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1. Describe the working principle of electronic distance meter. Also, specify the
instrumental errors in EDM.
Ans)
The general principle involves sending a modulated Electro-magnetic (EM) beam
from one transmitter at the master station to a reflector at the remote station and receiving it
back at the master station. The instrument measures slope distance between transmitter and
receiver by modulating the continuous carrier wave at different frequencies, and then
measuring the phase difference at the master station between the outgoing and the incoming
signals. This establishes the following relationship for a double distance (2D):
2 marks
2 marks
Nowadays surveying systems are available which can be use in an integrated manner with
Global Positioning System (GPS). Hence, future theodolites/total stations may have
integrated GPS receivers as part of the measurement unit.
Generally following types of total stations are available in the market:
Mechanical/manual
Motorized
Autolock
Robotic/automatic
Mechanical/manual TS: The conventional multipurpose manual TS are used for routine
works with powerful built-in applications program and are cheaper than the other types TS.
Motorized TS: The motorized TS are equipped with servo to allow for fast, smooth and
accurate aiming. This increases the productivity by about 30%. The servo technology enables
automated measurement. For example, during angle measurement one can simply aim the
instrument at each point. The instrument can then repeat the measurements automatically as
may times as required. Servo equipped TS act as base for autolock and robotic surveying.
Autolock TS: Autolock TS allow for a semi-automatic measurement where measuring and
recoding takes place at the TS. In this case the instrument searches for an active remote
positioning target (RMT), locks to it and follows the target as it moves to different points.
Autolock technology eliminates the need for time-consuming error prone focusing and allows
you to work effectively even in poor and low visibility environment. It improves the time
efficiency by up to 50%.
Automatic/Robotic TS: This a true one person surveying TS and is ideal for surveying and
stakeout operations. In this TS, the control unit can be taken to the prism to record
measurements and collect other data. Generally a radio communication is used between TS
and the prism. The control unit, battery, antenna and radio modem are integrated to allow full
control over instrument and its operation. The prism used may be omni-directional (usually
for short distance up to 500 m) which is always aligned to the instrument or directional for
longer distances. During stakeout, the control unit is used to move to point of interest. It
improves the time efficiency by up to 80%.
B) Potential of TS:
Field techniques with TS: Various field operations in TS are in the form of wide variety of
programs integrated with microprocessor and implemented with the help of data collector. All
these programs need that the instrument station and at least one reference station be identified
so that all subsequent stations can be identified in terms of (X, Y, Z). Typical programs
include the following functions:
Point location
Slope reduction
Missing line measurement
(MLM)
Resection
Azimuth calculation
Remote distance and elevation measurement
Offset measurements
Layout or setting out operation
Area computation
Tracking
Stakeout
Unit 2
3. A) how would you determine the capacity of a reservoir from the contour plan?
B) discuss the following methods of computation of area of a tract with straight but
irregular boundaries.
i) mid ordinate rule
ii) average ordinate rule
iii) trapezoidal rule
Ans)
a)
The storage capacity of a reservoir is determined from contour map. The contour line
indicating the full reservoir level (F.R.L) is drawn on the contour map. The area enclosed
between successive contours are measured by planimeter. The volume of water between
F.R.L and the river bed is finally estimated by using either Trapezoidal formula or Prismoidal
formula.
Ans)
a) In these methods, corrections are applied to the individual departures and latitudes to satisfy
for the considered traverse. The operations involved are known as adjustment or balancing a
traverse. The approximate methods usually adopted for balancing a traverse are the
Transit method
Bowditch's method.
Transit method
This method is developed for balancing a traverse in which angles are measured with a higher
degree of precision than the lengths of the sides. It is based on the assumption that the error in
departure (or latitude) of a traverse side is proportional to its departure (or latitude). Thus,
according to the transit rule, the corrections to the departure (or latitude) of a traverse side
can be calculated by using
where
d dij = Correction in departure of a traverse side ij
d lij = Correction in latitude of a traverse side ij
dD = total error in departure (or Algebric sum of the departures of all sides of the traverse)
dL = total error in latitude (or Algebric sum of the latitudes of all sides of the traverse)
dij = departure of the traverse side ij
lij = latitude of the traverse side ij
D = Arithmetic sum of the departures of all the sides of the traverse
L = Arithmetic sum of the latitudes of all the sides of the traverse
The corrections in transit rule do not take into consideration of the algebraic nature of the
departure (or latitude) of traverse sides. This made the transit rule valid when the traverse
lines are parallel with the grid system used for the traverse computations.
Bowditch method
The Bowditch's method is used when both the linear and angular measurements are
compatible to each other, i.e., they are of equal precision. The corrections may be applied
either analytically or may be carried out graphically. This method of balancing of traverse is
widely prevalent and most commonly used
The corrections to the coordinates can be calculated by using
where
d Xi = Correction to Xi coordinates of a station i;
d Yi = Correction to Yi coordinates of a station i;
dX = total closure correction of the traverse in departure;
dY = total closure correction of the traverse in latitude;
Li = distance from the initial station to the station i, measured along
the sides of the traverse;
L = perimeter of the traverse
b)
At each station point, before taking any observation, it is required to carry out some
operations in sequence. The set of operations those are required to be done on an instrument
in order to make it ready for taking observation is known as temporary adjustment.
Temporary adjustment of a vernier theodolite consists of following operations:
Setting,
Centring,
Leveling and
Focussing.
Setting
The setting operation consists of fixing the theodolite with the tripod stand along with
approximate leveling and centring over the station. For setting up the instrument, the
tripod is placed over the station with its legs widely spread so that the centre of the
tripod head lies above the station point and its head approximately level (by eye
estimation). The instrument is then fixed with the tripod by screwing through trivet.
The height of the instrument should be such that observer can see through telescope
conveniently. After this, a plumb bob is suspended from the bottom of the instrument
and it should be such that plumb bob should point near to the station mark.
Centring
The operation involved in placing the vertical axis of the instrument exactly over the
station mark is known as centring. First, the approximate centring of the instrument is
done by moving the tripod legs radially or circumferentially as per need of the
circumstances.
It may be noted that due to radial movement of the legs, plumb bob gets shifted in the
direction of the movement of the leg without seriously affecting the level of the
instrument. On the other hand, when the legs are moved side ways or
circumferentially, the plumb does not shift much but the level gets affected.
Sometimes, the instrument and the tripod have to be moved bodily for centring. It
must be noted that the centering and leveling of instrument is done recursively.
Finally, exact centring is done by using the shifting head of the instrument. During
this, first the screw-clamping ring of the shifting head is loosened and the upper plate
of the shifting head is slid over the lower one until the plumb bob is exactly over the
station mark. After the exact centring, the screw clamping ring gets tightened.
Levelling
Leveling of an instrument is done to make the vertical axis of the instrument truly
vertical. Generally, there are three leveling screws and two plate levels are present in a
theodolite instrument. Thus, leveling is being achieved by carrying out the following
steps.
Step 1: Bring one of the level tube parallel to any two of the foot screws, by rotating
the upper part of the instrument.
Step 2: The bubble is brought to the centre of the level tube by rotating both the foot
screws either inward or outward. The bubble moves in the same direction as the left
thumb. [Figure 20.6(a)]
Step 3: The bubble of the other level tube is then brought to the centre of the level
tube by rotating the third foot screw either inward or outward [Figure 20.6(b)]. [In
step 1 itself, the other plate level will be parallel to the line joining the third foot
screw and the centre of the line joining the previous two foot screws.]
Step 4: Repeat Step 2 and step 3 in the same quadrant till both the bubble remain
central.
Step 5: By rotating the upper part of the instrument through 180, the level tube is
brought parallel to first two foot screws in reverse order. The bubble will remain in
the centre if the instrument is in permanent adjustment.
Otherwise, repeat the whole process starting from step1 to step5.
6. A) how would you determine the constant K and C of a tacheometer
B) what is tacheometry? What are the advantages of tacheometric surveying over
other methods.
Ans)
A)
The stadia interval factor (K) and the stadia constant (C) are known as tacheometric
constants. Before using a tacheometer for surveying work, it is reqired to determine
these constants. These can be computed from field observation by adopting following
procedure.
Step 1 : Set up the tacheometer at any station say P on a flat ground.
Step 2 : Select another point say Q about 200 m away. Measure the distance between
P and Q accurately with a precise tape. Then, drive pegs at a uniform interval, say 50
m, along PQ. Mark the peg points as 1, 2, 3 and last peg -4 at station Q.
Step 3 : Keep the staff on the peg-1, and obtain the staff intercept say s1 .
Step 4 : Likewise, obtain the staff intercepts say s2, when the staff is kept at the peg-2,
Step 5 : Form the simultaneous equations, using Equation (23-2)
D1 = K. s 1 + C --------------(i)
and D 2 = K. s 2+ C -------------(ii)
Solving Equations (i) and (ii), determine the values of K and C say K1 and C1 .
Step 6 : Form another set of observations to the pegs 3 & 4, Simultaneous equations
can be obtained from the staff intercepts s3 and s4 at the peg-3 and point Q
respectively. Solving those equations, determine the values of K and C again say K2
and C2.
Step 7 : The average of the values obtained in steps (5) and (6), provide the
tacheometric constants K and C of the instrument.
B)
It is a method of surveying in which horizontal distances and (relative) vertical
elevations are determined from subtended intervals and vertical angles observed with
an instrument.
The tacheometric methods of surveying are used with advantage over the direct
methods of measurement of horizontal distances and differences in elevations. Some
of the uses are:
Detail filling
C) problem
Ans) i) Correction due to refraction
2 Marks
2 Marks
2 Marks
b) The fundamental principle of leveling lies in finding out the separation 2 Marks
of level lines passing through a point of known elevation (B.M.) and that
through an unknown point.
c) rl of inst axis = 150.45 m
height from instr. axis to top of object = d tan
2 Marks
= 3000 tan 830
= 448.35
Rl of Q = 150.45+448.35-3
= 595.8 m
2 Marks
UNIT V
9. A) Establish the relation = 1718.9*C/R
B) Describe the different methods of setting out simple curves.
Ans)
2 Marks
2 Marks
b)
4*0.5 = 2
Marks Marks
2 Marks
2 Marks
2 Marks