Example Four raingauge stations are located in a catchment area, approximated

by a circle of radius 100km, as shown in the figure. Annual precipitation

recorded by these stations in the year 2015 are: A(85cm), B(130cm),
C(105cm), D(98cm).
Draw the Thiessen polygon and calculate the average annual
precipitation on the catchment in 2015.
Answer

(85*A + 130*A + 105*A + 98*A) / (A+A+A+A)

A (85+130+105+98)/4A

104.5 cm

Surface runoff
During rainfall, it is common for a portion of the rain to immerse into the ground until the soil
becomes saturated. After the soil is infiltrated to its maximal ability, the water pools on the surface,
causing it to flow into any nearby low point. The excess water that flows over the land is known as
surface runoff.
Rainfall that is not absorbed directly into the soil, through the roots and leaves of plants, or
accumulated into existing bodies of water such as lakes or rivers is called runoff.
Simply the process of water traveling over the ground and collecting in a body of water is called
surface runoff.
Surface runoff can carry detrimental substances such as herbicides and pathogens with it. It is also
known as the major reason for soil erosion. In hill areas it can cause tragedies like landslides.
While surface runoff is extremely harmful to the environment, it also has its benefits. Surface runoff
benefits us in two ways as it restores surface water sources and it helps to calculate how much can
be harvested in the coming seasons.

The effects of surface runoff

1. Normally excessive rainwater flows from upper lands to lower lands is normal surface runoff
2. Excessive surface runoff leads flooding
3. Surface runoff normally carry a degree of eroded soil and speed flow of surface runoff and
uncovered earth lead high degree of erosion
4. Both the precipitation and surface runoff help infiltration of water which means recharge of
ground water
5. Surface runoff in river feeding areas lead healthy flow of river
6. High rate of surface runoff in urban areas which has insufficient storm water drainage lead
flooding
Human impact on surface runoff
Urbanization creates more impassable surfaces such as buildings and pavements that keep the water
from going into the soil, and to the aquifer. Instead, it is taken directly into streams or storm water
runoff drains, where even flooding is not a considerable issue, erosion and siltation can be. An
increase of runoff leads to the reduction of groundwater recharge, furthermore lowering the water
table, making droughts exceedingly worse. This is a major setback for farmers and others who
depend highly on water wells.
Estimation of peak flood discharge
Peak discharges occur in the rivers in the rainfall season. There are mainly four methods for
estimation of peak flood. They are;
1.
2.
3.
4.

Physical conditions of the past floods

Flood discharge formulae
Flood frequency studies
Unit hydrograph

Physical condition of the past flood

To know the maximum water level attained in the past 35 years.
Past flood marks located along the river banks are observed.
Older persons are interviewed to review the observed flood marks.
The cross-section pertaining to the highest flood marks can be drawn.
Following data is obtain from the drawn cross-section:

Water flow area (A)

Wetted perimeter (P)
Hydraulic mean depth / hydraulic radius (R)

By leveling from upper stream to downstream of the cross-section site, S (channel slope) can be
determined.
Using above parameters velocity of flow (V) is computed by Mannings or Chezy's equation.
Q = VA = (1.49/n) * A R2/3 S1/2 (in SI units) where n is Mannings roughness coefficient

V = C (R*i)1/2 where v is mean velocity, C is Chezy coefficient, R is hydraulic radius and i is bottom
slope
Using Continuity Equation, (A1V1 = A2V2) flood discharge can be calculated.
Procedure is repeated at several watermarks, to get consistent results.
Flood discharge formulas
Following are few examples of regional based flood discharge formulae.

Rational formula
Dickens formula
Ryves formula
Inglis formula
Fannings formula
Creager formula
Mayers formula

Rational formula
The Rational Method is most effective in urban areas with drainage areas of less than 200 acres. The
method is typically used to determine the size of storm sewers, channels, and other drainage
structures.
It is characterized by;

consideration of the entire drainage area as a single unit

estimation of flow at the most downstream point only
the assumption that rainfall is uniformly distributed over the drainage area

The Rational Formula reads:

Qp = 0.28 CIA
Qp= Peak runoff rate [m/sec]
C = Runoff coefficient (normally 0.2 0.8)
I = Rainfall intensity [mm/hr]
A = Drainage area [km]
The Rational Formula follows the assumption that:

the predicted peak discharge has the same probability of occurrence (return period) as the
used rainfall intensity (I),
the runoff coefficient (C) is constant during the rain storm, and
the recession time is equal to the time of rise.

Example: For an area of 20 km2 of 20 minutes concentration time, determine the peak discharge
corresponding to a storm of 25-year recurrence interval. Assume a runoff coefficient of 0.6. Assume
i=12 cm/hr.
Qp

= 0.28 CIA
= 0.28 * 0.6 * 120 * 20
= 403 m3/sec

Example: For a culvert design it is required to calculate peak discharge of water based on the following
information. The drainage area is 8 km2. Rainfall intensity of the given area to be considered as 30
mm/hr. The land use pattern of the drainage basin is as follows;
45% - residential areas
10% - built up areas
30% - forests
15% - paddy fields

C avg

= 0.45*0.4 + 0.10*0.8 + 0.30*0.5 + 0.15*0.2

= 0.0824

Qp

= 0.28 CIA
= 0.28 * 0.824 * 30 * 8
= 55.3728 m3/sec

Dickens formula
Q = CD A3/4
Q is the peak flood in m3/s, A is the area of the drainage basin in km2 and CD is Dickens constant