = x1 , x G is an
automorphism of a group G, iff G is abelian.
Proof. Let f : G G, such that f (x) = x1 , x G. Then mapping f
is one-one, since
f (x) = f (y) x1 = y 1 x = y.
Also if xinG, then x1 G and we have f (x1 ) = x. This implies f is on-to.
Now suppose G is abelian. Let x, y be any two elements of G. Then
f (xy) = (xy)1 = y 1 x1
= x1 y 1
since G is abelian.
= f (x)f (y)
This implies f is automorphism of G.
Conversely, suppose that f is automorphism of G. Let x, y G. We have
f (xy) = (xy)1 = y 1 x1 = f (y)f (x) = f (yx).
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(9)
Also x G x1 G. Therefore
(10)
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x1 H(x1 )1 H, x G
x1 Hx H, x G
x(x1 Hx)x1 xHx1 , x G
H xHx1 , x G
From equ.(9) and equ.(10), we have
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such that
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For one-one
x H.
(x) = (y),
Nx = Ny,
x = y.
For on-to
(x)
Nx
x
x
Nx,
xH
HN | N
HN
H.
Composition preservation
(xy) = Nxy = NxNy = (x)(y).
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=
=
N
N
N
H N
Theorem 0.42. (Second Isomorphism Theorem) let M and N be normal subgroups of a group G, where M N. Then
G G/M
.
=
N
N/M
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(x)
Kx
x
Hx
=
=
=
=
(y),
Ky,
y
Hy
For on-to
(x)
Kx
x
xH
Kx,
G|K
G
G | H.
xG
Composition preservation
(HxHy) = (Hxy) = Kxy = KxKy = (Hx)(Hy).
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=
=
K
K
K
K | H.
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Thus Ker = K | H.
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0.13
Ring. An algebraic system (R, +, ) is called a ring if the following conditions are satisfied:
(A, +) is an abelian group.
(A, ) is a semi group.
The operation is distributed over the operation +.
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Example.The trivial ring {0} has only one element which serves both as
additive and multiplicative identity.
Example. The set of all continuous real-valued functions defined on the
interval [a, b] forms a ring (even an associative algebra). The operations are
addition and multiplication of functions.
Example. (Example of a noncommutative ring:) For any ring R and any
natural number n, the set of all square n n matrices with entries from R,
forms a ring with matrix addition and matrix multiplication as operations.
For n = 1, this matrix ring is just (isomorphic to) R itself. For n > 2, this
matrix ring is an example of a noncommutative ring (unless R is the trivial
ring).
If a, b and c are arbitrary elements of R, the following properties are
derived quickly from the definition of a ring;
1. a0 = 0a = 0;
2. (a)b = a(b) = ab;
3. (1)(1) = 1;
4. (a)(b) = ab;
5. a(b c) = ab ac;
6. (a b)c = ac bc;
7. 1 6= 0;
8. The multiplicative identity is unique.
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Lemma 0.43. If a ring element has a multiplicative inverse, then the inverse
is unique.
Lemma 0.44. If the ring has at least two elements then 0 6= 1.
Lemma 0.45. If m and n are integers and a and b are ring elements, then
(ma)(nb) = (mn)(ab).
Lemma 0.46. If a ring is a cyclic group under addition, then it is commutative.
Invertible. A nonzero element a of a ring is a invertible if there exists a
nonzero b such that ab = ba = 1.
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Commutative Ring. A commutative ring is a ring in which the multiplication operation obeys the commutative law. This means that if a and b
are any elements of the ring, then a b = b a.
Example. The ring of integers with the two operations of addition and
multiplication. Ordinary multiplication of integers is commutative. This ring
is usually denoted Z.
Subring. A subring is an non-empty subset of a ring, which is itself a
ring.
Mathematically, Let (R, +, ) be a ring and let S R, S 6= . Then
(S, +, ) be a subring of (R, +, ), if (S, +, ) is itself a ring.
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Following theorem gives the necessary and sufficient condition for a subset being a subring.
Theorem 0.47. Let (R, +, ) be a ring and let S R, S 6= . Then (S, +, )
be a subring iff
i
ab S
a, b S,
abS
a, b S.
ii
Proof. Necessary part is very trivial.
Sufficiency. Let a, b S and the condition given in theorem are true.
Since a S, then from condition (i), we have
a a = 0 S.
This shows the existence of additive identity in S.
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Theorem 0.48. Let (R, +, ) be a ring and let S and T be subring of a ring
R. Then S T is also a subring of R.
Proof. Let a, b S T, this implies a, b S and a, b T. Since S and
T be subring of ring R. Then
This implies
a b, ab T.
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a b, ab S T.
Theorem 0.49. Let (R, +, ) be a ring and let H and K be subring of a ring
R. Then H K is not necessarily a subring of R.
Proof. Let I be set of all integers, then (I, +, ) be a ring. Now let
S = {2x : x I} and T = {3x : x I}. Then
2, 3 S T,
but 2 + 3
/ S T. This implies S T not closed under addition. Hence not
a subring.
Integral Domain. An integral domain is a commutative ring with an additive identity 0 and a multiplicative identity 1 such that 0 6= 1, in which the
product of any two non-zero elements is always non-zero (the zero-product
property); that is, there are no zero divisors. Integral domains are generalizations of the integers and provide a natural setting for studying divisibility.
Mathematically, Let (R, +, ) be an algebraic system with two binary
operations. Then (R, +, ) is called an integral domain if:
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Theorem 0.50. A ring R is without zero divisor iff the cancelation law hold
in R.
ab = ac
ab ac = 0
a(b c) = 0
bc= 0b= c
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since R is without zero divisor and a 6= 0. thus the cancelation law hold in
R.
Conversely, Let cancelation law holds. Let ab = 0, a 6= 0, b 6= 0.
Then we have ab = a0, since a0 = 0.
Now a 6= 0, ab = a0 b = 0 by left cancelation law. This contradict our
assumption and hence R is without zero divisor.
Division Ring. A division ring, also called a skew field, is a ring with
0 6= 1 and such that every non-zero element a has a multiplicative inverse
(i.e. an element x with ax = xa = 1).
Field. A field is an algebraic structure in which the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division (except division by zero) may
be performed, and the same rules hold which are familiar from the arithmetic
45
of ordinary numbers.
Mathematically, A field is a commutative ring (F, +, ) such that 0 does
not equal 1 and all elements of F except 0 have a multiplicative inverse.
(Note that 0 and 1 here stand for the identity elements for the + and operations respectively, which may differ from the familiar real numbers 0 and 1).
Let (F, +, ) be an algebraic system with to binary operations. Then
(F, +, ) is called a field if:
(F, +) is an abelian group;
(F {0}, ) is an abelian group;
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a = (1) a
and more generally
as well as
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a 0 = 0,
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Proof.
Necessity. Let K be a subfield and a, b K. then b K, by the existence of additive inverse. This implies a + (b) K, (by closure) and hence
a b K.
Now a, 0 6= b K we have b1 K since every non zero element of K must
have multiplicative inverse in K. This implies ab1 K.
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na = a + a + a + . . . + n times
= (1 + 1 + 1 + . . . + n times) a
= (n 1) a = 0 a = 0.
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=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0
0b=0
0
0
0
0,
since D is without zero divisor.
0
n.
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=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0
0b=0
0
0
0
0,
since D is without zero divisor.
0
n.
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=
=
=
=
=
=
0
0b=0
0
0
0
0
x R and y H.
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yxH
x R and y H.
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x y, y x H
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Notes: Every ring R always possesses two improper ideals. One R itself
and other consisting 0 only. These ideals are respectively known as the unit
ideal and null ideal.
Any other ideal of R are called proper ideals. A ring having no proper
ideals is called simple ring.
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Finite Field. A finite field or Galois field is a field that contains only
finitely many elements.
Ring homomorphism A ring homomorphism is a function between two
rings which respects the operations of addition and multiplication.
More precisely, if R and S are rings, then a ring homomorphism is a function
f : R S such that
f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b),
f (ab) = f (a)f (b),
a, b R.
a, b R.
f (1) = 1.
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Note.The composition of two ring homomorphisms is a ring homomorphism. It follows that the class of all rings forms a category with ring homomorphisms as the morphisms.
Theorem 0.62. Let f be a homomorphism of a ring R in to ring S then:
1. f (0) = 0 where 0 and 0 are the additive identities of R and S respectively.
2. f (a) = f (a),
a R.
0 = f (0)
since left cancelations law holds.
2. Let a R. Then a R, we have
0 = f (0) = f (a + (a))
= f (a) + f (a)
since f is homomorphic.
f (a) = f (a)
due to existence of additive inverse in S.
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because f is homomorphic.
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ker(f ) = {x R : f (x) = 0 },
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Proof.Trivial proof.
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(S + a) + (S + b) = (S + (a + b))
(S + a)(S + b) = (S + (ab))
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S = ker(f ) = {a R : f (a) = 0 }.
Suppose f is an isomorphism of ring R into ring S. Then f is one-one. Let
a S, then f (a) = 0 .
f (a) = f (0) a = 0.
Thus a S a = 0. In other words 0 is the only element of R, belongs to S.
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f (a) f (b) = 0 .
f (a b) = 0 .
a b = S.
a b = 0.
since 0 is the only element of S.
a = b.
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Proof. Let R be the homomorphic image of a ring R and f be the corresponding homomorphism. Then f is a homomorphism of R on to R . Let
S be the kernel of this homomorphism. Then S is an ideal of R. Therefore
R | S is a ring of residue classes of R related to S.
We shall prove that R | S
= R .
If a R, then S + a R | S and f (a) R . Consider the mapping
: R | S R such that
(S + a) = f (a)a R
First we have to show that the mapping is well defined, i.e., if a, b R and
S + a = S + b, then
f (S + a) = f (S + b).
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we have
S+a
ab
f (a b)
f (a + (b))
f (a) f (b)
f (a)
(a)
=
=
=
=
=
S+b
S
0
since a b is an element of kernel.
0.
0
by homomorphism
f (b)
additive inverse exists in R and cancelation law hold.
(b).
f (b)
0
by homomorphism
0.
0
S
S + b.
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=
=
=
=
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f (a)
f (a) f (b)
f (a + (b))
f (a b)
ab
S+a
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an R,
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f (x) :=
X
n=0
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g(x) = b0 x0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + . . . ,
are any two arbitrarily chosen elements of R[x]. Then
1. f (x) = g(x), iff an = bn , n I + .
2. f (x) + g(x) = c0 x0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + . . . , where cn = an + bn , n I + .
P
3. f (x)g(x) = d0 x0 +d1 x+d2 x2 +. . . , where dn = i+j=n ai +bj , n I + .
Example. Add and multiply the following polynomial over the ring (I6 , +6 , 6 ) :
f (x) = 2 + 5x + 3x2 ,
g(x) = 1 + 4x + 2x2 .
Then
f (x) + g(x) = (2 +6 1) +6 (5 +6 4)x +6 (3 +6 2)x2
= 3 + 3x + 5x2 .
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and
f (x) 6 g(x) = (2 + 5x + 3x2 ) 6 (1 + 4x + 2x2 )
= d0 + d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 ,
where d0 = (2 6 1) = 2, d1 = (2 6 4) +6 (1 6 5) = 2 +6 5 = 1, d2 = (2 6
2)+6 (36 1)+6 (56 4) = 4+6 3+6 2 = 3, d3 = (36 4)+6 (56 2) = 0+6 4 = 4
and d4 = (3 6 3) = 3.
Zero Polynomial. The polynomial f (x) :=
all ai s equal to zero is called zero polynomial.
n=0
an xn , an R, with
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R = {ao x0 : a0 R}.
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Graph Theory.
1.1
What is a Graph?
Basic Terminology.
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The word graph refers to a specific mathematical structure usually represented as a diagram consisting a set of points(vertex set), and lines connecting these points.
Now the day graph are used as an important tool in various areas of computing, social and natural sciences. Many of standard text refer that graph
theory begins in 1736 when Swiss mathematician L.Euler considered the
K
onigsberg bridge problem: The city of K
onigsberg was located on the Pregel
river in Prussia. The city occupied the islands plus areas of both banks.
These regions were linked by seven bridges as shown in the figure.
People of Prussia wrote a letter to Euler, in which they asked whether a
person leaves his home, cross every bridge exactly once, and return to home?
Euler prove that such a walk is impossible.
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A graph G is a triple consisting of a vertex set V (G), an edge set E(G), and a
relation that associates with each edge two vertices (not necessarily distinct)
called its endpoints.
Adjacent Vertices. Vertices u and v are said to be adjacent if there is
an edged e = {u, v}, and u and v are called the endpoints of e. The edge e is
said to be incident on each of its endpoints u and v.
Loop. A loop is an edge whose endpoint are same. Multiple edge are the
edges having the same pair of endpoints.
Simple Graph. A simple graph is a graph having no loops or multiple
edges.
Finite Graph. A graph is finite if its vertex set is finite.
Null Graph. A graph is null if its vertex set is empty.
Labelled Graph. having labelled or named vertices.
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Trail is a walk in which all the edges (but not necessarily all the vertices)
are distinct.
Path is a walk in which all the vertices and all the edges are distinct.
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Cyclic Graph consists of a single cycle of vertices and edges. The cyclic
graph with m vertices is denoted Cm .
Bipartite. A graph G is bipartite if its vertices can be split into two
subsets A and B in such a way that every edge of G joins a vertex in A with
one in B.
Complete bipartite is a bipartite graph in which every vertex in A is
joined to every vertex in B by exactly one edge.
Forest is a graph with no cycle.
Tree is a connected graph with no cycle.
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Note. If G is a simple graph with n vertices, then the following statements are equivalent.
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G is a tree.
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x V.
2. d(x, y) > 0,
x, y V.
x, y V.
x, y, z V.
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1.3
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u, v G.
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Bhupendra Gupta
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