At the end of this week, students should be

able to
1. Compare and differentiate the
characteristics of water
2.

3.

Evaluate the standard of drinking water,

particularly in Malaysia
Justify and select the standard parameter

Allah (God) makes every living thing from water (Quran 21:30 &
24:45)

The water you drink has been circling around in the water cycle
for millions of years - that means the same water exists now as
when dinosaurs were on the Earth!

Somewhere between 70 and 75 percent of the earths surface is

covered with water.

Your brain is made up of approximately 85%

of water and your bones are approximately 33%

World Water Day is 22 March and

World Toilet Day is 19 November.
5

Malaysia lies entirely in the equatorial zone. The climate

is governed by the regime of the northeast and
southwest monsoons.

The average temperature throughout the year is very

stable (26C), and the mean annual rainfall is 3,000
millimeters (mm).

Streams or river with or without impounding reservoirs

contribute about 99% of raw water for water supply in

Malaysia with the remaining 1% of raw water coming

from groundwater
6

Out of an annual rainfall volume of 990 cubic

kilometers (km3), 360 km3 (36 percent) are lost to
Evapotranspiration.

The total surface runoff is 566 km3, and about 64 km3

(7 percent of the total annual rainfall) contribute to
groundwater recharge. 80 % of the groundwater flow
returns to the rivers and is therefore not considered
an additional resource.

Water Sustainability Index (WSI) that measures the sustainability of water

resources both in terms of availability and usage.

The WSI showed a decrease from 64% in 1992 to 33% in 2002 a

reflection that Malaysias water resources are rapidly depleting and have
been managed unsustainably.

Proportional use of water

withdrawals by sector, SouthEast Asia, 2002

Water quality is the physical, chemical and biological

characteristics of water in relationship to a set of
standards.

Water quality standards are created by state agencies

for different types of water bodies and water body
locations per desired uses.

The primary uses considered for such characterization

are parameters which relate to drinking water, safety of
human contact, and for health of ecosystems.

Measures of water quality

DO and Oxygen Demand
Solids
Nutrients
Metals
Pathogens
Organic Compounds
Toxics

Bioactive compounds

Sources and quantities

10

Water Pollution:

The presence of any harmful chemical or other

constituent present in concentrations above the
naturally occurring background level

Wastewater:

Discarded or previously used water from a municipality

or industry

11

Point sources
Municipal wastewater
Industrial wastewater
Tributaries

Well defined origin

Easily measured
More constant

Non-point sources
Agricultural
Silvicultural
Atmospheric
Urban and suburban runoff
Groundwater

Diffuse origin
More transient
Often dependent
on precipitation
12

13

Viruses
Polio, Norfolk agent, Hepatitis

Bacteria
Typhoid, Cholera, Shigella, Salmonella
Antibiotic resistant forms

Protozoans
Cryptosporidium, Giardia

14

Oxygen is a rather insoluble gas

Often the limiting constituent in the aerobic
purification of wastes and natural waters

Solubility ranges from 14.6 mg/L at 0oC to about 7

mg/L at 35oC
In addition to temperature, its solubility varies with
barometric pressure and salinity

15

Temperature ()
16

Saturation dissolved oxygen (mg/L)

Minimum concentration is required for the survival of

higher aquatic life
Larval stages of certain cold-water fishes are quite sensitive

Significant discharges of organic wastes may depress

the DO concentration in receiving waters
Microbially-mediated oxidation
Each state has established ambient dissolved oxygen
standards

Another use of DO is the assessment of oxidation

state in groundwater and sediments
17

Also a very important parameter in biological

treatment processes
Indicates when aerobic and anaerobic organisms will
predominate
Used to assess the adequacy of oxygen transfer systems
Indicates the suitability for the growth of such sensitive
organisms such as the nitrifying bacteria

Used in the assessment of the strength of a

wastewater through either the Biochemical Oxygen

Demand (BOD) or respirometric studies
18

Solutions Reduce DO demand

Reduction of BOD by biological wastewater
treatment
Nutrient control
Ambient Water Quality Criteria
Established by EPA in Gold Book
Dependent on type of fish, averaging period
Ambient Water Quality Standard [enforceable]
Established by states and other local agencies
Dependent on use classification

19

It is a measure of the amount of reduced

organic and inorganic matter in a water

Relates to oxygen consumption in a river or lake

as a result of a pollution discharge

Measured in several ways

BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
ThOD Theoretical Oxygen Demand

20

Briefly, the BOD test employs a

bacterial seed to catalyze the
oxidation of 300 mL of full-strength
or diluted wastewater. The strength of
the un-diluted wastewater is then
determined from the dilution factor
and the difference between the initial
DO and the final DO.

21

C 6 H12 O 6 6O 2 6CO 2 6H 2 O

22

When BOD>8 mg/L

BODt

where

DOi DO f
Vs

Vb

BODt
DOi

= biochemical oxygen demand at t days, [mg/L]

= initial dissolved oxygen in the sample bottle,

DOf
Vb
Vs

= final dissolved oxygen in the sample bottle, [mg/L]

= sample bottle volume, usually 300 or 250 mL, [mL]
= sample volume, [mL]

[mg/L]

23

L or BOD remaining

Lo

24

L = oxidizable carbonaceous material

remaining to be oxidized

BODt yt Lo Lt
25

L is modelled as a simple 1st order decay:

= 1

Which leads to: = 1

And combining with: =
We get: = 1 1

26

Temperature Dependence
Chemists Approach: Arrhenius Equation

Ea
d (ln k )

dTa
RTa2

kTa k 293o K e

Ea (Ta 293) / RTa 293

Engineers Approach:

kT k 20o C

T 20 o C

For CBOD
Often we use: = 1.047
27

Conservative mass
balance diagram

Mass of DO in wastewater

Mass of DO in river

Mass of DO in river
after mixing

The product of the water flow and the DO

concentration yields a mass of oxygen per
unit of time:
Mass of DO in wastewater = QwDOw
Mass of DO in river = QrDOr

28

where
Qw = volumetric flow rate of wastewater, m3/s
Qr = volumetric flow rate of the river, m3/s
DOw = dissolved oxygen concentration in the
wastewater, g/m3
Dor = dissolved oxygen concentration in the
river, g/m3
The mass of DO in the river after mixing
equals the sum of the mass flows:
= +
29

The concentration of DO after mixing is the

masses per unit time divided by the total flow
rate (that is, the sum of the wastewater and
river flows)

+
=
+

30

The chemical oxygen demand (COD)

of a waste is measured in terms of

the amount of potassium
dichromate (K2Cr2O7) reduced by the
sample during 2 hr of reflux in a
medium of boiling, 50% H2SO4 and

in the presence of a Ag2SO4 catalyst.

31

The stoichiometry of the reaction between dichromate and

organic matter is:

C n H a O b Cr2 O 8H nCO 2 2Cr 4 H 2 O

2

2
7

Where: =

2
3

COD test is faster than BOD analysis: used for quick

assessment of wastewater strength and treatment
performance
Like the BOD, it does not measure oxidant demand due to
nitrogenous species
It does not distinguish between biodegradable and nonbiodegradable organic matter. As a result CODs are
always higher than BODs.
32

TOC: Total organic carbon

Measured with a TOC analyzer
Related to oxygen demand, but does not reflect the
oxidation state of the organic matter

Other group parameters

Oil and grease

Specific organic compounds

33

Total organic carbon analysis is a determination of organic

carbon in a sample regardless of its oxidation state or
biodegradability. Other measures of total organic matter (e.g.,
COD, BOD) may respond differently to solutions of equal carbon
concentration depending on the oxygen content or the
biodegradation kinetics. For the measurement of total organic
carbon, the sample is exposed to an oxidizing environment often
at very high temperatures. With complete oxidation all carbon is

converted to carbon dioxide and swept into a detector by the

carrier gas. The oxidation process is based on the following

b d
b
c

C a H b N c O d a O 2 aCO 2 H 2 O N 2
4 2
2
2

stoichiometry:

34

35

TDS: Total Dissolved Solids

Used as a measured of salinity
Indicates when water unsuitable for drinking or
agricultural use

TSS: Total Suspended Solids

Measure of muddiness of a water
Used to assess clarifier performance

VSS: Volatile Suspended Solids

Used to estimate bacterial populations in
wastewater treatment systems

36

Wastewater
Measure strength and treatment efficiency (TS, TSS)
Mass balance of solids for operation and sizing of sludge treatment,
handling and disposal facilities (TSS, VSS)
Estimate of active biomass for process control (VSS)
Regulatory control on effluent (TSS)

Natural Waters
Direct hazard to aquatic life (TSS, TDS)

Indirect hazard due to solubilization of hydrophobics (TSS)

Drinking Waters (uses turbidity in place of TSS)

Suitability as a water supply (TDS), aesthetics, interference with other
processes, treatment doses and sizing (Turbidity)
37

A measure of the clarity of a water. It is determined by light

scattering using a turbidimeter.

Measure in nephelometric turbity units (NTU)

Turbidity in open water may be caused by growth of phytoplankton,

human activities that disturb land, such as construction, storm

water runoff

38

39

Alk. HCO 3- 2 CO 32 OH H

The capacity of a water to neutralize strong

acids
In natural waters, it is associated with the
carbonate and bicarbonate concentrations.

Titrant volume (mL)

40

Calcium Carbonate
Both alkalinity and hardness are usually
expressed in either meq/L or mg CaCO3/L

Hardness Ca Mg

Alk. HCO 3- 2 CO 32 OH H
2

Because Calcium Carbonate has a gram

formula weight (GFW) of 100 g and because
there are two equivalents per mole (Z=2), we
can say that

50 g CaCO 3 1 eq
41

Nitrogen: all forms can stimulate growth

Ammonia: toxic and oxygen consumer

Nitrite: rarely present in high concentration
Nitrate: drinking water concern
Organic-N: oxygen consumer

Phosphorus: stimulate growth

Ortho-phosphates
Organic-P

Cultural Eutrophication

42

Toxic, non-biodegradable, exist in various

oxidation states and chemical forms
Examples

Mercury
Lead
Cadmium
Arsenic
Others

43

Pesticides
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Disinfection Byproducts (DBPs)
Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs) and
pharmaceuticals and personal care products
(PPCPs)

44

1.

2.

What is the BOD5 of the wastewater sample if the

DO values for the blank and diluted sample after 5
days are 8.7 and 4.2 mg/L, respectively. The
undiluted and diluted sample volumes are 70 and
300 mL, respectively.
The Town AA discharges 17,360m3/d of treated
wastewater into the nearby River BB. The treated
wastewater has a BOD5 of 12 mg/L and a k of 0.12
d-1 at 20oC. River BB has a flow rate of 0.43 m3/s
and an ultimate BOD of 5.0 mg/L. The DO of the
river is 6.5 mg/L and the DO of the wastewater is
1.0 mg/L. The stream temperature is 10oC and the
wastewater temperature is 10oC. Compute the DO
and initial ultimate BOD after mixing.

45

Taste & odor the terms taste and odor are

themselves definitive of this parameter.
Temperature usually changes according to
the sun and precipitation.
Color pure water is colorless, but water in
nature is often colored by foreign substances.
Two (2) types of color ; apparent color and true
color.

46

 Turbidity - a measure of the cloudiness of the water and is

measure in nephelometric turbity units (NTU).
Turbidity in open water may be caused by growth of
phytoplankton, human activities that disturb land, such as
construction, storm water runoff

47

solids can be dispersed in water in both

suspended and dissolved forms.
solids suspended in water may consist of
inorganic (clay, silt etc) or organic particles
(algal, cells, bacteria etc)

48

The chemical characteristics of water are numerous. Every substance

that dissolves in water can be called a chemical water quality
characteristic.

Water is called the "universal solvent" because it dissolves more

substances than any other liquid. This means that wherever water
goes, either through the ground or through our bodies, it takes along
valuable chemicals, minerals, and nutrients.

Some of the important chemical characteristic of water are its TDS,

DO, COD, BOD, hardness, pH, corrosiveness, conductivity, nitrate-N,

iron and manganese.

49

The material remaining in the water after filtration for suspended solids
analysis is considered to be dissolved.

This material is left as a solid residue upon evaporation of the water

Solvent material result from the solvent action of water on solids,

liquids and gases.

Examples of inorganic material include mineral, metal and gases.

Materials such as decay products of vegetation or from chemical are

examples for organic dissolved materials.
50

Water hardness is a measure of the amount of

calcium and magnesium salts in water.
The simplest way to determine the hardness of
water is the lather/froth test: soap or toothpaste,
when agitated, lathers easily in soft water but not
in hard water

51

pH is a measure of the
acidic or basic (alkaline)
nature of a solution. The
concentration of the
hydrogen ion [H+]
activity in a solution
determines the pH.

52

The biological characteristics of a water body refer to a

variety of living organisms that can be found in water.
These include microscopic viruses, bacteria and
protozoan; as well as phytoplankton (microscopic
algae), zooplankton (tiny water animals), insects,
worms, large plants and fish.
Of significance to humans is that disease-causing
viruses and bacteria can be present and transported in
water.
Tests for specific pathogens are usually made only
when there is a reason to suspect that those particular
organism are present using indicator organism.

53

54

55

56

57

An indicator organism is one whose presence

presume that contamination has occurred in
the water.

The ideal pathogen indicator would:

1. Applicable for all types of water
2. Always be present when pathogens are
present
3. Always be absent when pathogens are absent
4. Not interfere with the test result
5. Not a pathogen itself.
58

59

In 45 minutes, find the

Malaysian Standard for:
1- Drinking water and
2- Effluent discharge.
Last group to arrive need to
present their finding

60

Parameter

Sample
1

Sample
2

Sample
3

Turbidity
(NTU)

0.92

10

>10

pH

7.24

7.5

4.7

BOD (mg/l)

0.5

15

69

1. Which sample is the

best in water quality
and the worst?
2. Find out the sources
of the samples
according to the water
quality parameter
3. Discuss on the limit
values according to
standard of drinking
water
4. Any parameter should
be include? Why?

61

Source : Dr. Zulkifli Abdul Rahman, DOE, Malaysia

62

63

64

65

66

7%
Clean

34%
59%

Slightly Polluted

Polluted

River water quality in 2012

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

The objectives are;

Pollution prevention
Extensive monitoring network
Database for baseline studies
Three (3) types of water quality monitoring;
Groundwater monitoring
Marine water monitoring
River monitoring

80

81

82

83

National Monitoring Network Established in 1978. The

aims;
a) To establish the status of river water quality;
b) To detect changes in water quality as a result of
development activities
Manual Water Quality Monitoring (MWQM) Program:

In 2006, 1064 manual stations in 146 river basins. Program

include
In-situ measurements
Sampling and laboratory analysis ( 24-physico-chemical and
biological parameters

Continuous Water Quality Monitoring (CWQM) Program

84

In situ measurements of more than six (6) parameters turbidity,

DO, salinity, temperature, pH and electrical conductivity.

Lab analysis of as many as 24 other chemical and biological

parameters.

10 automatic water quality monitoring stations on major rivers

To detect changes in river water quality on a continuous basis.

Water quality levels violating the ambient standard for specific

parameters will be transmitted real-time to DOE

Immediate inspection will be conducted at the suspected point

85

86

87

 River

classifications for major rivers has

been completed 24 rivers

Under

the 8th Malaysian Plan (2001 2005)

and the 3rd Outline Perspectives Plan (2001
2010), emphasis given to improve river
water quality and integrated river basin
management.

Some

river have been set to attain Class II

88

Program for the pollution prevention improvement

of river water quality has been planned and
implemented as of 2001.
26 rivers have been identified.

In 2001, the program has started with six (6) rivers

namely, Langat River, Skudai River, Segget River,
Tebrau River, Melaka River and Miri River.
The effort aims to ensure the sustainability of the
water uses in the river basin

89

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

PROGRAMS STRATEGIES:
Pollution Control and prevention
Sustainable Development through Conservation
of Resources
Integration of Environmental Factors in
Development Planning
Promotion of Environmental Education and
Awareness
Public Participation
Inter-Agency and Federal-State Cooperation
International Cooperation
90

SSD: Sewerage Services Department

DOE: Department of Environment
LA: Local Authority
IWK: Indah Water Konsortium

91

92

93

94

95

96

Table below shows results of water quality monitoring

program for a water distribution system:
Sampling
Location

Turbidity
(NTU)

Color
(TCU)

pH

Hardness
(ppm)

0.5km
from
reservoir

3.4

6.8

50

0.75km
from
reservoir

5.1

11

6.3

50

1 km from
reservoir

7.7

16

6.7

60

1. Based on the results,

what is your
evaluation of the water
coming to the
reservoir?
2. What are the possible
causes of water quality
deterioration in the
distribution system?
3. Recommend 3
measures that can be
taken to improve the
situation. Explain
97

 Monitoring

program has proven to be useful

although they can be expensive.

Such

activity becomes more important in

the river restoration and rehabilitation
works to a desired natural river conditions

The

need to use latest technology and

know-how of river restoration to have an
efficient monitoring program.

98

Find the significant parameters that you have

to assess for the following activities:a) slaughterhouse
b) factory (you can suggest any type of
factory)
c) lake garden

99