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Abstract

Data communications sometimes are slow.often information gets leaked.Or may even get tapped! Data often is
lost while being transferred from one place to another between components.Presence of noise leads to reduction
of clarity of video on TV sets.There is a solution which eliminates many of these problems.
The solution is optical fibre cable communication. Due to its speed,data securing capacity and lesser distortion of
signals it is widely used means of communication.Demand of OPTICAL FIBRE communications are increasing
rapidly.
The working of optical fibre,its advantages and disadvantages,arenas of applications are described in this project.

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OPTICAL FIBRE
An optical fiber (or optical fibre) is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a
diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair.[1] Optical fibers are used most often as a means to transmit
light between the two ends of the fiber and find wide usage in fiber-optic communications, where they permit
transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than wire cables. Fibers are used instead
of metal wires because signals travel along them with lesser amounts of loss; in addition, fibers are also immune
to electromagnetic interference, a problem from which metal wires suffer excessively. Fibers are also used for
illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in
confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope.[4] Specially designed fibers are also used for a variety of other
applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors and fiber lasers.
Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with a
lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of total internal reflection which causes the
fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multimode fibers (MMF), while those that support a single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode
fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are used for short-distance communication links and for
applications where high power must be transmitted.[ Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links
longer than 1,000 meters (3,300 ft).[
An important aspect of a fiber optic communication is that of extension of the fiber optic cables such that the
losses brought about by joining two different cables is kept to a minimum. Joining lengths of optical fiber often
proves to be more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers, perfect
alignment of the fiber cores, and the splicing of these aligned fiber cores. For applications that demand a
permanent connection a mechanical splice which holds the ends of the fibers together mechanically could be used
or a fusion splice that uses heat to fuse the ends of the fibers together could be used. Temporary or semipermanent connections are made by means of specialized optical fiber connectors.
The field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known
as fiber optics.

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Advantage of optical fiber communication

Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference
Although fiber optics can solve data communications problems, they are not needed everywhere. Most computer
data goes over ordinary wires. Most data is sent over short distances at low speed. In ordinary environments, it is
not practical to use fiber optics to transmit data between personal computers and printers as it's too costly.
Electromagnetic Interference is a common type of noise that originates with one of the basic properties of
electromagnetism. Magnetic field lines generate an electrical current as they cut across conductors. The flow of
electrons in a conductor generates a magnetic field that changes with the current flow. Electromagnetic
Interference does occur in coaxial cables, since current does cut across the conductor. Fiber optics are immune to
this EMI since signals are transmitted as light instead of current. Thus, they can carry signals through places
where EMI would block transmission.
Data Security
Magnetic fields and current induction work in two ways. They don't just generate noise in signal carrying
conductors; they also let the information on the conductor to be leaked out. Fluctuations in the induced magnetic
field outside a conductor carry the same information as the current passing through the conductor. Shielding the
wire, as in coaxial cables can reduce the problem, but sometimes shielding can allow enough signal leak to allow
tapping, which is exactly what we wouldn't want.
There are no radiated magnetic fields around optical fibers; the electromagnetic fields are confined within the
fiber. That makes it impossible to tap the signal being transmitted through a fiber without cutting into the fiber.
Since fiber optics do not radiate electromagnetic energy, emissions cannot be intercepted and physically tapping
the fiber takes great skill to do undetected. Thus, the fiber is the most secure medium available for carrying
sensitive data.
Non Conductive Cables
Metal cables can encounter other signal transmission problems because of subtle variations in electrical potential.
Electronic designers assume that ground is a uniform potential. That is reasonable if ground is a single metal
chassis, and it's not too bad if ground is a good conductor that extends through a small building. However, the
nominal ground potential can differ by several volts if cables run between different buildings or sometimes even
different parts of the same building.
Signal levels in semiconductor circuits are just a few volts, creating a problem known as ground loop. When the
difference in ground potential at two ends of a wire gets comparable to the signal

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level, stray currents begin to cause noise. If the differences grow large enough, they can even damage
components. Electric utilities have the biggest problems because their switching stations and power plants may
have large potential differences.

A serious concern with outdoor cables in certain computer networks is that they can be hit by lightning, causing
destruction to wires and other cables that are involved in the network. Certain computer companies are aware of
this problem and trying to solve it by having protective devices for wire circuits to block current and voltage
surges.
Any conductive cables can carry power surges or ground loops. Fiber optic cables can be made non-conductive by
avoiding metal in their design. These kinds of cables are economical and standard for many indoor applications.
Outdoor versions are more expensive since they require special strength members, but they can still be valuable in
eliminating ground loops and protecting electronic equipment from surge damage.

Eliminating Spark Hazards

In some cases, transmitting signals electrically can be extremely dangerous. Most electric potentials create small
sparks. The sparks ordinarily pose no danger, but can be really bad in a chemical plant or oil refinery where the
air is contaminated with potentially explosive vapours. One tiny spark can create a big explosion. potential spark
hazards seriously hinder data and communication in such facilities. Fiber optic cables do not produce sparks since
they do not carry current.
Ease Of Installation
Increasing transmission capacity of wire cables generally makes them thicker and more rigid. Such thick cables
can be difficult to install in existing buildings where they must go through walls and cable ducts. Fiber cables are
easier to install since they are smaller and more flexible. They can also run along the same routes as electric
cables without picking up excessive noise.
One way to simplify installation in existing buildings is to run cables through ventilation ducts. However, fire
codes require that such plenum cables be made of costly fire retardant materials that emit little smoke. The
advantage of fiber types is that they are smaller and hence require less of the costly fire retardant materials. The
small size, lightweight and flexibility of fiber optic cables also make them easier to be used in temporary or
portable installations.
High Bandwidth Over Long Distances
Fiber optics have a large capacity to carry high speed signals over longer distances without repeaters than other
types of cables. The information carrying capacity increases with frequency. This however, doesn't mean that
optical fiber has infinit bandwidth, but it's certainly greater than coaxial cables. Generally, coaxial cables have a
bandwidth parameter of a few MHz/km, where else the fiber optic cable has a bandwidth of 400MHz/km. (These
figures are just approximations and do vary from cable to cable!) This is an important factor that leads to the
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choice of fiber for data communications. Fiber can be added to a wire network so it can reach terminals outside its
normal ras nge.

DISADVANTAGE OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Price
Even though the raw material for making optical fibres, sand, is abundant and
cheap, optical fibres are still more expensive per metre than copper. Although, one
fibre can carry many more signals than a single copper cable and the large
transmission distances mean that fewer expensive repeaters are required.
Fragility
Optical fibres are more fragile than electrical wires. Many birds, for example, find
the Kevlar reinforcing material of fiber cable jackets particularly appealing as
nesting material, so they peck at the fiber cable jackets to utilize bits of that
material. Beavers and other rodents use exposed fiber cable to sharpen their teeth
and insects such as ants desire the plastic shielding in their diet, so they can often
be found nibbling at the fiber optic cabling.
Affected by chemicals
The glass can be affected by various chemicals including hydrogen gas (a problem
in underwater cables.)
Requires special joining skills
Optical fibres cannot be joined together as a easily as copper cable and requires
additional training of personnel and expensive precision splicing and measurement
equipment.

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CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBRE

The core and cladding are manufactured together as a single solid component of glass with slightly different
compositions and refractive indices. The third section of an optical fiber is the outer protective coating known as
the coating. The coating is typically an ultraviolet (UV) light-cured acrylate applied during the manufacturing
process to provide physical and environmental protection for the fiber. The buffer coating could also be
constructed out of one or more layers of polymer, nonporous hard elastomers or high-performance PVC materials.
The coating does not have any optical properties that might affect the propagation of light within the fiber-optic
cable. During the installation process, this coating is stripped away from the cladding to allow proper termination
to an optical transmission system. The coating size can vary, but the standard sizes are 250 m and 900 m. The
250- m coating takes less space in larger outdoor cables. The 900- m coating is larger and more suitable for
smaller indoor cables. Fiber-optic cable sizes are usually expressed by first giving the core size followed by the
cladding size. Consequently, 50/125 indicates a core diameter of 50 microns and a cladding diameter of 125
microns, and 8/125 indicates a core diameter of 8 microns and a cladding diameter of 125 microns. Three types of
material make up fiber-optic cables:

Glass

Plastic

Plastic-clad silica (PCS)

These three cable types differ with respect to attenuation. Attenuation is principally caused by two physical
effects: absorption and scattering. Absorption removes signal energy in the interaction between the propagating
light (photons) and molecules in the core. Scattering redirects light out of the core to the cladding. When
attenuation for a fiber-optic cable is dealt with quantitatively, it is referenced for operation at a particular optical
wavelength, a window, where it is minimized. The most common peak wavelengths are 780 nm, 850 nm, 1310
nm, 1550 nm, and 1625 nm. The 850-nm region is referred to as the first window (as it was used initially because
it supported the original LED and detector technology). The 1310-nm region is referred to as the second window,
and the 1550-nm region is referred to as the third window.

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LIGHT PROPAGATION IN OPTICAL FIBRES

In space light propagates with velocity c =3x108 m/s. In a transparent medium, the speed of light is affected by a
factor n, the refractive index of the medium.

When a light ray encounters the interface of a medium, the light ray is refracted and its direction of propagation
changes according toSnell's law of refraction.

Refraction-reflection of waves.
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If n1>n2, at a certain angle of incidence, the refracted wave propagates parallel to the interface and the ANGLE
OF REFRACTION reaches 90 , and the corresponding angle of incidence is called the critical angle.

Refraction-reflection theory (critical angle).

For angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, the rays are TOTALLY REFLECTED. - Total internal
reflection occurs.

Refraction-reflection theory (total reflection).

Optical fibres are cylindrical waveguides made of two concentric layers of very pure glass. The core (the interior
layer ) with refractive index n1 serves as the medium for light propagation, while the cladding (the exterior layer)
has a lower refractive index n2 where n1 >n2assuring that light rays are reflected back to the core Based on the
principle of total internal reflection, only rays with incident angles greater than the critical angle, at
the CLADDING-CORE interface, can be transmitted:
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TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBRE

Multimode Fiber
Multimode fiber, the first to be manufactured and commercialized, simply refers to the fact that numerous modes
or light rays are carried simultaneously through the waveguide. Modes result from the fact that light will only
propagate in the fiber core at discrete angles within the cone of acceptance. This fiber type has a much larger core
diameter, compared to single-mode fiber, allowing for the larger number of modes, and multimode fiber is easier
to couple than single-mode optical fiber. Multimode fiber may be categorized as step-index or graded-index
fiber.
Three different lightwaves travel down the fiber. One mode travels straight down the center of the core. A second
mode travels at a steep angle and bounces back and forth by total internal reflection. The third mode exceeds the
critical angle and refracts into the cladding. Intuitively, it can be seen that the second mode travels a longer
distance than the first mode, causing the two modes to arrive at separate times.

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Single-mode Fibre
Single-mode fiber allows for a higher capacity to transmit information because it can retain the fidelity of each
light pulse over longer distances, and it exhibits no dispersion caused by multiple modes. Single-mode fiber also
enjoys lower fiber attenuationthan multimode fiber. Thus, more information can be transmitted per unit of time.
Like multimode fiber, early single-mode fiber was generally characterized as step-index fiber meaning the
refractive index of the fiber core is a step above that of the cladding rather than graduated as it is in graded-index
fiber. Modern single-mode fibers have evolved into more complex designs such as matched clad, depressed clad
and other exotic structures. Single-mode fiber has disadvantages. The smaller core diameter makes coupling light
into the core more difficult. The tolerances for single-mode connectors and splices are also much more
demanding. Single-mode fiber has gone through a continuing evolution for several decades now. As a result, there
are three basic classes of single-mode fiber used in modern telecommunications systems.

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LOSS IN OPTICAL FIBRES

Signal Loss in Multimode and Single-Mode Fiber-Optic Cable
Multimode fiber is large enough in diameter to allow rays of light to reflect internally (bounce off the walls of the
fiber). Interfaces with multimode optics typically use LEDs as light sources. However, LEDs are not coherent
sources. They spray varying wavelengths of light into the multimode fiber, which reflects the light at different
angles. Light rays travel in jagged lines through a multimode fiber, causing signal dispersion. When light
traveling in the fiber core radiates into the fiber cladding, higher-order mode loss results. Together these factors
limit the transmission distance of multimode fiber compared with single-mode fiber.
Single-mode fiber is so small in diameter that rays of light can reflect internally through one layer only. Interfaces
with single-mode optics use lasers as light sources. Lasers generate a single wavelength of light, which travels in
a straight line through the single-mode fiber. Compared with multimode fiber, single-mode fiber has higher
bandwidth and can carry signals for longer distances.
Exceeding the maximum transmission distances can result in significant signal loss, which causes unreliable
transmission.

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Attenuation and Dispersion in Fiber-Optic Cable

Correct functioning of an optical data link depends on modulated light reaching the receiver with enough power
to be demodulated correctly. Attenuation is the reduction in power of the light signal as it is transmitted.
Attenuation is caused by passive media components, such as cables, cable splices, and connectors. Although
attenuation is significantly lower for optical fiber than for other media, it still occurs in both multimode and
single-mode transmission. An efficient optical data link must have enough light available to overcome
attenuation.
Dispersion is the spreading of the signal over time. The following two types of dispersion can affect an optical
data link:

Chromatic dispersionSpreading of the signal over time resulting from the different speeds of light rays.

Modal dispersionSpreading of the signal over time resulting from the different propagation modes in the
fiber.
For multimode transmission, modal dispersion, rather than chromatic dispersion or attenuation, usually limits the
maximum bit rate and link length. For single-mode transmission, modal dispersion is not a factor. However, at
higher bit rates and over longer distances, chromatic dispersion rather than modal dispersion limits maximum link
length.

WORKING SYSTEM OF OPTICAL FIBRE

COMMUNICATION

In the Working of an optical communication system,the information signal is given to the amplifier for amplifying
the signal and give to the light source.It converts the information signal in to light signal and gives it to the
transmitter for transmitter signal and then the signal passes through the fiber with line coupler and the signals
travel long distance through the fiber.On the receiver section,the signals are received and given to the photo
detector to convert the light energy into electrical energy and signals are amplified at output.
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APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

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The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and optical-fiber applications are numerous.
Telecommunication applications are widespread, ranging from global networks to desktop computers. These
involve the transmission of voice, data, or video over distances of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers,
using one of a few standard fiber designs in one of several cable designs.
Carriers use optical fiber to carry plain old telephone service (POTS) across their nationwide networks. Local
exchange carriers (LECs) use fiber to carry this same service between central office switches at local levels, and
sometimes as far as the neighborhood or individual home (fiber to the home [FTTH]).
Optical fiber is also used extensively for transmission of data. Multinational firms need secure, reliable systems to
transfer data and financial information between buildings to the desktop terminals or computers and to transfer
data around the world. Cable television companies also use fiber for delivery of digital video and data services.
The high bandwidth provided by fiber makes it the perfect choice for transmitting broadband signals, such as
high-definition television (HDTV) telecasts.
Intelligent transportation systems, such as smart highways with intelligent traffic lights, automated tollbooths, and
changeable message signs, also use fiber-optic-based telemetry systems.
Another important application for optical fiber is the biomedical industry. Fiber-optic systems are used in most
modern telemedicine devices for transmission of digital diagnostic images. Other applications for optical fiber
include space, military, automotive, and the industrial sectors.

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CONCLUSION
Fiber optic transmission has found a vast array of applications in computer systems. Some design
considerations depend largely on the application. For certain terminal to terminal application, crucial
factors including maximising transmission speed and distance and minimising fiber and splice loss. By
contrast, connector loss becomes important in local area networks that operate within buildings. In other
systems, it is important to minimise the cost of cable, with the intention of reducing the cost of terminal
equipment. These system considerations make design and construction of practical fiber optic systems a
difficult task. Guidelines appropriate for one system is usually not suitable for another system.
There are a number of essential points about fiber optics that have been mentioned throughout this report.
As we move towards a more sophisticated and modern future, the uses of fiber optics are going to grow in
all computer systems as well as telecommunication networks. Modern information systems handle everincreasing data loads which strain the data throughput ability of information systems. Designers have
made significant progress in increasing processor speeds, however progress in the design of high-speed
interconnection networks has lagged so much so that the most significant bottleneck in today's information
systems is the low speed of communications between integrated chips. These low speed communications
networks consume increasing amounts of power in an effort to keep up with the faster processors. The
slow communications speed is brought on by the small bandwidth available to existing communications
networks based on the propagation of electrical signals through metallic lines.
Optical interconnections offer several advantages over metallic interconnections, they include: higher
bandwidth; higher interconnection densities; lower crosstalk; crosstalk which is independent of data rate;
inherent parallelism; immunity from electromagnetic interference and ground loops; the ability to exploit
the third dimension; lower clock and signal skew; and a higher fan-in/fan-out capability. These advantages
mean that optical interconnections have the potential to exhibit higher data rate communication, higher
densities of interconnections with lower crosstalk, and lower power consumption. The shortest
interconnections however, will remain electrical ones, due in part to the inverse relationship between
electrical interconnection length and power consumption, and to a length independent minimum latency
time inherent to optical interconnections caused by the time delays required for electrical to optical to
electrical conversion.

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REFERENCES

www.doc.ic.ac.uk

www.vigyanprasar.gov.in
www.timbercon.com

www.juniper.net

www.SeminrsTopics.com

optical-fibres.tripod.com

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