Am 09 601 Vehicle Dynamics

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MODULE -
1. PERFORMANCE OF ROAD VEHICLES
1.1 Power for Propulsion
The motion of a vehicle moving on a road is resisted by aerodynamic forces, known
as wind or air resistance, and road resistance which is generally termed as rolling
resistance. In addition to these two types of resistances, the vehicle has to overcome grade
resistance when it moves up on a gradient, because the weight of the vehicle is to be lifted
through a vertical distance. Hence, the power required to propel a vehicle is proportional to
the total resistance to its motion and the speed.
The calculation of engine power takes into account the losses in transmission. Hence
required engine power,
1.2 Air Resistance

This is the resistance offered by air to the movement of a vehicle. The air resistance
has an influence on the performance, ride and stability of the vehicle and depends upon the
size and shape of the body of the vehicle, its speed and the wind velocity. The last term
should be taken into account when indicated, otherwise it can be neglected.
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

K M C T COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
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Hence in general, air resistance,
1.3 Rolling Resistance

The magnitude of rolling resistance depends mainly on
(a) The nature of road surface,
(b) The types of tyre viz. pneumatic or solid rubber type,
(c) The weight of the vehicle, and
(d) The speed of the vehicle.
The rolling resistance is expressed as
Where,
W = total weight of the vehicle,
N and K = constant of rolling resistance and depends on the nature of road surface
and types of tyres = 0.0059 for good roads = 0.18 for loose sand roads = 0.015, a
representative value.
A more widely accepted expression for the rolling resistance is given by
Where,
V = speed of the vehicle, km/hr.
Mean values of a and b are 0.015 and 0.00016 respectively.

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1.4 Grade Resistance

The component of the weight of the vehicle parallel to the gradient or the slope on
which it moves is termed as grade resistance. Thus it depends upon the steepness of the
grade. If the gradient is expressed as 1 in 5, it means that for every 5 metres the vehicle
moves, it is lifted up by 1 metre. Hence, grade resistance is expressed as
1.5 Traction and Tractive Effort

The force available at the contact between the drive wheel tyres and road is known
as tractive effort. The ability of the drive wheels to transmit this effort without slipping is
known as traction. Hence usable tractive effort never exceeds traction. The tractive effort
relate to engine power as follows.
When the tractive effort F>R, the total resistance on level road, the surplus tractive
effort is utilized for acceleration, hill climbing and draw-bar pull.

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1.6 Relation between Engine Revolutions (N) and Vehicle Speed (V)
Thus, N/V ratio depends upon the overall gear ratio and wheel diameter. A vehicle
with four different gears has four different values of N/V ratio. The N/V ratio increases as
the wheel diameter increases, the overall gear ratio remaining constant.
1.7 Road Performance Curves: Acceleration, Gradability and Drawbar

Pull
Passenger car performance is based on acceleration, ability to go up a slope, top
speed, fuel economy, noise level, and durability. Transmission gearing is designed to provide
maximum acceleration at low speed by holding the driving wheel torque output at the
point of impending wheel spin. As wheel spin occurs, the acceleration decreases from the
maximum. Also the gear is designed for maximum fuel economy when the engine is
developing 80% of its maximum torque as the automobile is moving at a constant speed.
This gives 20% additional torque for acceleration. The power required to drive an
automobile increases as the cube of the speed i.e. it takes eight times the power to double the
speed. When the power available matches the power required to push the vehicle, the speed
becomes constant. Excess power is required for acceleration and hill climbing. Maximum
speed is reached when there is no excess power remaining. Figure 1. illustrates the
variation of full-throttle power available at the wheels for four gear ratios with road speed.
A curve, showing the power required by vehicle at various road speeds is also presented. At
any speed, the difference of ordinates of power available and power required by vehicle
gives the surplus power, which can be utilized either for acceleration or for drawbar pull or
for hill climbing. Or else the surplus power may be shared by all the three items as and
when required.

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Fig.1.1 Road speed VS power available at wheels.

By using the formula given in section 1.5, the power available as indicated in Fig.1.1 can be
converted into tractive effort. Hence tractive effort performance curves for four gear ratios
can be plotted against road speed as in Fig.1.2. In this figure a road resistance curve is also
presented. The difference between the ordinates of tractive effort and road resistance at any
road speed gives the surplus tractive effort, which is utilized for acceleration, drawbar pull
and hill climbing.
Fig. 1.2 Road speed VS tractive effort.

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1.7.1 Acceleration
When the vehicle is accelerated, its rotating parts are also accelerated depending
upon their moments of inertia and the gear ratio in the drive line. Due to this, weight of
vehicle is increased from W to We. This increased weight, We, is called the effective
weight of the vehicle. When surplus power, i.e. surplus tractive effort is fully utilized to
acceleration, then
1.7.2 Gradability
The maximum percentage grade, which a vehicle can negotiate with full rated
condition, is known as gradability. Hence,
1.7.3 Drawbar Pull

When the excess power is fully utilized for pulling extra load attached to vehicle
then,
Maximum drawbar pull
= Tractive effortRoad resistance

= (F R).

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Road resistance in this section is made up of rolling resistance and air resistance.
Figures 1.1 and 1.2 show that maximum surplus power and hence maximum surplus
tractive effort are provided at very low speeds of the vehicle. Therefore, for acceleration
from start, for climbing steeper gradient and for large drawbar pull, first gear is best suited.
Maximum road speed is achieved in the gear when power available equals to power
required (Fig. 1.1) and tractive effort becomes equal to level road resistance (Fig. 1.2). If the
vehicle is desired to run at a lower speed, the throttle is adjusted accordingly so that the part
throttle power available curve intersects the power required curve at the desired road
speed. This is shown in Fig. 1.1
Example 1.1.
The coefficient of rolling resistance for a truck weighing 6,22,935 N is 0.01822 and
2
the coefficient of air resistance is 0.0276 in the formula R = KW + KaAV , N, where A is m of

frontal area and V the speed in km / hr. The transmission efficiency in top gear of 6.2:1 is
90% and that in the second gear of 15:1 is 80%. The frontal area is 5.574 m. If the truck has
to have a maximum speed of 88 km/ hr in top gear. Calculate:
(i)
The engine B.P. required;
(ii)
The engine speed if the driving wheels have an effective diameter of 0.8125m
(iii)
The maximum grade the truck can negotiate at the above engine speed in second
gear; and
(iv)
The maximum drawbar pull available on level at the above engine speed in
second gear.

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Example 1.2.
Determine the gear ratios of a four speed gear box for a vehicle of weight 13341.6 N
powered by an engine giving 20.6 kW at 1800 r.p.m. The vehicle has a frontal area of 2.23
m and has a wheel dia 0.71 m. The maximum gradient that the car has to negotiate is 1 in
4. The tractive resistance may be taken as 50 N per 2240 N of the car. The wind resistance
2
is given by 0.03679 AV , where A is the frontal area in m2 and V is the vehicle speed in
km/hr. Assume that the transmission efficiency is 0.75 and that at top gear, the car is
expected to go over a grade of 1 in 40. State any other assumptions you make.

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1.8 Calculation of Equivalent Weight,

We
Now, tractive effort available at the road wheels = Tractive effort to overcome road
resistance + Tractive effort for acceleration.

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Example 1.3.
A supercharged road-racing automobile has an engine capable of giving an output
torque of949Nm, this torque being reasonably constant over a speed range from 96 km / hr
to 257.5 km/hr in top gear. The road wheels are of 0.76 m effective diameter and the back
axle ratio is 3.3 to 1. When travelling at a steady speed of 160 km/hr in top gear on a level
road the power absorbed is 55.2 kW. The vehicle weights 9344 N. The four road wheels
each weighs 397.3 N and have a radius of gyration of 0.255 m. The moment of inertia of
the engine and all parts forward of the differential is 16.5 Nm.
Assuming that the resistance in N caused by windage and road drag varies as the
square of speed, determine the time taken for the speed to rise from 96 to 257.5 kg/hr in top
gear at full throttle on an up-grade of 1 in 30.

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1.9 Gear Ratio for Maximum Acceleration

Considering the expression of section 1.8,
Substituting this value of G in the expression for f above, the maximum acceleration can
be calculated.
Example 4.
A motor vehicle of total weight 11144 N has road wheels of 0.61m effective
diameter. The effective moment of inertia of the four road wheels and the rear axle together
is, 62.0 Nm2, while that of the engine and flywheel is 6.2 Nm2. The transmission efficiency
is 90% and tractive resistance at a speed of 24 km/hr is 222.5 N. The total available engine
torque is 203.6 Nm.

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(a) Determine the gear ratio, engine to back axle to provide maximum acceleration on
1 in 4 grade, when travelling at 24 km I hr.
(b) What is the maximum acceleration?
(c) Determine the engine rpm and power under these conditions.

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2. PERFORMANCE OF CARS AND LIGHT TRUCKS

2.1 Fuel Consumption
Measurement of instantaneous fuel consumption rate is not simple, especially in a SI
engine, because fuel flow rate into the carburetor may not be equal to flow rate to engine.
However, it is possible to measure average flow rate over a short period of time. The
commonly used instrument for this purpose is of the positive displacement type. The
instrument consists of two main components; a metering unit which is placed in the fuel
line between the supply tank of the vehicle and the engine, and an indicator which is
conveniently located where it can be seen by the test operator.
The metering unit typically consists of two small chambers each containing fuel and
is connectable either to the input pipe from the fuel tank or to the outlet pipe to the engine
depending upon the position of the solenoid operated side valve. The two chambers are
separated by a flexible diaphragm. As the fuel is delivered to the engine from the first of the
small chambers the diaphragm is displaced until it reaches the extremity of its stroke. At
this point, which corresponds to a fixed and known amount of fuel, an electrical contact is
made which causes the solenoid to changeover the fuel connections to the two chambers
and to cause the digital recorder in the indicator unit to notch on one unit. The second
chamber then delivers fuel to the engine and, when the diaphragm reaches the other
extremity of its stroke, again an electrical contact is made causing the solenoid valve to
changeover the connections and to record another unit on the indicator. The electric supply
for the instrument is the normal DC supply of the vehicle.
The calibration of the instrument is fixed by the size of the small chambers and is
arranged by the manufacturer to give a convenient number of clicks per liter, say 500. In
use, the operator resets the indicator to zero and, a the start of the test, he switches on the
instrument and a stop-watch simultaneously. After a suitable period of time the indicator
and stop-watch are switched off. The average fuel flow rate during the time interval is
computed. Alternately, instead of using the instrument in conjunction with a stop-watch,
the odometer in the vehicle may be used to provide the fuel consumption rate in km per
liter instead of liters per second.

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2.2 Strategy for Lowest Fuel Consumption

Whether you drive a tiny hybrid or a three-ton SUV, chances are you can squeeze a
bit more distance out of each gallon of fuel and at today's gas prices, an improvement of
just one or two miles per gallon (MPG) can really add up. These ten fuel saving tips have
served me well over the years, and they can help you improve your car's fuel economy and
take some of the sting out of high fuel prices. Most of these tips will give you a very slight
increase in MPG but use several together and the gas mileage improvements will really add
up.
2.2.1. Slow down
One of the best ways to save gas is to simply reduce your speed. As speed increases,
fuel economy decreases exponentially. If you one of the "ten-over on the freeway" set, try
driving the speed limit for a few days. You'll save a lot of fuel and your journey won't take
much longer. (Just be sure you keep to the right, so you won't impede the less-enlightened.)
2.2.2. Check your tire pressure
Under-inflated tires are one of the most commonly ignored causes of crummy MPG.
Tires lose air due to time (about 1 psi per month) and temperature (1 psi for every 10
degree drop); under-inflated tires have more rolling resistance, which means you need to
burn more gas to keep your car moving. Buy a reliable tire gauge and check your tires at
least once a month. Be sure to check them when they are cold, since driving the car warms
up the tires along with the air inside them, which increases pressure and gives a falsely
high reading. Use the inflation pressures shown in the owner's manual or on the data plate
in the driver's door jamb.
2.2.3. Check your air filter
A dirty air filter restricts the flow of air into the engine, which harms performance
and economy. Air filters are easy to check and change; remove the filter and hold it up to
the sun. If you can't see light coming through it, you need a new one. Consider a K&N or
similar "permanent" filter which is cleaned rather than changed; they are much less
restrictive than throw-away paper filters, plus they're better for the environment.
2.2.4. Accelerate with care
Jack-rabbit starts are an obvious fuel-waster but that doesn't mean you should crawl
away from every light. If you drive an automatic, accelerate moderately so the transmission

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can shift up into the higher gears. Stick-shifters should shift early to keep the revs down,
but don't lug the engine downshift if you need to accelerate. Keep an eye well down the
road for potential slowdowns. If you accelerate to speed then have to brake right away,
that's wasted fuel.
2.2.5. Hang with the trucks
Ever notice how, in bad traffic jams, cars seem to constantly speed up and slow
down, while trucks tend to roll along at the same leisurely pace? A constant speed keeps
shifting to a minimum important to those who have to wrangle with those ten-speed truck
transmissions but it also aids economy, as it takes much more fuel to get a vehicle moving
than it does to keep it moving. Rolling with the big rigs saves fuel (and aggravation).
2.2.6. Get back to nature

Consider shutting off the air conditioner, opening the windows and enjoying the
breeze. It may be a tad warmer, but at lower speeds you'll save fuel. That said, at higher
speeds the A/C may be more efficient than the wind resistance from open windows and
sunroof. If I'm going someplace where arriving sweaty and smelly could be a problem, I
bring an extra shirt and leave early so I'll have time for a quick change.
2.2.7. Back off the bling
New wheels and tires may look cool, and they can certainly improve handling. But if
they are wider than the stock tires, chances are they'll create more rolling resistance and
decrease fuel economy. If you upgrade your wheels and tires, keep the old ones. I have
fancy sport rims and aggressive tires on my own car, but I keep the stock wheels with a
good narrower-tread performance tire in the garage. For long road trips, the stock wheels
give a smoother ride and better economy.
2.2.8. Clean out your car
If you're the type who takes a leisurely attitude towards car cleanliness and I
definitely fall into that category periodically go through your car and see what can be
tossed out or brought into the house. It doesn't take much to acquire an extra 40 or 50 lbs.
of stuff, and the more weight your car has to lug around, the more fuel it burns.

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2.2.9. Downsize or hybridize

If you're shopping for a new car, it's time to re-evaluate how much car you really
need. Smaller cars are inherently more fuel-efficient, and today's small cars are safer and
roomier than ever. And if you've never considered a hybrid, maybe it's time hybrids really
do work, and new entries like Toyota's compact Prius c and SUV-sized Prius v the
sporty Honda CR-Z make it easier than ever to find a hybrid you can live with.
2.2.10. Don't drive
Not a popular thing to say on a car site, I know, but the fact is that if you can avoid
driving, you'll save gas. Take the train, carpool, and consolidate your shopping trips.
Walking or biking is good for your wallet and your health. And before you get in your car,
always ask yourself: "Is this trip really necessary?"
2.3 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has mandatory fuel-economy tests that
must be carried out on all cars (but not all light trucks) sold in the US. Most of the tests are
carried out by the automotive manufacturers. The EPA tests 10 to 15% of the cars to verify
the results.
2.3.1 Old method (2007 and earlier)

The fuel economy tests are run on a dynamometer, a pair of rollers that works like a
treadmill for cars. The rollers can create resistance to simulate factors such as wind drag.
The test consists of a city cycle and a highway cycle. All tests are climate-controlled to
simulate a 75 degree day and no accessories (such as air conditioning) are used. Two tests,
the city cycle test and highway cycle tests, are carried out as follows:
2.3.2 City cycle
Trip length: 11 miles
Test time: 31 minutes
Number of stops: 23
Time spent idling: approx. 18%
Maximum speed: 56 MPH
Average speed: 20 MPH
Engine temp at startup: Cold (75 degrees outside air temperature)

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2.3.3 Highway cycle
Trip length: 10 miles
Test time: 12.5 minutes
Number of stops: None
Time spent idling: None
Maximum speed: 60 MPH
Average speed: 48 MPH
Engine temp at startup: Warm
2.3.4 New method (2008 and later)

It's common knowledge that EPA fuel economy estimates do not reflect real world
mileage, and are particularly advantageous for hybrids. Because of these known
discrepancies, the EPA decided to revise its testing methods. Tests will continue to use a
dynamometer. Changes will include:
Higher speeds - up to 80 MPH on the highway cycle
Colder temperatures - tests will now start at 20 degrees Fahrenheit rather than 75
More rapid acceleration
Use of accessories - the air conditioner will be operated 13% of the time
2.4 (EUROPEAN DRIVING CYCLE)

In many countries, cars are tested for fuel economy through standard procedures
before being authorized for sale. Automotive fuel consumption is generally measured with a
test car running on a chassis dynamometer. However, test methods, including test cycles (i.e.
vehicle running patterns) vary among countries and regions. The test cycles simulate a
range of driving conditions, at highway speeds and at speeds more typical of urban driving.
In most developing economies, vehicles are not tested for fuel economy in domestic
laboratories, using domestic test cycles. Governments will often rely on published
manufacturer data when calculating vehicle stock fuel economy (see the step-by-step guide
to baseline setting). In the absence of national tests consumer organizations, such as

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automobile clubs, are well placed to develop test protocols and conduct or finance testing
themselves, publishing results in the interest of their members.
Fuel economy tests for new vehicles differ from region to region. This is appropriate
to the extent that typical driving conditions differ by region in a number of respects that
affect fuel consumption. This includes prevailing urban versus extra urban driving patterns,
ambient temperatures that determine the use of air conditioners, and so on.
The World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations of the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe (UN/ECE/WP29) has brought governments and
automobile manufacturers together to work on a new harmonized test procedure to be
adopted around the world. This may result in an increased focus on urban driving
conditions, at least in regions that have low emphasis on these conditions in current tests,
but may take years to agree.
Europe, Japan, and the United States have each developed their own test procedures
to determine fuel economy and GHG emissions from new passenger vehicles. Below is a
comparison of the majority of test procedures used globally.
Below is a comparison of the majority of test procedures used globally.

Cycle
Length
Average
Average
Max
Max
Max Acceleration
Max
(Seconds)
Speed
Speed
Speed
Speed
(Mph/s)
Acceleration
(Mph)
(km/h)
(Mph)
(km/h)
766
48.2
77.4
59.9
96.4
3.3
5.3
EPA City
1375
19.5
31.7
56.7
91.3
3.3
5.3
CAFE
---
32.4
---
59.9
---
3.3
5.3
US06
596
48.4
---
80.3
---
---
---
SC03
596
21.6
---
54.8
---
---
---
NEDC
1181
20.9
33.6
74.6
120
2.4
3.9
JC08
1204
15.2
24.5
50.7
81.6
3.8
6.1
EPA
(kmh/s)
Highway

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This is the 55/45 split of the city and highway cycles that make up the U.S. CAFE
measurement.
2 Based on 45/55 CAFE highway/city weighting, not test cycle length
The USO6 and SC03 test cycles are new and will be used to determine fuel economy in
2011, their use is optional from 2008 and later.
The International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) has compared various test cycles
(NEDC, CAFE, and JC08 test) and has developed a methodology for normalizing fuel
economy ratings between cycles. A test cycle conversion tool is also available online and in
this Tool.
2.4.1 European Test Cycles
The ECE+EUDC test cycle also known as the MVEG-A cycle is used for emission certification
of light duty vehicles in Europe. The entire cycle includes four ECE segments, ECE-15,
repeated without interruption, and followed by one EUDC segment. Before the test, the
vehicle is allowed to soak for at least 6 hours at a test temperature of 20-30C. It is then
started and allowed to idle for 40 seconds.
Effective year 2000, that idling period has been eliminated, i.e., engine starts at 0 seconds
and the emission sampling begins at the same time. This modified cold-start procedure is
also referred to as the New European Driving Cycle or NEDC.
The ECE cycle is an urban driving cycle, also known as UDC. It was devised to
represent city driving conditions, e.g. in Paris or Rome. It is characterized by low vehicle
speed, low engine load, and low exhaust gas temperature. The above urban driving cycle
represents Type I test, as defined by the original ECE 15 emissions procedure. Type II test is
a warmed-up idle tailpipe CO test conducted immediately after the fourth cycle of the Type
I test. Type III test is a two-mode (idle and 50 km/h) chassis dynamometer procedure for
crankcase emission determination.

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EUDC Cycle
The EUDC (Extra Urban Driving Cycle) segment has been added after the fourth ECE
cycle to account for more aggressive, high speed driving modes. The maximum speed of the
EUDC cycle is 120 km/h. An alternative EUDC cycle for low-powered vehicles has been also
defined with a maximum speed limited to 90 km/h.

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MODULE -
1.VEHICLE HANDLING
1.1 Cornering Properties to Tyres Cornering Force and Slip Angle
When the wheels are in motion tyres are subjected to vertical as well as side (lateral)
forces due to road camber, side winds, weight transfer and centrifugal force caused while
negotiating a curved paths and steering the vehicle on turns. When a lateral force acts on a
road wheel and tyre, a reaction that is a resisting force acts, between the tyres tread contact
patch and road surface and opposes any sideway motion. This opposing resisting force is
known as the cornering force (Fig. 2.1), whose magnitude is equal to that of lateral force.
The increase in this cornering force is roughly proportion to the increase in lateral force
until the tyre looses grip with the ground. Beyond this point the proportionality does not
hold good with further increase in lateral force so that tyre breakaway is likely to occur.
However, the greater the cornering force generated between tyre and ground, the greater
the tyres grip on the road.
When the lateral force pushes the supple tyre walls sideways, the resisting force
causes the tyre contact patch to take up a curved distorted shape. Consequently the rigid
wheel points and rolls in the direction it is steered, whereas the tyre region in contact with
the ground follows the track continuously laid down by the deformed tread path of the
contact patch (Fig. 2.1A). The angle made between the direction of the wheel plane and the
direction in which it actually travels is known as the slip angle. With a small slip angle,
each element of tyre remains in contact with the ground without slippage.

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Fig. 2.1. Tyre trade contact patch distortion when subjected to side force.
The amount of cornering force developed between the tyre and road depends on the
following factors.
1.2 Slip Angle.

The cornering force increases linearly with increase of slip angle, up to about four
degrees beyond which the cornering force increases non-linearly and at a much reduced
rate (Fig. 2.2), depending to a large extent on tyre design.
Fig. 2.2. Effect of slip angle on cornering force.

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1.3 Vertical Tyre Load.

As the vertical or radial load on the tyre increases for a give slip angle,
the cornering force rises very modestly for small slip angles but at a far greater rate with
larger slip angles (Fig. 2.3).
Fig. 2.3. Effect of tyre vertical load on cornering.
1.4 Tyre Inflation Pressure.

For a given slip angle, the cornering force (Fig. 2.4) rises linearly with the increase of
tyre inflation pressure as well as with the increase of the tyre inflation slip angle.
Fig. 2.4. Effect of tyre inflation pressure on cornering.

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1.5 Cornering Stiffness or Cornering Power.

The centrifugal force (lateral force), developed due to movement of a vehicle on a
curved path, pushes each wheel sideways against the opposing ground reaction of tyre
contact patch. Consequently, the tyre casing and tread deform very slightly into a semicircle
in the region of the contact patch. As a result the path followed by the tyre at ground level is
not exactly the same as the direction pointing of the wheel. The resistance offered by the
tyre crown or belted tread region of the casing preventing it from deforming and
generatinga slip angle is a measure of the tyres cornering power. The cornering stiffness is
defined as the cornering force developed for every degree of slip angle generated.
The cornering stiffness of a tyre is the slope of the cornering force vs slip curve
usually along its linear region (Fig. 27.34). The larger the cornering force developed per
degree of slip angle, the greater is the cornering stiffness of the tyre and the smaller is the
steering angle correction to sustain the intended path of the vehicle.
1.6 Self-aligning Torque.

If a stationary wheel is loaded, the contact patch is spread about the geometric
centre of the tyre at ground level. When the loaded wheel rolls forward, the casing that
supports the tread is deformed and pushed slightly to the rear (Fig. 2.5). As a result the
larger amount of the cornering force generated between the ground and each element of
tread shifts from the static centre of pressure to some dynamic centre of pressure, which is
located behind the vertical centre of the tyre. The amount of shift, however, depends on the
wheel construction, load, speed and traction. The majority of the area of tread to ground
reaction is concentrated behind the static centre of the wheel. The actual distribution
of cornering force is shown by the shaded area between the centre line of the tyre and
the cornering force plotted line (Fig. 2.5). The total cornering force is approximately
proportional to this shaded area and its resultant dynamic position is known as the centre of
pressure. The distance between the static and dynamic centres of pressure is known as the
pneumatic trail (Fig. 2.5). The magnitude of pneumatic trail depends upon the degree of
creep between tyre and ground, the vertical wheel load, tyre inflation pressure, vehicle
speed, and tyre construction. The longer contact patch generally provides a greater
pneumatic trail. The radial ply tyres have longer contact patch than the cross-ply
construction.

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Fig. 2.5. Illustration of self-aligning torque.

As explained above if a moving vehicle is steered on a turn in the road, the lateral
(side) force, Fs, gives rise to an equal and opposite reaction force at ground level called
the cornering force, Fc. The cornering force centre of pressure is to the rear of the
geometric centre of the wheel and the side force acts perpendicularly through the centre of
the wheel hub. Because of the offset between these two forces, known as the pneumatic
trail, tp, a couple is produced about the geometric wheel centre, which tends to turn both
steering wheels towards the straight ahead position. This self-generating torque, which
endeavours to restore the plane of the wheels with the direction of motion, is known as the
self- aligning torque (Fig. 2.5). The characteristic of the tyre causes the steered tyres to
return to the original position after negotiating a bend in the road. The self-aligning torque,
Tsat may be defined as the product of the cornering force, Fc and the pneumatic trail, tp.
Thus, Tsat = Fcx tp, Nm. The increasing in deflection of tyre due to high load enlarges the
contact patch. The pneumatic trail extends and hence the self-aligning torque increases
with the increase of the contact patch-area. On the other hand increasing the inflation
pressure for a given tyre load shortens the pneumatic trail and reduces the self-aligning
torque. The load transfer during braking, accelerating and cornering also influences selfaligning torque because this alters the contacts patch area. The self-aligning torque is little
affected with small slip angles during braking or accelerating, but with larger slip angles
braking decreases the aligning torque and acceleration in-creases it (Fig. 2.6). The static
steering torque, i.e. the torque needed to rotate the steering when the wheels are not rolling,
is higher than and is independent of the generated self-aligning torque when the vehicle is
moving. The high static steering torque is due to the distortion of the tyre casing and the
friction created between the tyre tread elements at ground level.

P a g e | 28
Fig. 2.6. Variation of self-aligning torque with cornering force.
2. DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
2.1 Neutral Steer.
Consider the situation of a vehicle moving forward along a straight path. Let a side
force due possibly to a gust of wind acts thought the vehicles centre of gravity and for
simplicity it is assumed to be acting in the mid-way between the front and rear axles. If an
equal steady state slip angles are produced due to side forces on the front and rear tyres, the
vehicle moves on a new straight line path at an angle in proportion to the generated slip
angles (Fig. 2.7). This motion is free of a yaw velocity which is caused due to a rotation
about a vertical axis passing through the centre of gravity, and hence is known as neutral
steer. In this situation projection lines, drawn perpendicular to the tyre tread direction of
motion, never meet without having any rotational turn of the vehicle.
Fig. 2.7. Neutral steer on straight track.

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2.2 Over-steer.
Consider the situation of a vehicle moving forward in a straight path, a disturbing
side force acts through the vehicle centre of gravity and the mean steady static sleep angles
of the rear wheels are greater than at the front. This may be possible due to the suspension
design, tyre construction and inflation pressure or weight distribution. The directional path
of the vehicle, in this case, is a curve towards the direction of the applied side force (Fig.
2.8A). To understand this directional instability, projection lines are drawn perpendicular to
the direction of the treads of the tyres roll. These projection lines roughly intersect each
other at some common point, the instantaneous centre. As a result a centrifugal force is
produced that acts in the same direction as the imposed side force. In affect, the whole
vehicle tries to rotate about this centre tending to swing towards the disturbing force. This
condition is known as over steer. To correct this situation the vehicle has to be the steered in
the same direction as the side force away from the centre of rotation. Now consider that a
vehicle is turning a corner when the slip angles of the rear wheel tyres are also greater than
on the front tyres (Fig. 2.8B). In this condition all the projected lines, drawn perpendicular
to the direction of motion of each tyre corresponding to its slip angle, merge together at
some common point called dynamic instantaneous centre. This common point is forward of
the rear axle and further in. Therefore a shorter radius of turn is produced than that for the
Ackermann instantaneous centre for a given steering wheel angle of turn. Under these
driving conditions the vehicle tends to steer towards the bend. Since the radius of the turn is
reduced, the magnitude of the centrifugal force acting through the vehicle centre of gravity
becomes larger so that the over steer tendency of the vehicle is raised. This over steer
response increases further at higher vehicle speeds on a given circular path, because the
rise in centrifugal force produces more tyre to ground reaction so that the slip angles at
each wheel is correspondingly increased. The over steering situation causes an unstable
driving condition because the vehicle tends to turn more sharply into the bend with the rise
of speed unless the lock is reduced by the driver. A rear wheel drive vehicle has a greater
tendency for over steer, as the application of tractive effort during a turn reduces
the cornering stiffness and increases the slip angles of the rear wheels. Under-steer.
Consider a vehicle initially moving along a straight path is imposed by a disturbing side
force through the centre of gravity and the slip angle on the front tyres is larger than at the
rear

P a g e | 30
Fig. 2.8. Over-steer. A. On straight track. B. On turns.
2.3 Under-steer
Fig. 2.9. Under-steer. A. On straight track. B. On turns.

P a g e | 31
(Fig. 2.9A). In this case, the lines of projection perpendicular to the tyre tread
direction of motion meet approximately at a common point on the opposite side to that of
the side force. The vehicles directional path is a curve away from the applied side force.
This gives rise to a centrifugal force which acts in opposite direction to the disturbing side
force. Consequently the vehicle rotates about the instantaneous centre and moves in the
same direction as the disturbing force. This steering condition is known as under- steer.
This can be corrected by turning the steering in the opposite direction to the disturbing
force away from the instantaneous centre of rotation. When the vehicle is turning a bend, if
the slip angles generated on the front wheel tyres are larger than those on the rear tyre (Fig.
2.9 B), all the projection lines drawn perpendicular to the direction of motion of each tyre,
intersect approximately at one point forward of the rear axle. The radius of turn, in this
case, is greater than that achieved with the Ackermann instantaneous centre. With the
larger slip angles generated on the front wheels the vehicle tends to steer away from the
bend. Because the radius of turn is larger, the magnitude of the centrifugal force produced
at the centre of gravity of the vehicle is less than for the over-steer condition. The understeer tendency, therefore, is generally less severe and can be corrected by turning the
steering wheels more towards the bend. When a front wheel drive vehicle negotiates a
curved path, the cornering stiffness of the front tyres is reduced so that if tractive effort is
applied the slip angles are increased at the front causing an under-steer condition.

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3. STABILITY OF VEHICLES
3.1 Distribution of Weight
3.1.1 Three-wheeled Vehicle
The forces acting on vehicle at rest are shown in Fig. 2.10. Where, W = weight of the
vehicle, N 6 = wheel base, m
I = distance of C.G. from the rear axle, m h = height of C.G. from the road surface, m
c = distance of C.G. from the central axis, m
a = wheel track, m Rf = vertical reaction at the front wheel, N Rri, RR2 = vertical reaction at
the rear wheels, N There are three unknowns which can be determined as follows Moment
about rear axle gives,

P a g e | 33
Fig. 2.10. Forces acting on three-wheeled vehicle at rest.

Also W = Rf + Rri + RR2 must be satisfied and serves as an extra equation for alternative
solution.
3.1.2 Four-wheeled Vehicle

Forces acting on a four-wheeled vehicle at rest are shown in Fig. 2.11. In this case
only three independent equations can be formed to take care of four unknown viz., four
reactions at the wheels. Thus the problem is simplified by considering it as a two-wheeled
vehicle i.e. the reactions on both rear wheels are equal and also on both front wheels. Let Rf
and Rr be vertical reactions at front and rear wheel respectively,
Fig. 2.11. Forces acting on four-wheeled vehicle at rest.

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Example 31.5.
A car weighing 21336.75 N has a static weight distribution on the axles of 50:50.
The wheel base is 3 m and the height of centre of gravity above ground above is 0.55 m. If
the coefficient of friction on the high way is 0.6, calculate the advantage of having rear
wheel drive rather than front wheel drive as far as gradiability is concerned, if engine
power is not a limitation.
Fig. 2.12. Forces acting on a vehicle moving up a gradient.

P a g e | 35
Rear Wheel Drive.

Considering the car moving at constant speed up a gradient of angle 9, the forces
giving equilibrium are shown in Fig. 31.7.
Then, Rr+Rf= Wcos8
and, Fr = hRr = W sin 0
By division,
tan 9 = _ Rr + Rf
This is more than the car having front wheel drive, so far as gradability is concerned.

P a g e | 36
3.2 Stability of a Vehicle on a Slope

Let the vehicle rest on a slope of inclination 0 to the horizontal. This alters the
distribution of the weight between the front and back axle and gives rise to reaction which
can have components along the perpendicular to the inclined plane as shown in Fig. 2.13
Now, resolving forces parallel and perpendicular to the slope respectively,
Fig. 2.13 Force acting on a vehicle at rest on an inclined plane.

P a g e | 37
It should be noted that when the vehicle is being driven up, the angle of overturning
is, in general, smaller than in the present case and also the condition of instability becomes
different from those discussed above.

P a g e | 38
Example 31.6.
A vehicle of total weight 49050 N is held at rest on a slope of 10 . It has a wheel base
of 2.25 m and its centre of gravity is 1.0 m in front of the rear axle and 1.5 m above the
ground level. Find
(a) What are the normal reactions at the wheels?
(b) Assuming that sliding does not occur first, what will be the angle of slope so that
the vehicle will overturn?
(c) Assuming all the wheels are to be braked, what will be the angle of the slope so
that the vehicle will begin to slide if the coefficient of adhesion between the tyre and
the ground is 0.35 ?

P a g e | 39
3.3 Dynamic of a Vehicle Running on a Banked Track
Fig.2.14. Forces acting on a vehicle moving on a banked track.

The forces , which are acting, are shown in fig 2.14

P a g e | 40
Example 31.8.
A car of total weight 19620 N runs at 72 km/hr round a curve so that its centre of
gravity moves in a circle of 80 m radius with its wheel axes at an angle of 10 to the
horizontal. The centre of gravity of the car is 1 m above the ground and is midway between
the axles. The diameter of the wheels is 0.6 m; the wheel track is 1 m and each pair of axle
weights 1962 N with a radius of gyration of 0.25 m. Determine the normal reactions on
each wheel taking into account centrifugal and gyroscopic effects.

P a g e | 41

P a g e | 42
3.4 Stability of a Vehicle Taking a Turn

3.4.1 A Four-wheeled Vehicle
Let a vehicle take a turn to the left as shown in Fig. 2.15,
where,
C = radius of curved path measured at C.G. of the vehicle, m r = wheel radius, m a = wheel
track, m b = wheel base, m h = height of C.G. of the vehicle from ground, m I = distance of
C.G. in front of rear axle axis, m V = linear speed of the vehicle on the road, m/s W = weight
of the vehicle, N.
(i)
Reaction at the Wheels due to Weight.
Let Rif and Rir be the normal reactions at the inner front and inner rear wheels respectively
and Rof and Ror be the normal reactions at the outer front and outer rear wheels
respectively, then as discussed sections 31.8.2.
Fig. 2.15. Forces acting on a four-wheeled vehicle while taking a turn.

P a g e | 43
(ii) Reaction at the Wheels due to Centrifugal Force.

The centrifugal force acts outwards through C.G. of the vehicle with magnitude,
(iii) Reaction at the Wheels due to Gyroscopic Effect.

If a body revolves about OX and a couple, called gyroscopic couple, is applied along
OY, then the body tries to process about axis OZ. This is called gyroscopic effect. The planes
of spin, gyroscopic couple and precession are mutually perpendicular. The direction of
precession is such that the axis of spin tends to place itself in line with the axis of the
applied torque (i.e. gyroscopic torque) and in the same sense.
The magnitude of applied gyroscopic couple = / w cop where / = the polar moment
of inertia of the body (0 = angular velocity of spin and = angular velocity of precession.
The reaction couple exerted on the body is equal in magnitude to the applied couple but
opposite in direction.
When the vehicle takes a turn the gyroscopic effect appears due to :
(a) The precession of rotating wheels and other parts either rotating at the engine
speed or the wheel speed but parallel to the plane of rotation of the wheel.
(b) The precession of engine parts and also other rotating either at engine or wheel
speed but perpendicular to the plane of rotation of wheel. The axes of rotation in (a) and (b)
are horizontal.

P a g e | 44
The gyroscopic effect may also appear when the vehicle nose rises or falls suddenly
due to surface irregularity and the engine is processed. The wheels are also processed when
one wheel is lifted or lowered due to passage over a bump or a pot hole. These cases have
been dealt with in example 31.9.
The magnitude of vertical reaction due to this couple is same at the outer and inner wheels
and its effect (reaction couple) is to roll the car in an outward manner similar to that caused
by the centrifugal effect. The situation is shown in Fig. 2.16.
Fig. 2.16. Effect of gyroscopic reaction couple.

If Qif and Qof are respectively inner and outer vertical reactions at the front wheels and Qir
and Qor are similarly at the rear wheels, then,

P a g e | 45
In this analysis, Is represents the moment of inertia of all the wheels taken together, and the
moment of inertia of the individual wheels have been assumed to equal one another. If the
moment of inertia of front and rear wheels are different then while calculating individual
reactions at the wheels, the respective moment of inertia should be used; but for calculation
of the total gyroscopic torque, individual moment of inertia can be added, giving 7S = Uu>,
where 7(0 = moment of inertia of the wheels. This is because the velocity of spin and the
velocity of precession are the same for all the wheels.
Case (b).
But here, Is stands for the moment of inertia of the slower moving parts rotating in a plane
parallel to the plane of the rotation of the engine. The -ve sign takes care of the rotation in a
direction opposite to that of the engine.
Let the engine rotate in the clockwise direction when viewed from the front. Then the
reaction couple tends to lift the rear wheels and depress the front ones as shown in Fig.
2.17. Thus the effect is to increase the front wheel loads or decrease the rear wheel loads by

P a g e | 46
Fig. 2.17. Effect of reaction couple due to rotation of engine.

If during a left-hand turn, the engine rotates in the anti-clockwise direction when
viewed from the front, the effect of the reaction couple due to the engine gyroscopic couple
is just the reverse of the above situation, i.e., the reaction couple tends to lift the front
wheels and depress the rear ones.
Now if the vehicle takes a right-hand turn, the above results for the inner and outer
wheels are not affected both in magnitude and direction but the gyroscopic torque due to
engine is only affected in direction and is opposite to that in the above cases.
When the vehicle takes a turn, the present analysis reveals that precessional (that of wheels)
and centrifugal effects are added together and act in a direction opposite to the static
distribution of the load at the wheels tending to overturn it. Considering the sum total of the
reactions at the inner and outer wheels it can be stated that the parameters responsible for
overturning are as follows :
(i) When the vehicle is taking a turn at high speed, i.e. co is high.
(ii) When the loaded vehicle is sufficiently high over the ground i.e., h is high.
(iii) When the vehicle is taking a sharp turn, i.e. C is small.
(iv) When the vehicle is overloaded, i.e. W is high.
In this article, the case of the vehicle taking a turn on a level is considered. If the turning of
the vehicle on a banked track is considered, then an additional parameter, 8, the inclination
of the wheel axes to the horizontal, appears. Section 31.11 gives partial treatment of this
situation where gyroscopic effects have not been considered. Example 31.8 may be referred
to further understanding.

P a g e | 47
3.4.2 Two-wheeled Vehicle

When a two-wheeler takes a turn, to counteract the over-turning effect it has to
heel-over towards the centre of turning as shown in Fig. 2.19. As may be clear from the
figure the turning of the vehicle to the right is considered.
Fig. 2.19. Forces acting on a two-wheeled vehicle while taking a turn.

P a g e | 48
Fig. 31.15. Diagrammatic representation of fall of the wheel into a pot-hole.

Figure 31.15A shows diagrammatically the fall of left side rear wheel into pot hole
while Fig. 31.15B shows the shape of the pot hole forming a sine wave. In this type of
problem, the evaluation of the precessional velocity is a bit involved. It can be assumed that
the wheel drops into the hole and rises out of it with simple harmonic motion giving, (Dp,
max = Constant x Angular amplitude.
Figure 31.16 shows the momentum vector in end view and the gyroscopic torque
producing the change of momentum vector. The vehicle yaws in the direction shown due to
reaction of gyroscopic couple.

P a g e | 49
Fig. 31.16. Gyroscopic couple.
4. BRAKING REQUIREMENTS
4.1 Types of Brake
The two main types of friction brake are drum brake and disc brake (Fig. 28.4). In
both types a fixed (non-rotating) shoe or pad rubs against a moving drum or disc. To
increase the friction between the rubbing surfaces, a special friction material is attached to
the fixed part. Earlier this friction material had a high content of asbestos, but its dust is
injurious to health so that a safe asbestos free friction material is nowadays used.
Fig. 28.4. Types of brake.
4.1.1 Drum Brakes.

This internal expanding type of brake contains two shoes that are attached to a
back-plate and are fixed to a stub axle or axle tube. The section of each shoe is of T shape.
A friction lining is riveted or bonded to the outer face of the shoe. A drive is fitted at one end
of the shoe so that the shoe expands when the brake pedal is applied. In a simple brake (Fig.
28.5) a cam is used as a shoe expander, but modern systems for cars use hydraulically
operated pistons for shoe expansion. The shoe anchor is rigidly attached to the back-plate
P a g e | 50
and takes the form of a large pin that passes through the shoes, or housing. The shoes butt
against the anchor. Springs pull the brake shoes on the back-plate and also return the shoes
to the off position after the brake has been applied. In some layouts separate springs
execute the retention and return functions. The inner cylindrical surface of the cast iron
drum is made smooth on to which the brake linings rub. The drum is generally fixed to the
hub flange using counter-sunk screws and secured by the wheel nuts. It is necessary to
adjust excessive clearance due to wear of the friction facing, so that they are always
positioned very close to the drum. This is carried out either manually adjusting the brakes
periodically, or having an automatic adjuster that continually sets the shoes.
4.1.2 Disc Brakes.

One problem with drum brakes is fade and to minimize this problem the disc brake
was developed. It uses an exposed disc that is attached to the hub flange. The two friction
pads are pressed on to this disc to provide braking action (Fig. 28.6). The pads are actuated
by hydraulic pistons placed in cylinders formed in a caliper, which is secured to a fixed part
of the axle.
Fig. 28.5. Cam-operated drum brake.
Fig. 28.6. Disc brake.

P a g e | 51
The hydraulic pressure forces the friction pads against the rotating cast iron disc.
Consequently, the disc motion is retarded and heat generated from the energy of motion is
conducted to the disc. Since a large part of the disc is exposed to the air, heat is easily
dissipated, so that the brake can be used continuously for long periods before serious fade
occurs. In this layout the friction pads move at a right angle to the disc, so that any drop in
the friction value does not affect the force applied to the pad. For the application of a disc
brake, a greater pedal pressure is necessary to produce a given retardation than that
required for a drum brake. Adjustment of pad wear is automatic on a disc brake. In this
brake system the pads can also be inspected easily and in the absence of corrosion, the pads
can be renewed easily.
4.2 The advantages of disc-brakes over drum-brakes are as follows:

a) In the absence of any self-servo action, disc-brakes produce consistent braking. This
non-assisted brake may require more effort but its action is progressive that means
the brake provides a torque proportional to the applied force.
b) A low average disc temperature is produced due to good air ventilation of the disc
and the friction pads, so that pad friction fade is reduced.
c) A uniform pad wear is developed due to flat friction contact between the disc and
pads.
d) Uniform hydraulic pressure on each side of the disc floats the pad pistons and
provides equal grip on the disc, so that side-thrust from the disc to the hub is
eliminated.
e) As pads wear, the pad-to-disc clearance is automatically maintained.
f) Disc brakes are simple in design, and use very few parts susceptible to wear or
malfunction.
g) The brake is not very sensitive to friction variation.
h) Pedal travel does not increase with the heating up of the disc. Heating of the drum
causes expansion, which increases pedal travel.
i) The friction pads of disc-brakes can be easily removed and replaced.

P a g e | 52
MODULE
1. AUTOMOBILE SUSPENSION SYSTEM
The designs of automobile suspension system are a compromise between softness in
riding and handling ability, depending upon the manufacturers objective. A properly
designed suspension also produces minimum wear on the tyres and other parts of the
suspension system. The functions of the suspension are to
(a) satisfactorily absorb large and small road impacts to protect the vehicle occupants
from shocks;
(b) maintain an even keel for the vehicle body when travelling over rough ground or
when cornering, to minimize pitch and roll;
(c) reduce the unsprung mass (that is the part of the total mass, which is not suspended
to a minimum to allow the wheels to follow the contour of the road surface more
closely; and
(d) Reduce the impact stress on the various mechanisms of the vehicle.
The wheels of a vehicle are either mounted conventionally on a spring-suspended axle or
suspended independently on spring. In conventional suspension system, two pairs of wheels
are each mounted on a rigid axle. The chassis is then supported on the axle through springs.
Thus the movements of the two wheels are interdependent so that when one of them passes
over road obstacles, both experience exactly the same magnitude of the angular movements
in the vertical plane. With independent suspension the movements of the two wheels are
not interdependent, because the chassis is supported on the road wheels without using rigid
axles. In this case, the angular movement of the two wheels in the vertical plane due to the
road obstacle may be similar but not equal. Some independent suspension systems also
execute parallel up and down motion (or nearly so) without any change in the plane of
rotation of wheels. This greatly diminishes the gyroscopic effect and hence offers a
satisfactory solution for the so-called wheel wobble or simmy, a serious problem in
conventional suspension system.
The chapter deals front and rear suspension systems, various springs, and shock
absorbers.

P a g e | 53
1.1 Vehicle Dynamics and Suspension Requirement

Acceleration forces, braking forces and steering forces acting on the vehicle are
dynamic forces that depend upon the tyre-to-road friction. The amount of friction depends
on the type and surface condition of tyre and road as well as the weight on the tyre. Control
is lost on any wheel if the dynamic load exceeds the friction between tyre and road, because
the tyre slips or skids.
Ideally, the tyre should contact the ground squarely and should roll without my
sidewise force or thrust. This is not practically possible with a moving automobile
encountering road irregularities, wind gust, required directional control, changes in weight,
acceleration and braking, and in addition the presence of movable suspension systems to
absorb shock. Tyres encounter both large and small bumps as they roll over the road
surface. Deflections due to small bumps are absorbed by the tyre, but the vertical deflections
from the larger bumps are carried through the wheels, drums and bearings to the vehicle
suspension system. Suspension, if designed for large deflection, absorbs these bumps and
allows the body to run smooth. Suspension with limited deflection bounces the vehicle body.
The suspension system, therefore, must not only absorb shock and support the automobile
weight, but it keeps the tyre in contact with the road to ensure vehicle control. Its proper
design produces minimum wear on the tyre and other parts of the suspension system.
As the car moves over a bump the suspension spring is compressed. This position is
called jounce. Jounce stores energy in the spring, which forces the spring to return to its
original position, but while returning it over runs the neutral position, which is called
rebound. The spring oscillates back and forth from jounce to rebound at a rate of 60 to 70
cycles per minute. A shock absorber is incorporated with each suspension to rapidly
dampen and stop spring oscillations. They are often placed at an angle to help control
sideways. Tyre position is controlled during jounce by the spring itself or by linkages, levers,
and arms. One end of the linkage is connected to the movable portion of the suspension and
the other end is attached to the vehicle structure. As the suspension moves into jounce or
rebound, the movable end of the linkage swings in an arc. During this motion, the vertical
and horizontal distances between the fixed end and the movable end of the linkage change,
which produce a relative motion between the body and the tyre. This action forms the basis
for suspension and steering geometry. For a given vertical displacement, a long linkage
provides less horizontal change than a short linkage. Linkage length and hinge points are
designed to maintain best possible tyre-to-road contact.
The weight necessary for unit deflection in the spring is called spring rate. Higher
the spring rate, the stiffer the spring is and hence the heavier the load it can support but
ride comfort is decreased. The rear suspension spring rate is about 120% of the front

P a g e | 54
suspension spring rate. In a vehicle, the front suspension springs are made relatively stiffer
than the rear, because
(i)
They serve as shock absorbers;
(ii)
They control the motion of the front axle and wheels relative to the frame.
(iii)
They prevent steering from becoming erratic.
(iv)
To provide good ride and handling performance this requires the

suspension to have vertical compliance providing chassis isolation and
ensuring that the wheels follow the road profile with very little tyre load
fluctuation;
(v)
To ensure that steering control is maintained during manoeuvring this

requires the wheels to be maintained in the proper positional attitude with
respect to the road surface;
(vi)
To ensure that the vehicle responds favourably to control forces produced by

the tyres as a result of longitudinal braking and accelerating forces, lateral
cornering forces and braking and accelerating torques this requires the
suspension geometry to be designed to resist squat, dive and roll of the
vehicle body;
(vii)
To provide isolation from high frequency vibration arising from tyre

excitation this requires appropriate isolation in the suspension joints to
prevent the transmission of road noise to the vehicle body.
During acceleration, rear wheel torque pushes the forward part of the driving tyres
downward. The front of the driving axle housing is lifted producing rearward weight
transfer. This tends to lift the front tyres from the ground reducing tyre-to-road friction,
which reduces steering control. Rearward weight transfer moves the rear suspension into
jounce and the front suspension into rebound. When the vehicle is in braking, the axles are
forced in the direction of rotation of the wheels. The rear suspension absorbs this torque
and transfers it to the frame and body. Braking torque due to forward weight transfer,
forces the front suspension into jounce while the rear suspension goes into rebound
position. The weight transfer action has been illustrated in Fig. 22.1 for both acceleration
and braking.

P a g e | 55
Fig. 22.1. Rear wheel torque forces on the automobile.

Whenever the vehicle is turned from the straight-ahead position, a side load is impressed
on the suspension system. While turning, the front wheels move in a track at an angle to the
direction of the movement of the vehicle. This angle is called steering angle, shown in Fig.
22.2. The turning arc increases or decreases respectively as the steering angle decreases or
increases.
During turning, the centrifugal force, which acts through the centre of gravity of
the vehicle, tends to tip or roll the vehicle body towards outside of the turning arc as shown
in Fig. 22.3. The centre of gravity in an automobile is always above the ground level.
Fig. 22.2. Steering angle.

P a g e | 56
Fig. 22.3. Force producing body roll.

Body roll causes a sidewise weight transfer that forces the outside suspension into
jounce and the inside suspension into rebound. The weight on the inside wheels is
decreased and that on the outside wheels increased. The inside rear wheel loses adhesion
and squeal, even though the vehicle is moderately accelerated. The rear suspension
geometry, during body roll, makes one wheel move further ahead than the other wheel.
This causes straight rear axle housing twist with respect to the body centre line, producing
a steering tendency (Fig. 22.4), which is called roll steer.
Fig. 22.4. Result of roll steering.
Centrifugal force increases with the increase of vehicle speed while a constant
steering angle is maintained. If the centrifugal force exceeds the force of friction, the tyres
slide and the vehicle skids resulting in difficulties in vehicle control. In addition to body roll,
centrifugal force causes the tyre to deflect or twist so the actual path or angle that the
vehicle follows is somewhat less than the steering angle. The difference in these two angles
is called the slip angle (Fig. 22.5).

P a g e | 57
Fig. 22.5. Slip angle caused by centrifugal force.

Engine torque is applied through the driving shaft, twisting it in a counterclockwise
direction as viewed from the driver position. This drive shaft torque increases during high
acceleration, which pushes left rear wheel and lifts the right rear wheel, shown in Fig. 22.6,
as a result the left rear suspension goes into rebound and the right rear suspension into
jounce. This produces a roll steer effect. Additionally due to decrease in effective weight on
the right rear wheel, there is a possibility of spinning of this wheel due to reduction of tyreto-road friction under high acceleration.
Fig. 22.6. Engine torque effect on the rear tyres.

The vehicle suspension system should be able to sustain the following forces:
(a) The static and dynamic vertical loading of the vehicle are absorbed by the elastic
compression, shear, bending, or twisting action of the springs used.
(b) The twisting reaction due to driving and braking torque is usually absorbed by
the stiffness of the leaf spring, by stabilizer arms, or by triangular wishbone arms.
(c) The driving and braking thrust are conveyed and carried directly by the stiffness
of the leaf springs, by wishbone arms, or by the addition of tie-rods.
(d) Any side-thrust due to centrifugal force, cross-winds, cambering of the road,
moving over a bump or pot-hole, etc., are usually absorbed by the stiffness of the leaf spring
or the hinge linkage arms of the suspension attachment between the wheel stub-axle and
the chassis. To obtain additional sideways support, radius and Panhard rods are fitted.

P a g e | 58
1.2 Chassis Springs

The main objective of the chassis spring is to absorb the shocks imparted to the
wheels by road obstacles. A spring when fitted between the wheel and the frame isolates the
body partially from the axle so that the wheel moves up and down without transferring
similar movement to the frame. The spring while absorbing road shocks allows the wheel to
follow the irregular contour of the road surface. To facilitate this, wheel assembly should be
as light as possible. When a vehicle, rides over bump, the wheels rise and deflect the
springs. The energy created due to this movement is momentarily stored in the spring. It is
then released through expansion, due to the elasticity of the spring material, and during
expansion the spring rebounds. The spring then oscillates at its natural frequency, so that
the vehicle bounces many times before equilibrium is restored. When the body is rigidly
connected to the axle, the kinetic energy developed by the bump is imparted directly to the
body, thereby creating high impact stresses, which in turn cause discomfort to passengers.
The type of suspension springs used in automobile are;
(i)
Metal springs
a. Laminated or Leaf
b. Coil
c. Torsion-bar
(ii)
Rubber springs
(iii)
Pneumatic springs.
In conventional system of suspension, the springs serve as guide or control members for
the front axle. Leaf springs are commonly used in conventional suspension systems while
both coil springs and torsion bars are used in independent suspension systems. Coil springs
can store about twice as much energy per unit volume as that of leaf springs. Thus for the
same job coil springs need weight only about half that of leaf springs. But leaf springs both
cushion the shocks and guide or control the cushioned motion. Coil springs can serve the
both provided if radius rods or sway bars are used along with. Torsion-bars provide a very
compact design but they are inferior to coil springs so far as their action is concerned.
Rubber suspension can store more energy per unit mass than any other type of spring
material.
1.2.1 Laminated or Leaf Springs

Due to low cost and simple connection to axle, the leaf springs are very popular for
rear suspension. The most commonly used leaf spring is the semi-elliptic type, consisting of
one main leaf, which usually has its ends formed into eyes for connection with the spring
brackets, and a number of shorter leaves, the length of which gradually and uniformly

P a g e | 59
decreases from the main leaf. The various leaves are held together by a centre bolt. The
main details of a semi-elliptic spring are presented in Fig. 22.7.
Fig. 22.7. Laminated or leaf spring.

To obtain a constant stress throughout the spring the leaves are graduated in length.
Rebound clips transmit the load to some of the lower leaves during the return motion of the
spring, and thus eliminate the need for using large number of leaves above the main plate.
Rubber bushes, fitted in each eye, allow for movement of the spring, and act as noise
insulators. A swinging shackle accommodates the alteration in spring length.
The force required for unit deflection of a spring is called the stiffness or rate of the
spring.
The stiffness of a spring depends on the
(i)
length of spring (shorter spring, higher stiffness),
(ii)
width of leaf (wider spring, higher stiffness),
(iii)
thickness of leaf (thicker spring, higher stiffness), and
(viii)
Number of leaves (greater number, higher stiffness).
A low-rate spring gives soft ride but it also deflects a larger amount under a given load.
Normal springs have a constant rate, and produce a deflection, which is proportional to the
load (Hookes Law). When the lower leaves are set to a reverse camber, a stiffening-up of

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the spring occurs with the increase of deflection. This is called a progressive or variablerate spring.
As the laminated spring deflects the plates or leaves slide over each other causing
inter-plate friction. This provides beneficial damping effect, but also causes hard ride,
noise and wear, which necessitates reduction of this friction as much as possible. To achieve
this, nowadays special features are incorporated with the spring instead of periodic
spraying of penetrating oil, done earlier.
These include,
(i) Fitting the synthetic rubber buttons at the ends of the leaves.
(ii) Reducing the number of leaves, this however requires the increase in the
width.
(iii) Using inter-leaf plates of low friction material.
Today many springs in use have only one leaf. This is a tapered leaf, which is thin at
the ends and thick in the centre, so that overstressing at the centre of the spring is avoided.
1.2.2 Classification
Laminated leaf-spring configurations may be classified by the portion of an ellipse
they represent i.e. fully, three-quarter, half, or quarter elliptic. Application of original fully
elliptic spring (Fig. 22.8A) refers to the days of coaches, but now it is used only for the
suspension of commercial-vehicle driver-cab. The three-quarter-elliptic spring (Fig. 22.8B)
gives a soft but more rigid support. This configuration in a modified form provides a
progressive dual-rate fixed cantilever spring whose stiffness increases with loading.
Therefore it is used on some heavy recovery vehicle having a considerable weight difference
between unladen and laden conditions.
The most commonly used leaf spring today is the half or semi-elliptic spring (Fig.
22.8C). It is used for car rear suspension and for both front and rear suspensions of van and
lorry. The quarter-elliptic springs (Fig. 22.8D) is used on small sports cars where a compact
short spring is preferred. Transverse semi-elliptic springs (Fig. 22.8E) are commonly used to
form bottom, top, or both transverse link-arms for both front and rear independent
suspensions. The cantilever-mounted semi-elliptic spring (Fig. 22.8F) has been used in some
cars such as the Jaguar for the rear suspension. The central pivot of this spring extends the
effective spring length. The spring lies parallel and very close to the chassis, so that a
compact and effective suspension is achieved.

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Fig. 22.8. Laminated-spring configurations.

A. Fully elliptic. B. Three-quarter-elliptic. C. Half-or semi-elliptic.
D. Quarter elliptic. E. Transverse-mounted semi-elliptic.
F. Cantilever-mounted semi-elliptic.
1.3 Design Features

When the springs are manufactured, each leaf is curved or given a camber set. The
smallest leaf receives the maximum set, which is progressively reduced with the increase of
the span of the leaf, so that the main leaf has the least set (Fig. 22.9). A centre bolt is used to
align and clamp the various leaves together. For holding the leaves together along their
span, they are clamped with steel clamps (sometimes rubber-lined) at about halfway
between the centre bolt and the spring eyes. During multi-leaf spring deflection, the upper
side of each leaf tip slides or rubs against the underside of the blade above it. This interleafs action creates friction, which may be useful under certain conditions, as it reduces the
amount of bounce, but normally it does not match the ride characteristics required and it
makes the suspension too stiff, so that harsh riding over light road irregularities is
experienced.
Inter-leaf rubbing in the presence of moisture causes fretting corrosion, which
decreases the fatigue strength, so that the oscillating life of the spring is also reduced. This
problem can be reduced to some extent by applying phosphate paint between the blades.
Also by fitting a thin layer of lead or an anti-friction disc between the blades (Fig.
22.10), the fiction in the interference and hence fretting can be reduced.
The top surface of each leaf is shot-peened or work-hardened to prolong its life. This
process changes the stresses on the upper side of the blade from a normal tensile to a
compressive state so that the fatigue life of spring-blade is greatly improved. Rounding the
edges of the blades also reduces risk of fatigue failure. Further by changing from a straight
cropping of the blade ends (Fig. 22.10) to a tapering of the leaves near their ends (Fig.

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22.11), the stresses within the blade are more evenly distributed along each blade span. This
reduces the peaking of stress level so that spring life is increased. At present, leaf springs are
mostly made from silicon manganese steels.
Fig. 22.9. Combined curvature of clamped blades.
Fig. 22.10. Straight-cropped blade ends with disc inserts.
Fig. 22.11. Taper-cropped blade ends.
1.4 Methods of Mounting to the Chassis

The following are the two basic methods of mounting a semi-elliptic spring to the
chassis.
1.4.1 Constant-rate Swing Springs.

With this type of mounting (Fig. 22.12), the forward end of the spring is directly
pinned to the front spring-hanger and the rear end to a swing shackle. During deflection of
the spring between the unloaded and the loaded position, the spring camber is reduced and
the spring length increases. To achieve this, the swing shackle has pivot about the upper
fixed shackle-pin so that the driving thrust is transmitted through the forward half of the
spring directly to the fixed spring-hanger. As the spring straightens out, there is very little
change in the spring stiffness, and hence this is known as a constant-rate suspension
spring.

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Fig. 22.12. Constant-rate fixed and swing leaf springing.
1.4.2 Progressive-rate Slipper Springs.

With this type of arrangement (Fig. 22.13), the forward end is pinned directly to the
front spring-hanger as before, but the rear ends has no eye and it just rests on a curved
slipper block or pad. When the spring is unloaded, the contact point lies on the outside
position of the slipper face, but as the spring is loaded, the straightening of the spring rolls
the main-leaf end around the slipper profile from the outer to the inner position. This
effectively shortens the spring length, which is equivalent to stiffening the spring. Therefore
this offers a progressively increased resistance to the vehicle payload.
Fig. 22.13. Progressive-rate slipper-block-contact leaf spring.
1.5 Shackle Arrangements

For an efficient suspension, the vehicle weight is transmitted to the leaf spring
through a fixed hanger at the front end of the spring and generally a swinging shackle at
the rear end. The spring is hinged at each end by shackle-pins, which provide a firm joint
but can rotate or pivot in rubber or metal bushes. This does not alter the suspension and
steering geometry as the spring deflects and the various forces act on the system. This also
reduces wear and noise. Rubber bushes are generally used for cars and vans, and metal
phosphor-bronze bushes are provided on heavy-duty commercial vehicle.
1.5.1 Rubber Bushes.

Two types of rubber bushing commonly used are flanged rubber half-bushes (Fig.
22.14A) and silent block rubber bushes (Figs. 22.14B and 22.15A ). Normally the silent
block bush is fitted at the fixed hanger end, and a split flanged bush acts as the bearing for

P a g e | 64
the swinging shackle used in small and medium-sized cars. In large cars and vans, the
silent block joint is used at each end of the leaf spring.
Fig. 22.14. Swinging-shackle arrangements with rubber bushes. A. Plain rubber-bushed

joint. B. Silent block rubber joint.
Flanged rubber half-bushes (Fig. 22.14A) are pushed into the chassis holes and are
then clamped together until the shackle side-plates are firmly held against the shackle pin
shoulders. The twisting motion of the spring, if any, is absorbed as a torsional straining of
the rubber. The inside and outside rubber provide friction grip when they are in
compression, so that no relative slip between the rubber and metal takes place.
The silent-block-type rubber bush (Fig. 22.14.B and 22.15A) uses an outer and an
inner steel cylindrical case and the rubber is in pre-stressed condition in the bush, so that
there is no relative slip between the rubber and the steel casings. Any relative twist is taken
up as torsional elastic strain. The outer casing is a force fit in the spring eye or chassis hole,
but the shackle-pin is a slip fit during assembly. To prevent the inner casing from rubbing
relative to the pin, the shackle side-plates are tightened up until the shoulders of the tube
casing are hard against the plates.
1.5.2 Metal Bushes.

The metal bushes (Figs. 22.15B and 22.16) are used for heavy duties. These bushes
can either be plain or screw-profiled, and both types are a force fit in the spring eye or
spring mounting hanger. To minimize rubbing between the shackle-pin and the metal
bush, the bushes are always lubricated through holes drilled axially along the shackle-pin.
A radial intersecting hole in the middle of the pin permits the passage of grease between the
pin and the bush. Plain bushes usually have internal helical grooves so that the grease
spreads more evenly over the bush bearing surface.

P a g e | 65
Fig. 22.15. Fixed-shackle arrangements. A. Rubber-bushed joint. B. Plain metal joint.

Heavy-duty suspension uses more robust shackle pin and plate clamping (Fig.
22.16). One of the two most common arrangements is the taper shackle-pin, which wedges
the two parts firmly together when clamped to the shackle-plate. The other is the slottedshackle-plate and bolt with an alignment groove machined at each end of the pin.
Fig. 22.16. Swinging-shackle arrangements with metal bushes. A. Plain rubber-bushed

joint. B. Screw metal-bushed joint.
22.3.5.
1.6 Forces Acting on a Semi-elliptic Suspension

In a semi-elleptic leaf-spring suspension, static and dynamic vertical loads are
absorbed by the chassis mounts, springs and axle (Fig. 22.17A and B). The driving thrust
(Fd) and the braking retardation (Fb) are absorbed between the axle and the front hanger
mounting through the forward half of the spring span. The acceleration torque (Ta) and the
braking torque (T&) are absorbed by distortion of the leaf spring. During acceleration the
reaction torque (Tr) tends to twist the axle clockwise and the vertical reaction force (Fr)
tends to lift the front end of the chassis and pushes the rear end into the ground. While
braking, the torque reaction tends to rotate the axle anticlockwise, pushing the front end
down and raising the rear end. All side-forces are absorbed by the spring blades, shackles,
and chassis.

P a g e | 66
Fig. 22.17. Acceleration and braking reaction forces acting on the spring shackles. A.
Acceleration reaction. B. Braking reaction.
1.7 Helical or Coil Springs

This spring often finds its application with independent suspension. However due to
the absence of inter-plate friction some manufacturers have used it for the rear (Fig. 22.22)
suspension. Coil and torsion bar springs are superior to the leaf springs so far as energy
storage is concerned. The leaf spring, however, performs several functions for which the
other types require extra members causing an addition to the basic weight as well as
complication to the system. The rate of the helical spring depends on the length and
diameter of the wire. Since the wire is wound in the form of a coil, the length is governed by
the diameter of the coil, and the number of active turns of the coil.
Fig. 22.22. Helical spring suspension. A. Front suspension. B. Rear suspension.

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In a front-wheel drive car, the helical springs are commonly used to support the
rear dead axle. Figure 22.23 illustrates a typical layout in which the spring acts directly on
to the axle. Axle location at the top and bottom is provided by the top mounting of the
damper (shock absorber) and the trailing arm. Besides providing fore-and-aft stiffness, the
lower arm together with the damper tube absorbs the braking torque. A steel Panhard rod
resists lateral movement of the axle. The rod uses a rubber bush at each end for bolting to
the axle and body. On high-performance cars, a rear stabilizer bar is often installed to
reduce roll during cornering of the car.
1.8 Torsion bar
Fig. 22.23. Helical spring suspension.
This is a straight bar of circular or square section fixed to the frame at one end, and
a lever or wishbone-shaped member connects its other end to the wheel. A torsion bar
suspension system used on a car is illustrated in Fig. 22.24. The diameter is increased at
each end of the bar and the bar is connected with the levers by serrations. Provision for the
adjustment is made at the frame end to level the suspension. Since the coil spring is a form
of torsion bar, the rate of both springs depends on the length and diameter. The rate
decreases or the spring becomes softer if the length is increased or the diameter is
decreased.

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Fig. 22.24. Torsion bar spring.
1.9 Rubber Suspension

As rubber can store more energy per unit mass than any other type of spring
material, considerable weight can be saved with rubber suspension. Rubber springs, if
works on compression or shear, can be used as the main suspension spring, otherwise can
be fitted along with metal springs to improve the suspension characteristics. Large rubber
bump stops used in many suspension layouts stiffens the suspension spring against
maximum deflection.
Figure 22.25 represents a rubber suspension system in a simplified form, that is
similar to the one used on a popular small car. The spring is installed between the frame
and the top link of the suspension system. When the spring is connected to a point near the
link pivot, deflection of the spring reduces to a minimum, without affecting the total wheel
movement. This arrangement of spring provides a rising-rate characteristic, which is soft
for small wheel movements but becomes harder as the spring deflects.
The energy released from the rubber spring after deflection is considerably less than
that imparted to it. This internal loss of energy is called hysteresis, which is an advantage,
because lower-duty dampers may be used. Some rubber suspension systems have a
tendency to settle down or creep during the initial stages of service, therefore allowance
for this must be provided.

P a g e | 69
Fig. 22.25. Rubber spring.
1.10 Air Spring Bags.

Air spring bags generally consist of the two or three convoluted bellows (Fig. 22.38)
or rolling lobe (diaphragm) type (Fig. 22.39), each having distinct characteristics. Usually,
the bellows air spring (Fig. 22.38) is a compact flexible air container and can be loaded to
relatively high pressures. Its effective cross-sectional area changes with spring height,
which increases and decreases respectively with the increase and decrease of the static
height. To accommodate large variations in static spring height, the three convolute bellows
types is necessary, but for moderate suspension deflection the twin convolute bellow is
sufficient for expansion and contraction demand.
Fig. 22.38. Involute bellow spring.

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The rolling diaphragm or lobe spring (Fig. 22.39) requires a relatively higher
installation space at lower static pressures. Progressive spring stiffening is achieved by
tapering the skirt of the base member to increase the effective working cross-sectional area
of the rolling lobe as the spring approaches its maximum bump position.
Fig. 22.39. Rolling diaphragm spring
The springs are made from tough Neoprene rubber reinforced with nylon for
application at low and normal operating temperature, but Butyl rubber is occasionally
preferred for high operating temperature requirements. An air spring bag is consisted of a
flexible cylindrical wall made from reinforced rubber enclosed by rigid metal endmembers. The shape of external wall of the air spring bag may be either plain or bellow
type. The flexible wall normally uses two or more layers of rubber coated rayon or having
nylon cord laid in a cross-ply fashion with an outside of abrasion-resistant rubber.
Sometimes an additional internal layer of impermeable rubber is provided to minimize the
loss of air.
The bellow type air spring bags (Fig. 22.38) are positioned by an upper and lower
clamp ring, which wedges their rubber-moulded edges against the clamp plate tapered
spigots. The rolling lobe bag (Fig. 22.39) is located upon the necks of the spring fitting

P a g e | 71
tightly over the tapered and recessed rigid end members. Both types of spring bags have flat
annular upper and lower regions for producing and self-sealing action, when exposed to
the compressed air.
The bellows spring has a natural spring frequency range of 90 to 150 cycles per
minute (cpm) for a simply supported mass when fully laden and acting in the direct mode,
and the rolling lobe type has 6090 cpm. The higher natural frequency for the bellow
spring is due mainly to the more rigid construction of the convolute spring walls, as
compared to the easily collapsible rolling lobe. A rubber limit stop of the progressive type is
installed inside each air spring as a precaution against the failure of the supply of air
pressure for the springs. Compression of the rubber begins when a bump causes about 50
mm travel of the suspension.
1.11 Damper
When the wheel moves over a bump, energy is given to the spring due to which it
deflects, when the bump is crossed, rebound or release of the stored energy takes place, and
the spring is put into an oscillating motion before restores to its normal position. To provide
a comfortable ride, the damper is incorporated to absorb the energy stored in the spring.
This reduces the number of oscillations that occur between the initial bump and the return
of spring to the rest position.
1.11.1 Hydraulic Dampers.

Hydraulic dampers are most commonly used today. The dissipation of the energy in
these dampers occured by pumping oil through small orifices. Resistance of the hydraulic
damper increases with the increase of the speed of spring deflection. The resistance to
spring movement can be applied to the rebound stroke only (in case of single-acting unit),
or to both the bump and rebound strokes (in case of double-acting unit),
1.11.2 Single-tube Telescopic Damper

This type of damper is directly connected between the body and the suspension
member, which moves with the road wheel.
The operating cylinder of this damper is a single tube, closed at the bottom end by a cap,
and joined to an eye or stem for connecting to the moving part of the suspension. A piston,
fitted with two-way reed valves, slides in this tube that covers a series of holes through
which oil can pass. The piston is connected to a rod, which intern is attached to the car
body and passes through a guide retained in the top of the tube. The rubber bushes placed

P a g e | 72
at the attachment points isolate road shocks and also permit a light angular movement of
the damper body. A rubber seal is held is place by fluid pressure and is installed adjacent to
the guide to arrest leakage of fluid. A chamber at the base of the damper is sealed by a free
piston and contains a quantity of inert gas. The gas remains in compressed state when the
damper is completely filled with thin mineral oil.
The inner movement of the piston during jounce displaces oil from the bottom to the
top chamber. The damping action is provided by the energy needed to pump the oil through
the holes as well as to deflect the piston valves. A single-tube, gas-pressurized damper is
used on Mac-Pherson suspension systems, as a main suspension member.
Single-tube telescopic damper.
1.11.3 Rigid-axle-beam Suspension

The beam-type axle is the oldest and simplest of sprung axle arrangements. It still
offers certain advantages to justify its use over more sophisticated suspension systems. This
design permits the road-wheels at the front to be interconnected by a rigid solid forged
axle-beam, which is a non-drive axle and at the rear by a rigid tube-section beam at the
centre of which the drive half-shafts pass to transmit the drive to the rear wheels. Stubaxles are hinged or pivoted on to each end of the front axle-beam to support mechanisms
for steering the front road-wheels.

P a g e | 73
The semi-elliptic springs seat on flat spring-saddles or spring-beds, formed on the

under face of the axle-beam. A countersink hole at the centre of each spring-saddle
provides a location point for the centre-bolt head. The springs and the axle are clamped
together using two U-bolts. Sometimes rubber pads are fitted on each side of the springblade pack on car axles to damp out small vibrations and noise from the unsprung axle.
The I section, which provides the greatest resistance against bending, is used for the
front axle-beam span between the spring-saddles. Between the spring-saddles and the
stub-axles the I-section changes to a round section, which is more resistance to twisting,
produced due to acceleration and braking torques.
Semi-elliptic spring with rigid-axle-beam.

P a g e | 74
1.11.4 Advantages of Beam Axle.

(a) The axle-beam stub-axle and semi-elliptic springs constitute a simple and compact
suspension and steering system using only few parts, and is capable of taking up
considerable rough handling. It is reliable, easily serviced and cheaper than other
types of suspension.
(b) The axle provides rigid support for each spring, both in the vertical plane against
bouncing of the sprung body and in the horizontal plane against side forces.
(c) The alignment of both road-wheels to the road in this case depends not on the
chassis and body stiffness but on the rigidity of the axle-beam, which supports both
stub-axles and wheels.
(d) As the road-wheels are attached to the axle-beam by the stub-axles, the wheels
always remain approximately perpendicular to the road so that best possible tyre
tread contact with the road is achieved. This provides very good road grip and
consequently prolong tyre life.
(e) The height of the axle-beam above the road does not alter between the unladen and
laden state or when the body, rolls or goes over a bump or pot-hole. This constant
ground clearance is desirable for the vehicle travelling over rough ground.
1.11.5 Disadvantages of Beam Axle.

(a) Hard springing takes place due to small maximum spring deflection. The vertical axle
movement is limited by clearance between the axle and the engine.
(b) Steering geometry is not accurately controlled.
1.12 Independent Front Suspension System

To overcome disadvantages associated with the rigid-beam-axle suspension, independent
front suspension (IFS) is used. The term independent suspension describes any system that
connects the wheels to the frame in which the movement of one wheel has no effect on the
other wheel
1.12.1 Double-transverse Wishbone Suspension.

Figure illustrates the main details of this suspension. In this system, two links, usually
parallel in the normal ride position, are constructed in a wishbone shape to provide foreand-aft stiffness and to resist braking torque. Each wishbone uses three bearings, two inner
bearings connecting with the frame and an outer one attaching to the stub wishbone, and
the upper end to a point on the frame just above the upper wishbone. The vehicle weight
and the payload is transferred from the sprung body and cross-member to the top of the
coil spring. A damper is intalled inside the coil spring and is attached by rubber bushes to
the underside of the fixed cross-member and to the lower wishbone member.
P a g e | 75
The front of the car drives towards the ground when the brakes are applied,
because the lower wishbone pivot points on the link-type system are normally set parallel to
the road. To minimize this problem, anti-dive geometry is used in which the rear pivot
point of the lower wishbone is placed higher than the front pivot. During application of the
front brakes, the braking torque on the inclined wishbone produces a vertical force, which
counter balances the extra load transferred from the rear to front wheels.
Transverse double wishbone suspension.
1.12.2 MacPherson Suspension.

In this type of suspension , a long telescopic tube, incorporating the damper, is
pivoted at the upper end and rigidly connected to the stub axle at the lower end. A single
transverse link, attached to the frame by rubber bushes and connected to the stub-axle by a
ball joint, provides track control. The coil spring is installed between the fixed and floating
suspension members. The ball and socket joint at the bottom serves as a pivot for the
steering strut and the stub-axle in the horizontal plane. This joint also serves as a
suspension joint for relative movement between the track-control arm and stub-axle in the
vertical plane.
Similar to several other suspension systems, castor, camber, and swivel-axis
inclination are set during manufacturing and cannot be altered. The swivel-axis inclination
is the angle formed between the vertical and the line taken from the centre of the strut
thrust bearing to the centre of the ball joint, which connects the strut to the track control
arm. The strut is set to a smaller angle than the swivel axis inclination for providing tyre
clearance.
By the top of the strut towards the vehicle centre, it is possible to obtain a negative
offset (negative scrub radius) for the steering. When the coil spring is almost fully
compressed, a bump stop installed at the top of the piston rod serves to stiffen the
P a g e | 76
suspension springing. The triangular track-control arm absorbs driving and braking thrust
reactions.
MacPherson leg-strut suspension.
2. MECHANICS OF AN INDEPENDENT SUSPENSION SYSTEM

It is convenient to consider the action of different types of forces between wheel and
ground separately. Then the final forces on the limbs can be calculated by superimposing
the forces due to each action. The independent suspension shown in Fig. 22.70 is under the
action of vertical force R only.
Fig. 22.70. Independent suspension under the action of vehicle force.

The stub axle and wheel assembly are in equilibrium under R and the forces acting
on the pivots A and C. There are no transverse forces acting on link AB. Therefore, the force
acting on pivot A must be along AB so that its line of action intersects with that of R at the
point O through
P a g e | 77
The action of horizontal force F is shown in Fig. 22.71. In this case also, as before,
the line of action ofF and that of the force at pivot A intersect at O giving the line of action
of the force at pivot C as OC that is inclined to the horizontal at an angle 8. Let V be the
force acting on pivot C and p (compressive), q (tensile) and s be the force on the link AB, CD
and the spring respectively.
Fig. 22.71. Independent suspension under the action of horizontal force.

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2.1 Roll Axis and the Vehicle under the Action of Side Forces
The vehicle tilts or rolls about an axis lying in the vertical plane containing the
centre line of the vehicle due to the action of side forces on it. This axis is called the roll axis
whose position depends upon the type of suspension used for both rear and front of the
vehicle.
Figure 22.72 shows the vehicle with conventional suspension viewing from the
back. The suspension spring (leaf spring) has been shown by zigzag lines.
Fig. 22.72. Vehicle with conventional suspension (viewed from back).

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When no side force is acting, reaction at each wheel = W/2 and the load carried by
spring = W/2.
When the side forces act on the vehicle it sets up forces ft and ft at the positions of
contact of the body with the spring. It is assumed that ft = ft and their resultant (= F) passes
through O. Thus side force constitutes a couple T ( = Fh) due to which the left spring is
compressed and the right spring is expanded causing a tilt 8 of the vehicle through the
point O.
Now as shown in Fig. 22.72, the wheel load and the spring load change to (W/2) +
(C 77a) and (W/2) (C Tla) for the left side and right side respectively, where C is constant
whose value depends upon the relative stiffness of the springs at the front and the rear, and
equal to half when these stiffness are assumed equal. The weight of the body through CG is
displaced sideways due to the tilt so that a couple is constituted, which introduces an
additional moment thereby increasing the tilt, however this is quite small.
Tilt can be made smaller if the spring base is kept large.

Now the vehicle with independent suspension system of double-arm parallel type is
considered under the action of side force F as shown in Fig. 22.73. In this case, as before the
side force causes a couple T (= FH) due to which the vehicle tilts about the point O as centre
lying on the ground. The wheel loads change to (W/2) + (C Tla) and (W/2) (C Tla) while
the spring loads change top + q andp q.
Fig. 22.73. Independent suspension system

(double arm parallel type) under action of side force.

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Since a is greater than d, the tilt with independent suspension is less than that in
the conventional type of the same couple C. But if we consider equal magnitude of side
force, then the couple is greater in the case of independent suspension than in the other as
H is greater than h, which increases the tilt in the former case. However, the effect of
greater effective spring base (a > d) out-weights the effect of the increase in the arm (H >
h) giving 8 less in most cases for independent suspension systems.
Similar to the point O on the rear side, there is a point on the front side. The line
passing through these two points is called the roll axis of the vehicle. The roll axis for a car,
having both rear and front conventional suspensions, lies a little higher than that having
independent suspension at the front and rear.
The analysis of an independent suspension under the action of a side force is
different from the one under the action of a pure couple as discussed above. Let us consider
an independent suspension system as shown in Fig. 22.74 under the action of side force F,
then
Fig. 22.74 An independent suspension system under action of side force.

Under the action of the side force the body tilts about the roll axis 0. The wheel
reaction becomes, (W/2) + (FH/a) and (W/2) (FH/a) and the spring load changes
correspondingly. If the condition of no tilt is achieved due to proper disposition of links
then changes in the spring forces must be zero. Therefore, the changes in the wheel
reactions, FH/a must balance the changes in the forces in the links of suspension. Let these
forces in the links be p and q and the inclination of links to the horizontal are respectively y
and 5 as shown in the figure. Let the left side suspension be considered first.

P a g e | 81

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MODULE - V
1. INTRODUCTION
In todays highly mobile society, criminals often use vehicles to travel to and from
the scenes of the crimes they commit. On many occasions, their vehicles track over surfaces
which retain the impressions of one or more of the tires, leaving proof of their vehicles
presence. These impressions range from a partial impression to a full set of tracks
representing all four tires. Proper recovery of the impressions of track evidence, through
crime scene drawing measurements, photography and casting, serves as a way of
preserving the evidence for subsequent comparison with the tires and dimensions of a
suspect vehicle.
Tire marks or tire impressions are those left by the tread design of a tire after they
pass over a surface. As with any mark or impression, the detail retained by the surface
ranges from exceptional to poor, depending on a variety of factors such as substrate
qualities like texture and colour, the amount and type of residue on the tire, moisture, etc.
Tire tracks are the marks or impressions left by the tires of a vehicle, exclusive of the
tread design, and include track width, wheelbase, turning radius and the relative positions
of the tracks of all four tires. Figure 1 gives some basic nomenclature.

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Figure 1(A) and (B) Radial tire: basic terminology.
1.1.
Sidewall Information
Much information is molded into the sidewall. Portions of that information are of
importance to the investigator and examiner, and should be noted when investigating or
examining any tire. First noted should be the brand name and style name, such as Michelin

P a g e | 84
XM+S 244 and the size of the tire, such as P 195 75 / R 14. Also of importance is the
Department of Transportation (DOT) number, which will usually begin with the letters
DOT. This is often on the serial side (inner side) of the tire. The DOT number will be similar
to the following example:
In this example, the two letters following the DOT number, such as HM, are symbols
for the manufacturer and plant code. By looking this code up in a reference source, such as
Who Makes it and where, the specific plant in this example can be identified as the
Michelin Tire Company, located in Stoke-on-Trent, England. The next letter and number
are the tire size code. The following four letters, for example, ABCD, are optional and are
manufacturers symbols. The last three numerical digits are important, as they indicate the
week and year in which the tire was manufactured. For example, the numbers 499 in this
example would indicate the tire was made in the 49th week (49) of 1999 (9). The last 9
could also indicate the tire was made in 1989 or 1979. Tires that are retreads have a
slightly different DOT number on them. The retread DOT number will begin with the
letters DOTR of perhaps just R. The original DOT number that was on the new tire may be
removed, or may be left undisturbed, so it is possible a tire will have both a DOT and a
DOTR number on it. The DOTR number consists of three letters and three numbers and
would be similar to the following example:
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In this example, the three letters are a code to identify the re-treading facility. A
publication, Who Retreads Tires, lists approximately 5000 retreating facilities by their three
letter code. The three numbers identify the week and year of re-treading.
1.2.
Tire Size Designations
Tire sizes have been designated in a number of ways throughout the years. The tire
size designations that have been used are shown below.
1.3.
Older designations
Numeric: 6.45-14
6.45 = approximate section width in inches 14 = rim diameter
Alphanumeric: E R 78-14 E = load / size relationship R = radial tire 78 = aspect ratio 14 =
rim diameter
Newer designations
Metric: 195R14
195 = approximate section width in millimeters R = radial tire 14 = rim diameter
T-Metric: P 195/75 R 14 P = passenger tire
195 = approximate section width in millimeters 75 = aspect ratio R = radial tire 14 = rim
diameter
1.4.
Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio, otherwise known as the tire profile, is the relation of the height of a
tire to its width. Appearance wise, a tire with a low profile or aspect ratio, such as 50,
appears to look flatter and is proportionally wider, whereas a tire with a higher profile,
such as 70, appears more conventional. Today, an increasing number of passenger cars are
equipped with low profile tires to increase traction and performance.
1.5.
Tread Wear Indicators
Tread wear indicators, also known as wear bars, are required in tire manufacturing.
They must appear at least six times around the circumference of all tyres. They consist of
rubber bars which are raised 2/32nds of an inch (0.16 cm) above the base of the grooves. In

P a g e | 86
this way, as the tire wears down, the wear indicators will appear as bald strips across the
remaining tread design. Tread wear indicators are visible in a two-dimensional impression
if the tire is worn down to that level. They are also visible in three-dimensional impressions.
Tread wear indicators, because they occur six times around a tire, appear in different
portions among repeating noise treatments. For instance, a tire with a noise treatment that
repeats four times will have six tread wear indicators in it. Each tread wear indicator will
therefore be in a different portion of the noise treatment arrangement (Fig. 2). This can be
of further assistance in locating the precise portion of the tire that made the impression.
1.6.
Vehicle Dimensions and Turning Tread design width
Tread design width, also known as arc width, is the distance between the edges of
the tire tread. This is sometimes difficult to measure, owing to uneven wearing of the tire,
the incompleteness of the impression and other factors.
1.7.
Track width (stance)
Track width, also known as tire stance, is the distance measured perpendicularly
from the center of one wheel (or impression) to the opposite wheel (or impression). The
track width of the rear wheels is usually different from that of the front wheels. The
measurement is made more easily if the vehicle is traveling in a straight line. The front
wheel measurement will change dramatically if the vehicle is turning and is therefore less
reliable. The rear track, when turning, will still record accurately; however, the
measurement must be made carefully, perpendicularly. If the substrate is uneven, or the
impression does not record sufficiently, it is more difficult to measure either track width
accurately. If a wheel of a different dimension is put on the vehicle, or if the wheel
mounting changes, as in the case of mounting wheels in a reversed position, the track width
for that vehicle will be changed.
The track width on trucks that have two tires mounted on each side is measured
from the point that is the direct center between the two wheels on one side to the center of
the two wheels on the opposite side. Should trucks of the same type, model and year be
configured with different axles or different wheels, the track width will be changed. Track
width and wheelbase measurements are illustrated in Fig. 3.

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Figure 3(A) Track width: the dimension measured between the tire center lines at the
ground. The front and rear track widths are not normally the same. (B) Wheelbase: the
dimension measured longitudinally between front and rear wheel center lines.
1.8.
Wheelbase
The wheelbase of a vehicle is the dimension measured longitudinally between the

front and the rear wheel center lines. An equivalent to the wheelbase can be measured as
the distance between the leading edges of the front and rear tire tracks, as in the case where
the tires have sunk in the ground or have turned. Measurements should be taken from each
side of the impression, as the leading edge of a tire, when turning, will cause this
measurement to increase or decrease, depending on which side of the tire is used for the
measurement.
1.9.
Turning positions
Tires positioned on the rear of a vehicle, when the vehicle is turning, track to the
inside of those tires positioned on the front. This is useful in reconstructing the position of
tires at a crime scene and later linking similar positions to the respective tires. This is
illustrated in Fig. 4.

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1.10. Turning diameter

Every vehicle has a turning radius or turning diameter which represents the smallest
radius that that particular vehicle type can turn in a circle. A crime scene impression with
front wheel tracks that turn sharply can be measured and used to include or eliminate
vehicles which can or cannot turn in that diameter or less. The measurement of the track
should be made at its outer margin. The following formula and Fig. 5 illustrate this
procedure. Turning diameter =(B2 A)+ A
Figure 5 Turning diameter. Measurements are taken from the outer edge of the arc made by
the outermost front tire. See text for details.

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2.
Pneumatic tyre
The pneumatic tyre

(a) supports the vehicle load,
(6) cushions the wheel against small road shocks,
(c) transmits driving and braking forces between the wheel and the road surface, (d)
converts steering effort into directional movement.
Tyres may be broadly divided into tubed and tubeless constructions, and cross-ply and
Radial-ply constructions.
2.1.
Inner Tubes
The inner tube of a tyre is a flexible tube container, which when inflated with
compressed air expands until it bursts unless the expansion is restrained by the tyre, acting
as a casing.
Fig. 23.6. Commercial-vehicle wheel and tyre construction. A. Tubed tyre and wheel. B.
Tubeless tyre and wheel.
The inner tube (Fig. 23.6A) then takes the shape of the tyre cover, which protect it
and contains this trapped pressurized air over long periods.
The tube is manufactured from extruded rubber sheets, which are shaped on a former and
cured (vulcanized) in a steam-heated mould to the cover shape. The tube is constructed to
about 10% undersize. To provide an outlet or inlet to the tube interior, a valve stem is sealed
to the inside circumference during vulcanization.

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Tubeless Tyres
2.2.
The tubeless tyre (Fig. 23.6B) constitutes an outer cover and instead of the inner tube
an unstretched rubbejiHning is bonded to the inside of the cover wall. The rubber lining
continues under the beads dredges of the cover to join up with the outer side-wall rubber.
The bead portion of the tyre m^fes an effective air-tight seal between the tyre and the rim.
The taper rim seats on each side of the weft base and adjacent to the rim flanges, and assists
initial sealing between the bead and the wheel rim during inflation of the tyre. Car and
commercial vehicle rims have taper angles of 5 degree and 15 degrees respectively.
In this layout, the tyre valve is generally positioned in a hole formed in the well base of the
rim. Car valves are sealed by rubber grommets, whereas commercial vehicle valves have ^all-metal threaded system and is secured to the rim by nuts.
Merits of Tubeless over Tubed Tyres
2.3.
Following
are
the
benefits
of
using
tubeless
tyres
over
tubed
tyres.
(a) Air Retention. In the tubeless tyre, the inner lining does not stretch unlike ordinary inner
tubes, and the cover wall itself resists air passage, therefore air loss is very much slower. The
tyre bead and the rim also provide seal between them so that no leakage of air around the
tyre rim is allowed.
(b) Safety. The tubed tyres can suddenly puncture without warning. With a tubeless tyre, if
a tyre is ruptured a slow loss of air takes place giving enough time to take care of the
problem.
(c) Ride Comfort. The tubeless tyre is lighter than the inner tube and tyre, giving less
unsprung-mass reaction on the vehicles suspension system, which reduces wheel bounce.
(d) Tyre Cooling. When there is no inner tube, the heat generated in the compressed air is
dissipated to atmosphere directly through the metal rim. The inner tube being relatively
poor
conductor
of
heat,
greater
temperature
builds
up
in
tubed
tyres.
(e) Wheel Assembly Balance. A commercial-vehicle tubeless tyre does not incorporate a
tube flap, loose flange, and lock-ring. In this case the tyre bead fits concentric to the taper
wheel
rim.
This
layout
provides
better
balanced
assembly.
if) Assembly of Tyre to Wheel. There is no chance of the inner tube being nipped or
punctured during assembly as only the cover has to be fitted over the wheel rim. Also there
is no danger of loose components flying off during inflation of tubeless tyre due to
distortion or carelessness.

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2.4.
Run-flat Car-tyre
The conventional tubeless tyre in the inflated condition contains air and does rolling.
When deflation occurs, there is a possibility of the bead of the tyre to move across the rim
into the well base, due to which the tyre may slide over the rim flange causing its buckling
and folding. The rim may then plough into the road, causing loss of control.
The run-flat tyre developed by Dunlop operates effectively with or without air, and
provides acceptable handling qualities when deflacted and excellent handling qualities
when inflated. In the run flat concept the tyre bead is held against the rim flanges when the
tyre deflates. It absorbs all possible stresses caused by deflation. It remains undamaged by
internal friction and heat generated when running flat. It self-seals any punctures, so that
the remaining air is trapped and heat is generated, which reinflate the tyre within limits.
The run-flat tyre bead and rim are designed to enable the bead to engage a small
circumferential groove in the bead-seat area of the rim. The bead remains locked in
position under inflated and deflacted conditions. The tyre does not dislodge from the wheel
(Fig. 23.7A) even in the event of a high-speed blow-out. The tyre uses a low-profile radialply construction and the tyre side walls are made thicker to sustain the increased stresses
created when running deflated. The tyre is fitted on to a rim which is narrower than the
tyre tread. The rim flange supports and does not cause any damage to the tyre during
deflated conditions. The friction and consequent heat generation are minimized by the
application of a one-stage lubricant, known as Polygel, to the underside of the tread at high
temperature during the final stages of tyre manufacture. Polygel also provides self sealing
properties against a puncture (Fig. 23.7A to D).
Fig. 23.7. Dunlop Denovo 11 run-flat car tyre. A. Nail punctures type. B. Polygel seals
puncture hole.C. Polygel seals any other small puncture at low pressure to trap the
remaining cold air.

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D. Movement of the wheel and tyre deflection generate heat which raises the trapped-air
temperature and pressure to re-inflate the tyre.
The principle of construction of tyre having self-sealing properties against a
puncture has been extended to develop bullet-proof tyres. In the event of a bullet hitting or
passing through the tyre, the self-sealing characteristic seals the affected area without loss
of appreciable pressure. Bullet-proof tyres are normally used in military vehicles and
special category vehicles.
2.5.
Captive-air Tyres
This category of tyres is basically tubeless tyres having two distinct air chambers
(Fig. 23.8). The captive-air inner chamber is generally of a 2-ply nylon construction and is
inflated by the air entering into it through a standard valve. The outer chamber is the space
formed between the outer tyre and the inner chamber wall. This chamber is inflated
through a needle valve.
Fig. 23.8. Captive-air tyre.

When a puncture occurs, the air stored in the outer chamber escapes out to
atmosphere through the punctured tyre wall. The inner chamber then supports the weight
of the vehicle. The vehicle in this way can be driven without loss of any stability to a nearest
service station. Captive-air tyres are generally used on racing cars.

P a g e | 93
3.
3.1.
Characteristics
Ride Comfort.
The bending of the walls of cross-ply tyres requires a shear action to change the
criss-cross ply angle, which makes the walls very stiff, and hence the bounce on rough
roads is not properly cushioned. Radial-ply tyre construction provides a supple wall due to
the natural direction of radial-ply cords. These tyres bend readily and hence can absorb a
great deal of extra bounce. The radial-ply tyre is more comfortable at higher speeds because
of its shock-absorbing deflection characteristic, which is 25% greater than that of the crossply type. However at lower speeds the cross-ply tyre provides more smooth riding and the
steering is also lighter, so that it is more suitable for parking (Fig. 23.11A).
3.2.
Acceleration and Braking.

Conventional cross-ply tyres tread is affected by every movement of the walls
because tread is not braced and held down on to the road. As a result of this the tread blocks
are able to shift and dance about on the road surface providing a small contact area, which
reduces road grip. In radial-ply tyres, the braced layers of cords act independently of the
wall plies. The bracing belt follows the contour of the road during movement of the wheel
providing a continuous large flat contact-patch area with the road surface. The whole of
the tread pattern is fully stabilized, so that road-wheel acceleration and braking traction are
improved (Fig. 23.1 IB).
Fig. 23.11. Comparison of cross-ply and radial-ply tyres.

A. Ride comfort. B. Acceleration and braking. C. Cornering.

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Cornering.
3.3.
Cross-ply tyres do not bend sufficiently to absorb any sideways strain during
cornering. The cross-plies therefore pull and lift up one side of the tread from the ground,
reducing road grip and traction. Radial-ply tyre during concerning bends readily and
absorbs extra strain. The tread stays firm and flat down, with its whole working area of
tread pattern biting into the surface of the road (Fig. 23.11C).
Tyre Life.
3.4.
With a cross-ply tyre, when the wheel rolls, the distortion of the walls tends to pull
the tread away from the road surface, thereby scraping the tread blocks as road contact
begins and ends. A radial-ply tyre produces a flat full-width track-laying action along the
wheel-and-road interface (Fig. 23.11C). The full width tread pattern contact during
cornering and the extended flat zone reduce wear during driving and stopping. This
extends tyre life considerably by as much as 80%.
Fuel Consumption.
3.5.
The more flexible casing of radial-ply compared to cross-ply tyres reduces the
amount of energy consumed while running, so that saving in fuel consumption in the order
of 5% is achieved.
Tyre Tread
3.6.
In a pneumatic tyre a cushion of air trapped between the well of the wheel rim and
the toroid-shaped casing known as the carcass supports the wheel load. The tread, a thick
layer of rubber compound, is wrapped around the outside of the tyre carcass to protect the
carcass from damage due to tyre impact with the irregular contour of the ground and the
abrasive wear as the tyre rolls along the road. During rotation of the wheel the tread
provides driving, braking, cornering and steering grip between the tyre and ground. Tread
grip may be defined as the ability of a rolling tyre to continuously develop an interaction
between the individual tread elements and the ground. Tyre grip must be available under a
variety of road conditions such as smooth or rough hard roads, dry or wet surfaces, muddy
tracks, fresh snow or hard packed snow and ice, and sandy or soft soil terrain. The main
function of a tyre tread pattern is (i) to provide a path for drainage of water trapped
between the tyre contact patch and the road, and (ii) to provide tread to ground bite when
the wheel is subjected to both longitudinal and lateral forces under various driving
conditions.
P a g e | 95
3.6.1.
Tread Bite
Bite is obtained through a tread pattern, which divides the tread into many separate
element, and each elements has a reasonably sharp well defined edge. As the wheel rotates
these tread edges engage with the ground providing tyre to ground interlock and also
develop frictional forces during transmission of tractive or braking forces. Following are the
major features of tread pattern that control the effectiveness of the tyre in wet weather:(i)
Drainage grooves or channels. (ii) Load carrying ribs.(iii) Load bearing blocks. (iv) Multiple
microslits or sipes.
3.6.2.
Tread Drainage Grooves.
If water is trapped between the tread ribs or blocks, the tread elements life become
separated from the ground, so that the effective area of the contact patch reduces, so also
the tyres ability to grip the ground. A number of circumferential grooves placed across the
tread width (Fig. 23.12A) facilitate the removal of water films from the tyre to ground
interface. These grooves help the leading elements of the tread to push water through the
enclosed channels formed between the road and the underside of the grooves. Water
therefore emerges in form of jets from the trailing side of the contact patch. The total crosssectional area of tyre should be sufficient to channel all the water immediately ahead of the
leading edge of the contact patch away.
Fig. 23.12. Basic tyre treads patterns. A. Circumferential straight grooves and ribs with
multiple sipes. B. Circumferential zig-zag grooves and ribs with multiple sipes. C. Diagonal
grooves with diamond shaped blocks and central sipes. D. Diagonal bars with central vee
blocks and sipes.

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Lateral grooves are used to join together the individual circumferential grooves so
that a direct side exist can be provided for the outer circumferential grooves. Normally
many grooves are preferred to a few large ones. This arrangement speeds up the water
removal process under the contact patch.
3.6.3.
Tread Ribs.
Circumferential ribs provide a supportive wearing surface for the tyre and also
become the walls for the drainage grooves (Fig. 23.12A and B). Lateral ribs provide the
optimum bite for tractive and braking forces whereas circumferential ribs control
cornering and steering stability. For both longitudinal and lateral directional stability, ribs
may be arranged diagonally. Also it may be in the zigzag circumferential form to improve
the wiping effect across the tread surface under wet conditions. It is desirable to have the
tread pattern with many narrow ribs than a few wide ones for better road grip.
3.6.4.
Tread Blocks.
The consequences of both longitudinal and lateral drainage channels, used for
effective drainage of water at speed, is that the grooves encircle portions of the tread
forming isolated island blocks (Fig. 23.12C and D). These blocks provide a sharp wiping
and biting edge where the interface of the tread and ground meet. To improve their biting
effectiveness for tractive, braking, steering and cornering forces, these forces are required to
be resolved into diagonal resultants and to achieve this the blocks are sometimes arranged
in an oblique formation. A limitation to the block pattern concept is due to inadequate
support around the blocks, which causes the rubber blocks to bend and distort under severe
operating conditions. Bar shaped tread blocks, arranged in a herringbone fashion, have
proved to be effective on rugged ground. Square or rhombus-shaped blocks provide a tank
track unrolling action so that movement in the tread contact area greatly reduces. This
pattern helps to avoid the break-up on the top layer of sand or soil so that the tyre is
prevented from digging into the ground. Since the individual blocks bend to certain extent
when subjected to ground reaction forces, they suffer from toe to heel rolling action causing
blunting of the leading edge and trailing edge feathering. To maintain the wiping action of
the tread block element on wet surfaces, wear should from toe to heel (Fig. 23.13A).

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Fig. 23.13. Effect of irregular tread block wear. A. Toe to heel treads wear. B. Heel to toe
treads wear.
If wear occurs from heel to toe (Fig. 23.13B) i.e. in the reverse order, the
effectiveness of the tread pattern severely reduces since the tread blocks then allow for the
formation of a hydrodynamic water wedge, which tries to lift the tread blocks off the
ground at speed.
3.6.5. Tread Slits or Sips.
Fig. 23.14. Effectiveness of microslits on wet road surfaces. A. Effective sipe wiping action
on a smooth road. B. Ineffective sipe wiping action on a knobbly road. C. Close pitched sipe
wiping action on a pebbled road.
Microslits or sipes are incisions made at the surface of the tyre tread, extending
down to the full depth of the tread grooves. They reassemble a knife cut, mostly of a zigzag
fashion (Fig. 23.14A, B, C and D), normally terminating within the tread elements.
Sometimes one end of the knife cut intersects the side wall of a drainage groove. In some

P a g e | 98
designs the tread patterns use the sipes arranged at a similar angle to each other, where the
zigzag shape provides a large number of edges pointing in various direction. Other designs
set sipes at different angles to each other so that these sipes are effective for the wheel
pointing in whichever way and for the ground reaction forces operating in whatever
direction. Sipes or slits are almost closed in their free state, but as they enter into the contact
patch area the ribs or blocks distort and open up (Fig. 23.14A). In this open position, the
sipe lips scoop up small quantities of water that still exist underneath the tread. This wiping
action produces some biting edge reaction with the ground. If the sipes are smaller in size
and more in number, they are more effective for road griping. The sipes with normal
spacing on a tyre tread are ineffective on a pebbled road surface as several pebbles exist
between the pitch of the sipes (Fig. 23.14B), collecting water between these rounded stones,
so that only a few of the stones are subjected to the wiping edge action of the opened lips.
Therefore to improve the wiping process there should be many more wiping slits (Fig.
23.14C), which is very difficult to manufacturing with the present techniques.
3.7.
Selection of Tread Patterns.
3.7.1.
Normal Car Tyres.
General duty car tyres, which effectively operate at all speeds use tread blocks arranged in
an oblique fashion with a network of surrounding drainage grooves so that both
circumferential and lateral water release (Fig. 23.15A, B and C) are provided.
3.7.2.
Wet Weather Car Tyres.
These car tyres are usually similar to the general duty car tyre except that the tread grooves
are made wider to allow easier water dispersion and to provide better exposure of the tread
blocks to snow and soft ice without damaging much the tread (Fig. 23.15D, E and F).
3.7.3.
Truck Tyres.
Truck tyres designed for steered axles normally use circumferential zigzag ribs and grooves
(Fig. 23.15G and H) so that very good lateral reaction on curved tracks is available. On the
other hand, the drive axle tyre is designed so that tread blocks have adequate grooving for
optimum traction grip under both dry and wet conditions. Some of these tyres also
incorporate provision for insertion of metal studs for severe winter hard packed snow and
ice conditions.

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3.7.4.
Off On Road Vehicles.
Of on road vehicle tyres normally use a much simpler bold block treads with a
relatively large surrounding groove (Fig. 23.151). This arrangement permits each
individual block to react independently with the ground causing biting and exerting
traction on soil, which may be hard on the surface but soft underneath without break-up of
the top layer, so that the tyre is prevented from digging in. The tread pattern blocks are also
designed sufficiently small to operate on hard road surface without causing excessive ride
harshness at moderate speeds. Truck and Tractor off Road and Cross-country Tyres. Truck
or tractor tyres for off road operation generally use slightly curved rectangular blocks
separated with wide grooves, which provide a strong flexible casing as well as present a
deliberately penetrating grip. Cross-country tyres, for operating on soft soil, have diagonal
bars either merging into a common central rib or arranged with separate overlapping
diagonal bars to provide exceptionally good traction on muddy soil, snow and soft ice (Figs.
23.15J, K and L).

P a g e | 100
Fig. 23.15. Survey of tyre treads patterns. A. Car moderate speed radial. B. Car high speed
radial. C. Car very high speed radial. D. Car wet weather radial.E. Car winter radial with
moulded stud holes. F. Car winter radial. G. Light vehicles off I on road winter tread. H.
Truck steer axle tread. I. Truck drive axle tread. J. Truck rough ground tyre. K. Truck crosscountry tyre. L.Tractor cross country tyre.
3.8.
Tyre Profile and Aspect Ratio
A tyre carcass profile considerably influences its rolling and handling

characteristics. The tyres cross-sectional configuration determines its suitability for better
performance under various applications. The aspect ratio of tyre may be defined as the ratio
of the tyre cross-sectional height (the distance between the tip of the tread to the bead seat)
to that of the section width (the outermost distance between the tyre walls) (Fig. 23.16). This
ratio is constant for a particular tyre and is used for predicting the suitability of a tyre for
an application.
Fig. 23.16. Tyre profiles with different aspect ratios.
A tyre with a large or small aspect ratio is known respectively as a high or low
aspect ratio profile tyre. Until about 1934 aspect ratios of 100% were used. With a better
understanding and improvement in tyre construction lower aspect ratio tyres become
available. Due to lowering the aspect ratio the tyre side wall height is reduced so that the
vertical and lateral stiffness of the tyre increases, thereby establishing a shorter and wider
contact patch.A short and wider contact patch (a) increases the load carrying capability of
the tyre ; (6) generates larger cornering forces so that vehicles are able to travel faster on
bends; (c) decreases the pneumatic trail so that the self-aligning torque correspondingly
reduces and becomes more consistent; and (d) under certain driving conditions, reduces the
P a g e | 101
slip angles generated by the tyre when subjected to side forces. Consequently the tread
distortion reduces and as a result scuffing and wear decrease. Water drainage at speed
becomes difficult with wider tyre contact patches, particularly in the mid tread region.
Therefore it is more critical to design the tread pattern with low profile tyre on wet roads,
in case the tyre holding is to match with the higher aspect ratio tyres. The increase is
vertical and lateral stiffnesses causes the following, (a) Due to an increase in vertical
stiffness and a reduction in tyre deflection, less energy is dissipated by the tyre casing
thereby reducing the resistance. This also causes the tyre to run continuously at high speeds
at lower temperatures, which increases the tyres life.(b) The increased lateral stiffness of a
low profile tyre increases the sensitivity to camber variations and quicken the response to
steering changes.(c) The increased vertical stiffness of the tyre reduces static deflection of
the tyre under load, due to which more road vibrations are transmitted through the tyre.
This provides a harsher ride reducing ride comfort unless the body is further isolated from
the suspension. The availability of lower aspect ratio tyres over the years was as follows :
1950s 95%, 1962-88%, 1965-80% and about 1968-70%. Since then for special
applications even lower aspect ratios of 65%, 60%, 55% and even 50% have become
available.
3.9.
Load Carrying Capacity
Increased inflation pressure supports the tyre casing more, due to which its loadcarrying capacity increases (Fig. 23.19A). The factors on which the load-carrying capacity
depends are the carcass ply-cord material, the resilience of the tread grip, the bounce
absorption (i.e. the cushioning qualities), uniform wear, and expected life. Under-inflation
of tyres increases the tyre-wall deflection at the base of the wheel resulting in a continuous
flexing of the tyre walls thereby generating heat and reducing the fatigue life of the casing
(Fig. 23.20A).
Fig. 23.18. Deflection of tyre due to a side force.

P a g e | 102
Fig. 23.19. Effects of tyre inflation pressure on load carrying capacity, cornering force.
Under-inflation reduces tyre life, because excessive distortion of tyre walls results in
their cracking and in cord breakage. Heat generated from friction between cord layers
inside tyre helps the breakdown to occur.
The other adverse effects besides reduces tyre life may result from under inflation are as
follows :
(a) Lack of directional stability of the vehicle.
(b) Increased, rolling resistance and therefore, increased fuel consumption.
(c) Tread wear is uneven.
(d) In a severe case, a tyre may creep on its rim and with a conventional tube may rip the
valve out.
Over-inflated tyres (Fig. 23.20B), on the other hand, over-stress the cord plies and
rubber covering due to which they cannot take the repeated impacts to which the tyre is
subjected. A prolonged journey with overloaded over-inflated tyres would eventually cause
failure of the walls. Also with over-inflated tyres, the cushioning is less and the ride is
harder.
The over-inflation causes the following problems.
(a) Tyre cushioning properties are reduced.
(b) Greater chance of fracture and cutting, as casing and tread are subjected to greater
tension. Impact resistance is reduced.
(c) Tread wear is confined to a smaller section of tread.
(d) Road holding properties are reduced.
3.10. Vehicle Handling

The cornering force on the tyre when negotiating a bend is proportional to the tyre
inflation pressure within given limits (Fig. 23.19B). The slip angle for a given cornering
force reduces as the air pressure increases. The proportion of inflation pressure between the

P a g e | 103
front and rear wheels can influence the under-steer and over-steer characteristics of a
vehicle. If the tyre pressures are raised at the front and lowered at the rear, the vehicle is
expected to over-steer. Conversely if the pressure is reduced at the front and increased at
the rear, the vehicle tends to under-steer.
Fig. 23.20. Wear with incorrect inflated tyres.
3.11. Tyre Life
A. Under inflated tyre. B. Over inflated tyre.
Tyre life depends upon inflation pressure, wheel load, and vehicle speed. The correct
tyre pressure minimizes the distortion and straining of the tyre case. Low inflation pressure
rapidly wears the outer edges of the tread, and high inflation pressure causes to wear the
centre of the tread crown (Fig. 23.21A and 23.20). Overloading the tyre reduces tyre life
because it highly stresses the carcass structure, distort the tread-pattern blocks and increase
their scrubbing action, and overheat the tyre (Fig. 23.21B).
Fig. 23.21. Effect of tyre inflation pressure, vertical load and vehicle speed on tyre life.
P a g e | 104
At higher wheel speed, the rate of flexing and the rise in carcass temperature
shorten tyre life. Also, at high speed the wheels do not closely follow the road surface
contour due to which the tread is in a constant state of scuffing as it contacts and leaves the
ground (Fig. 23.21C).
The tread wear increases with speed due to the following reasons,
(a)
Operating temperature is increased because of more deflections per minute. The
resistance of the tread rubber to abrasive wears decreases as temperature rises.

(b)
Acceleration and braking tend to be fiercer.
(c)
Tyre slip and distortion when rounding bends and corners are increased.
(d)
Minor road irregularities produce more bounce and scuffing wear than would be
the case at low speeds.

Figure 23.22 illustrates the tread contact with road under under-inflation, over-inflation
and proper inflation conditions.
Normal tyre tread wear is rated at 96.5 kmph. Lower speeds improve tyre life while
higher speeds reduce it. The 88.5 kmph speed limit improves tyre life. Tyre life on a set of
tyres can be extended by rotating the tyre and wheel position after each 800 km run. This
can be doubled for radial tyres.
Fig. 23.22. Tread contact with road at different inflation conditions.


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Page |1

1.2 Air Resistance

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Hence in general, air resistance,

1.3 Rolling Resistance

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.4 Grade Resistance

1.5 Traction and Tractive Effort

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.7 Road Performance Curves: Acceleration, Gradability and Drawbar

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Fig.1.1 Road speed VS power available at wheels.

Fig. 1.2 Road speed VS tractive effort.

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.7.3 Drawbar Pull

= Tractive effortRoad resistance

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

the coefficient of air resistance is 0.0276 in the formula R = KW + KaAV , N, where A is m of

The engine B.P. required;

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.8 Calculation of Equivalent Weight,

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.9 Gear Ratio for Maximum Acceleration

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

2. PERFORMANCE OF CARS AND LIGHT TRUCKS

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

2.2 Strategy for Lowest Fuel Consumption

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

2.2.6. Get back to nature

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

2.2.9. Downsize or hybridize

2.3 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

2.3.1 Old method (2007 and earlier)

Trip length: 11 miles

Test time: 31 minutes

Time spent idling: approx. 18%

Maximum speed: 56 MPH

Average speed: 20 MPH

Engine temp at startup: Cold (75 degrees outside air temperature)

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

2.3.3 Highway cycle

Trip length: 10 miles

Test time: 12.5 minutes

Number of stops: None

Time spent idling: None

Maximum speed: 60 MPH

Average speed: 48 MPH

Engine temp at startup: Warm

2.3.4 New method (2008 and later)

Higher speeds - up to 80 MPH on the highway cycle

More rapid acceleration

2.4 (EUROPEAN DRIVING CYCLE)

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Below is a comparison of the majority of test procedures used globally.

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

1.2 Slip Angle.