Occupational health and safety in Ruminants

A safe farm is a profitable farm, so it makes sense for producers to have the most effective work
health and safety (WHS) plans in place.
MLA has created a series of online manuals that offer practical resources such as comprehensive
and easy to follow checklists, templates and guidelines to help producers plan and implement onfarm health and safety initiatives.
These have been developed through MLAs membership of the Primary Industries Health and
Safety Partnership (PIHSP), from consultation with hundreds of livestock producers from around
Australia led by Associate Professor Tony Lower from the Australian Centre for Agricultural
Health and Safety.
Scroll down to view the different topic areas, then click on the title of the document of interest to
download it.

Safety at Work
Keeping people safe
Meet your legal safety responsibilities
Putting safety into action

Your Plan for Safety

Assess and understand safety risks on your farm
Build a safety plan specific to your farm business
Production WHS Plan | Beef | Sheep


Providing Safety Induction
Know why inducting new workers is important
Use a structured approach to induct new workers
Safety Inductions | Beef | Sheep

Keeping Safety Records

Understand why safety records are important
Maintain records to improve safety and meet legal responsibilities

Reducing Safety Risks

Assess and monitor farm safety using industry checklists

Finding Best Practice Safety Information

Use relevant guides and information to help improve safety

Continue to continuously improve safety on your farm
Employers have a duty of care to provide a safe working environment for their employees, this
includes providing:

Safe systems of work

Safe plant, equipment and substances

Adequate training, information and supervision

Adequate monitoring of work conditions

Reasonable safety policies and procedures

Not only does this contribute to job satisfaction and employee tenure, it is a legal obligation
under individual state or territory legislation.
OH&S Management Systems
The foundation of a safe working environment rests on a well documented, communicated,
understood and implemented OH&S Management System (OHSMS). An OHSMS is a set of
plans, actions and procedures, actively endorsed by the employer, to systematically manage
health and safety in the workplace.
Ultimately, if some mishap occurs due to an OH&S oversight, the property owner can be liable.
In order to mitigate the risk of an injury, lawsuit or even a death, it is imperative that the property
owner implements a comprehensive and effective OHSMS.
The development, review and maintenance of an OHSMS should be addressed in the property's
overall business plan. All people involved, from employee to management, need to understand
and fully support the OHSMS.
Employees must be trained and regularly monitored to ensure they have the knowledge and
capability to make the system work effectively.
More information

Selecting a Site for Ruminants

Donald Pfost and Charles Fulhage

Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering
The first factor to consider in selecting a site for an animal feeding operation is state and local
permitting requirements and ordinances. Consult local health and regulatory authorities and have
all plans approved before constructing any manure handling system. Contact the Technical
Assistance Program (TAP) at the Missouri Department of Natural Resources at 800-361-4TAP
for information regarding permits. For assistance in planning manure management systems, see
your local MU Extension center or the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).
Consider seeking professional assistance for selection of a site for an animal feeding operation.
Other factors to consider in selecting a site for a new or expanded livestock operation include the
following:

Distance to neighboring residences

Direction of prevailing winds in relation to neighbors

An adequate source of water

Access to land for manure application

Topography

Soil type

Proximity to surface water bodies, sinkholes and flood plains

Depth to groundwater

Likelihood of odor complaints by neighbors may be a major deterrent to siting large livestock
operations in many locations.
Determine the attitude of neighbors toward a new or expanded livestock operation at the site you
are considering. Documenting that adequate consideration has been given to siting the livestock
operation in an environmentally responsible manner may help if litigation occurs.
Odors are inherent in livestock operations, especially when manure is being applied to the land.
The larger the livestock operation, the more important it is to plan, design, construct and operate
the facility in a manner that will minimize off-site (and on-site) odors. It is important to control
sufficient land to provide an adequate buffer between neighbors and the more odoriferous
locations at the livestock facility (Figure 1). Odors from large livestock production units may be
noticeable a few miles away.

Figure 1
A livestock feeding operation site should be selected to minimize visual contact with neighbors
and traffic and to separate odorproducing facilities from neighbors.
Biosecurity considerations should
include isolation for incoming seedstock,
proximity of neighboring livestock
production units (especially for
production of breeding stock), and,
possibly, multiple-site production.
Very large livestock operations should
be isolated from residential areas
such as villages and towns by two miles or more, if possible.
Space considerations
Plan for expansion 20 to 30 years into the future; consider doubling the size anticipated at
present. Avoid locating facilities near property lines, streams, steep topography, porous geology,
housing developments, public-use areas, or other features that will limit expansion. Additionally,
buildings should be spaced at least 50 feet apart (75 feet is better for firetrucks) to reduce the
spread of fire. Naturally ventilated buildings may need to be from 50 to 200 feet apart in the
north-south direction for optimum summer airflow (Figure 2). Considerable space may be
needed for isolating incoming traffic from the animal areas to prevent the spreading of diseases
that may be brought in from the outside. The minimum radius for driveways used by semitrailers
is approximately 55 feet.
Figure 2
The naturally ventilated livestock buildings at this facility are spaced to allow for summertime
air flow.
Proximity of neighbors
Avoid placing livestock facilities near
existing (or future) "non-owned
residences" (residences not owned by the
owners of the animal feeding operation),
especially clusters of homes, built-up
areas and parks. Preferably, livestock
facilities should be out of your neighbors' sight. Consider having a tree windbreak or other visual
barrier to shield the operation. Depending on the size of the facility, the minimum distance from

non-owned residences should be from 1,000 to 3,000 feet, although this is no guarantee of
immunity from complaints. A separation of at least a mile may be needed between large livestock
operations and non-owned residences, depending on such considerations as topography and
prevailing wind direction.
Classification of animal feeding operations
The state of Missouri has passed an environmental law that establishes four classes of
concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) with buffer distances for each class, based on
the number of animals that will occupy the operation (Table 1). These distances are for design
and construction of new or modified concentrated animal feeding operations and are the
minimum buffer distances required between the nearest confinement building or lagoon and any
public building or occupied residence.
Table 1
Animal unit, size classification, buffer distances and permit requirements (permits required for
all Class I CAFOs)
Class

Animal units

Buffer distance

Class IA*

7,000 and up

3,000 feet

Class IB**

3,000 to 6,999

2,000 feet

Class IC***

1,000 to 2,999

1,000 feet

Class II****

300 to 999

*****

*Class IA
Wet handling operations that have 50 percent or more moisture in the waste
must obtain a site-specific permit (based on farm type and location). Dry
handling operations that have less than 50 percent moisture in the waste
must obtain a general permit.
**Class IB
Wet or dry handling operations must obtain a general permit.
***Class IC
Wet or dry handling operations must obtain a general permit.
****Class II operations are encouraged to obtain a voluntary Letter of
Approval for their animal waste management plans.
*****Buffer distance is not required unless part of a letter of approval or
permit requirement.
An animal unit of any species excretes manure equal to a 1,000 pounds beef
animal.
The buffer distance is measured from the facility to any non-owned, occupied
dwelling or public building.
Missouri well setback distances
There were no Missouri well rules before September 1987. The well construction rules adopted
after that date are summarized in Table 2. Wells constructed before the Missouri Well
Construction Rules but after adoption of the Missouri Clean Water Commission rules for
minimum separation distances are reviewed and approved on a case-by-case basis and may
involve water sample testing or dye tracing for indications of contamination. Planned new
operations are not approved if they are closer to existing wells than the minimum required
distance shown in Table 2. If an animal feeding operation has a well that was installed after
adoption of the current water well rules and does not meet the minimum separation distance
requirements, the Missouri Department of Natural Resources may require modifications to the
well or that a new well be drilled. The new amendments to the Missouri Well Construction Rules
became effective June 30, 1996.
Table 2
Missouri well construction rules: Well setback distances since 1986 in accordance with Missouri
Well Construction Code rule 10 CSR 23-3.010
Potential source of contamination

Setback distance
New
wellsa

Older wells
1994b

1987c

Storage area for commercial fertilizer or

chemicals

300 feet 300

feet

150 feet

Cesspool

100 feet 100

feet

100 feet

Below-grade manure storage area

300 feet 100

feet

100 feet

Animal or poultry yard, building or privy

100 feet 100

feet

75 feet

Other contaminants that may drain into the

soil

100 feet 100

feet

75 feet

Lagoon

300 feet 300

feet

Case-bycase

Earthen, concrete, or other manure storage

structure or lagoons

300 feet d

Land application areas for animal waste

300 feet 300

feet

Uncovered animal composters

300 feet d

Enclosed composters with concrete floor and

roof

100 feet d

Dry litter storage in poultry building during

normal operations

100 feet d

Single family lagoon

100 feet d

a. Regulation effective June 30, 1996

b. Regulation effective Jan. 1, 1994
c. Regulation effective Nov. 1, 1987
d. Not covered by Missouri well construction rules, but Clean Water
Commission rules recommend 300 feet and require a minimum of 100 feet.
e. Not covered by Missouri well construction rules, but April 15, 1989, Clean
Water Commission rules require a minimum of 300 feet.
Winds and odor complaints
Desirable separation distance from odor sources such as production buildings, feedlots, manure
storage structures, lagoons and land application areas is influenced by topography and prevailing
wind. Because the timing of land application is somewhat flexible, manure can usually be
applied when climatic conditions (wind direction, humidity) are most favorable. Fields in which
manure is surface applied need greater separation than fields in which manure is injected. Fewer
odor complaints about land application usually occur if the manure is treated in a lagoon,
injected into the soil, or immediately incorporated into the soil by tillage. However, be sure any
tillage operations are compatible with residue requirements of conservation plans.
Prevailing wind direction in relationship to non-owned residences is important, especially during
seasons when neighbors will be outside. If local knowledge is not available, wind data is
available from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration or from the Midwest Plan
Service Publication MWPS2, Farmstead Planning Handbook, which shows wind patterns for
many locations during the months of January and July.
Air drainage and odor complaints
During calm, humid periods, topography can funnel odors down drainage ways to distant
locations, especially to residences located in valleys. Odors traveling in this way can remain
intense over long distances. Topographical maps can show potential paths of air drainage.
Remember, odors following drainage patterns may be more offensive than odors carried by
prevailing winds.
Geological problems
Soils with low permeability are desirable for earthen manure storages to prevent groundwater
contamination. Much of the southern half of Missouri has highly permeable, gravelly, rocky,
sandy or block-structured red clay soils that may allow wastes to seep into the groundwater. Soil
surveys by the Natural Resources Conservation Service rate soils for many factors, including
permeability, drainage and suitability for manure lagoons, road fill and irrigation. A soils
investigation of the site is necessary to determine the availability of suitable clay for sealing
earthen manure storage structures.

Parts of southern Missouri, as well as areas along the Mississippi River and the lower portion of
the Missouri River have limestone deposits. These deposits may restrict the use of earthen
manure impoundments because of potential groundwater pollution. Be cautious when planning
animal feeding facilities in an area known to have sink holes and remember, if the facility site
has a high potential for a subsurface collapse, Missouri Department of Natural Resources will
not approve an earthen manure storage structure. In these cases, an alternate site must be
selected, or a concrete or steel tank used for storage.
Shallow bedrock creates problems in the installation of underground utilities such as water, gas,
or electric lines and may preclude the use of earthen storages for water or manure. A few hours
of investigation with a backhoe or a drilling rig may be necessary to properly evaluate a site. All
operations seeking a permit or a letter of approval must obtain a geologic evaluation of the site if
an earthen manure storage is planned. A geologic evaluation of the site for any earthen manure
storage is recommended. This service is provided by the Division of Geology and Land Survey,
Missouri Department of Natural Resources, 573-368-2100.
Streams and watercourses
Livestock facilities, especially open lots, should not be located close to streams and watercourses
or on steep land along these areas. Runoff should be contained and applied to a soil/plant filter.
Pastured livestock should be fenced out of streams along with a 50- to 300-foot wide grass,
forest (or combination) filter strip. Limited access to the stream may be an alternative watering
source for livestock
Drainage
Good surface and subsurface drainage around livestock facilities is important, but polluted water
must not leave the premises or enter the groundwater (Figure 3). Avoid building in a poorly
drained site, on a flood plain or on sites with seeps, springs or a high water table.
Figure 3
Open-lot systems should be located on
well-drained sites and runoff should be
controlled.
Dick Lee photo
Animal manure storage structures must
be located above the 25-year flood level.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers can
supply data on 25-year flood levels.

Additionally, the bottom of the storage structure must be located at least four feet above the
water table.
Slopes of 2 to 5 percent will usually provide surface drainage without erosion, depending on the
soil type. A 5 percent minimum slope away from building foundations is recommended, and
south slopes are preferred for livestock feeding areas. Buildings built on high ground can take
advantage of natural slopes for drainage and to obtain a 2 percent minimum slope on conduits to
lagoons. On slopes it may be necessary to divert surface runoff from facilities. It is advisable to
build roads along ridges to take advantage of drainage and reduce snow drifts.
Accessibility
A livestock operation should have good access to markets, preferably by means of statemaintained, hard-surfaced highways with bridges permitting large trucks. Prompt snow removal
is important. Avoid sites where the cost of constructing and maintaining the road from the
livestock operation to the public road will be excessive because of distance, required bridges,
snow drifting or other topographical or soils problems. This cost may be balanced against the
need to provide setback or separation distance between the operation and potential odor
receptors.
Utilities
Water
A year-round supply of water is essential for the animals, sanitation, workers and residences and
fire protection. Water may be needed for animal manure dilution and flush-cleaning facilities.
Public water supplies are expensive for watering livestock. Water consumption varies greatly
from winter to summer.
Tables 3 and 4 contain guidelines for daily drinking water requirements.
Table 3
Daily livestock water consumption
Animal type

Gallons per head per

day
Cold
weather

Cow/calf pairs

13

Hot
weather
30 to 35

Dairy cows (lactating)

29 to 35

35 to 45

Dry cows

13 to 16

20 to 30

Calves (1 to 1.5 gallons per day per 100 pounds

body weight)

12

Growing cattle, 400 to 800 pounds

4 to 8

8 to 15

Finishing cattle, 800 to 1200 pounds

8 to 11

15 to 22

Bred heifers (800 pounds)

7 to 10

10 to 15

Bulls (1500 pounds)

14

30

Sow and litter

Gestating sow, gilt, boar

Nursery pigs

0.6

Growing pigs

Finishing pigs

Feeder lambs (30 to 110 pounds)

1.5

Dry ewes (150 to 200 pounds)

Ewes

Ewe with lambs (5 to 30 pounds)

3.5

Rams (180 to 300)

Horses

12

Table 4
Daily water consumption per 100 birds for chickens and turkeys
Age
Chickens

Turkeys

Gallons

1 to 3 weeks

0.6 to 1.8

6 to 10 weeks

3.0 to 4.2

9 to 13 weeks

3.6 to 4.8

Laying hens, moderate temperatures

4.8 to 7.2

Laying hens, 90 degrees

8.4

1 to 3 weeks

7.8 to 18.0

9 to 13 weeks

60 to 96

15 to 19 weeks

120

High-yield wells with acceptable water quality are not universally available in the northwest onethird of Missouri (Figure 4). For further information about potential well yields and water quality
for Missouri aquifers, contact the Water Resources Program, Division of Geology and Land
Survey, Missouri Department of Natural Resources, 573-368-2190. Where high-capacity wells
are not available, surface water supplies (ponds/lakes) are an alternative, especially for watering
livestock and for cleaning operations. A standby water supply may be as desirable for a large
livestock operation as is a standby electrical system.
Figure 4
The shaded portion of this map indicates areas in which the more productive aquifers contain
highly mineralized water.

Source
Missouri DNR, Division of Geology
and Land Survey
A properly sealed, high-capacity, deep well is
usually preferred. Shallow wells are more
likely to become contaminated from surface
runoff or deep percolation. The well(s) should
be located away from possible contamination
sources such as lagoons, livestock lots, septic
tanks and septic fields. For deep wells with
sealed casings that draw water from bedrock
formations, the recommended distance from
contamination sources is 300 feet; depending
on the potential contaminant source, the
minimum distance is 100 feet (Table 2). For unsealed wells and water from unconsolidated
formations such as sand or gravel, 1,000 feet from contamination sources is recommended with
300 feet as the minimum distance.
Electricity
Electrical demand may be high for large animal feeding operations, especially for pumping,
grinding and materials handling. Unless a three-phase line is nearby, the cost of providing such a
line for the large motors that require three-phase power can be costly.
Livestock operations subject to frequent power outages may feel compelled to install a standby
power source. Outages are more likely if the site is far removed from the electrical substation.
Soil/plant filter
Harvested crops or forage that use large amounts of nutrients are best suited for sustainability of
the soil/plant filter. Because soil nutrients on pastureland tend to be recycled rather than
removed, nutrient applications to pastureland are less efficient than applications to forage or
crops that will be harvested.
Slope
To reduce the possibility of runoff, select fairly level sites. If a sloping site is unavoidable, it may
be necessary to apply the manure by injection. Application sites with slopes greater than 6
percent should be in grass vegetation or must use soil conservation practices that meet NRCS
standards. Manure should not be used on fields or sites having a slope greater than 12 percent
unless prior approval is obtained from the Missouri Department of Natural Resources. The
maximum allowable slope of the application area is 20 percent. Slopes of 10 to 20 percent may

require provisions, such as reduced rates of effluent application and water runoff protection
measures, to prevent potential discharge of nutrients and pathogens.
Soil permeability
For application of lagoon effluent by irrigation, the surface soil permeability rate must be higher
than the application rate to prevent runoff. Soil permeability rates of 0.2 to 2.0 inches per hour
are suitable for irrigation. All operations seeking a permit or a letter of approval must obtain a
soils investigation of the site. NRCS or consulting soil scientists generally provide this service.
The Missouri Clean Water Commission rules for application rate on various soils are as follows:
The hourly application rate should not exceed the sustained permeability rate except for short
periods when initial soil moisture is significantly below field capacity. The hourly rate should not
exceed half the sustained permeability rate for slopes exceeding 10 percent. However, in no case
should the application rate be greater than 0.5 inch per hour. For soil permeability of less than 0.2
inch per hour, the designed maximum application rate should be as low as practicable and should
not exceed 0.2 inch per hour. In no case should the application rate result in the runoff of applied
effluent during or immediately after application. Application of effluent to saturated soils is
prohibited.
Area requirements for the soil/plant filter
Animal manure should be applied to the land as a plant nutrient and should always be managed
so that runoff does not occur. Application rates should be based on soil tests and predicted crop
removal considerations. This will ensure efficient use of the resource and prevent
overapplication. Application rates based on nitrogen will likely lead to overapplication of
phosphorus, if applications continue year after year. Soil testing will indicate excessive
phosphorus build-up in the soil and potential environmental problems. Adequate land should be
available for the required soil/plant filter area plus an allowance for the areas required for the
minimum separation distances for manure application and an odor buffer area between the
livestock operation and neighbors.
The separation distances required by the Missouri Department of Natural Resources (Missouri
DNR) for the land application area are as follows:

300 feet from losing streams, sinkholes, caves, wells, abandoned wells,
water supply structures or impoundments and any other connection
between surface and groundwater.

100 feet from permanent flowing streams.

50 feet from intermittent flowing streams.

50 feet from property lines.

100 feet from a privately owned impoundment not used as a water

supply.

150 feet from dwellings or public use areas if applied with spray
irrigation systems.

50 feet from dwellings or public use areas if application is by a tank

wagon or solid spreader.

These separation distances may drastically reduce the area available for land application of
manure.
Areas with flood frequencies greater than once in 10 years should not be the only land available
for land application of stored animal nutrients.
Lagoons minimize the acreage required for the soil/plant filter. For example, one acre of
soil/plant filter may be sufficient for 10,000 pounds of beef animals if their manure is treated in a
lagoon, whereas it may be sufficient for only 2,000 pounds of beef animals if the manure is
handled as a slurry or as a solid. Avoid being dependent on other landowners for the necessary
manure application area (soil/plant filter area).

TYPES OF ROOFING
Living place or house of cattle is simply known as cattle housing. Good housing is required for
raising cattle. Because suitable housing is needed for keeping the cattle safe from storm, rain,
sun, hot temperature, excessive cold climate and other adverse weather conditions. The cattle
also need to be kept inside the house if you have not sufficient amount of grazing place. So you
must have to make a good house for your animals. You can make cattle housing or mini dairy
farm by using proper plan and your local available facilities. This will ensure more profit by
investing little capital. Do the followings while making house for your cattle.

The selected place for housing will be higher than other places surrounding the house, so
that you can easily remove rain water and other materials.

Soil of the selected place will be fertile and enriched with sand and must have to be dry
always.

Ensure the entrance of sufficient air and light inside the house. Because sunlight helps to
dry the house and help to prevent germs or virus.

South faced houses are very comfortable for the cattle.

It will be better if the houses are not surrounded by many trees.

Dont let the house to damp anyhow.

Make a proper drainage system inside the cattle house, so that you can easily remove
excreta and trash. Excreta and trash are suitable place for mosquito, flies and other
parasites or virus and your cattle can get affected by various types of diseases easily.

You can make a simple cattle house by using bamboo pillar, straw and roof of leaves.

You can also make the house by using tree pillar and with a roof of tin. In this system,
you have to make a ceiling under the roof to keep the cattle free from hot temperature.

It will be better, if the houses are surrounded by bamboo or net fence made with strong
wire.

Keep 5 squire miter space per cattle inside the house.

Keep a separate place for rearing calf.

Dont make the floor of the house smooth.

Always clean the floor and never make it slippery.

Make the house in such a way so that it become a safe and suitable living place for the
cattle.

The height of the house will be about 9 to 10 feet.

Always keep sufficient amount of drinking water inside the cattle housing system.

Keep some free space inside the house for freely movement of the animals.

Try to keep the house dry, neat and clean always.

Keep the excreta and trash of cattle in a separate place, slightly far from their house.
These materials can be used as fertilizer in the crop field.

Make proper supply of fresh and clean water inside the cattle housing system. Also
ensure a good water source for washing the cattle, house, equipment etc.

House Construction
Cattle house are made depending on weather condition, geographical position and economic
condition. Cattle housing design varies from region to region. So there are no proper cattle
housing design which are appropriate for rearing cattle worldwide. Farmers of different countries
make different types of cattle house which are suitable for them. On an average cattle house are
of two types. Open housing method and fixed cattle housing method.
Open Housing Method
In open cattle housing method, cattle are kept inside the house for whole day except milking and
delivery time. But in adverse weather conditions like storm, rain, hot or cold, they are moved to a
safe place. A cattle needs about 3.5 to 7 squire meter place in open cattle housing method. This
type of houses are suitable for big sized calf and non milk productive cattle. Almost all types of
animal can be kept in this house. Open housing is suitable for all locations throughout the world.
But the design of the house can be different depending on the excessive hot or cold areas.

Fixed Housing Method

In this method the cattle are tied up with rope and the rope obstructed with a pillar. Feeding and
milking process done in the same place. Try to clean the house regularly and make the house in
such a way which is very comfortable for the cattle. Fixed cattle house are of two types. One row
and two row cattle house.

One Row Cattle House: This type of houses are suitable for little number of cattle.
Make the house according to the number of your cattle. A cattle needs about 165 cm
standing place, 105 cm side place and 75 cm feeding pot. Make partition with iron pipe to
separate the cattle from one to another. The partition pipe needs to be 90 cm long and 45
cm in height.

Two Row Cattle House: This type of houses are suitable for commercial cattle farming
business. The animals can be kept in both face to face and opposite to each other system.
In face to face system, cattle are kept in two rows faces to each other. Food pot are kept
between the two cattle row. In this system the cattle need about 5.5 feet standing place
and 3.5 feet place in side. In opposite to each other method, cattle are kept in two rows.
Their mouth faces to outside. Keep about 4 feet place between the two row. In this
method each cattle will require about 5.5 feet place.

Keep the cattle house dry and clean always. Remove the excreta from house frequently. Do this
at least twice a day. If the house become unhealthy and damping, then the cattle will get affected
by various types of diseases easily. So it will be better if you make concrete floor inside the cattle
housing system. Dont make the floor slippery. Make a drainage system inside the house to clean
the house properly.
Flooring Considerations for Dairy Cows
Dairy September 28, 2012
Introduction
Many aspects of a dairy cow housing barn influence the overall environment experienced by the
cows. One of the major aspects is the flooring system employed. Cows housed in modern
freestall barns spend 10 to 12 hours per day on their feet. Lameness is a consistent problem with
confined dairy cows and represents one of the major reasons cows are culled from the herd.
When lameness is not controlled, dairy producers suffer substantial economic loss. Lameness has
been shown to be followed by delayed estrus, poor breeding performance, shortened lactation,
low yield of milk fat, and a sudden drop in body weight (Dewes, 1978), all of which cost the
dairy producer money. Poor-quality floors can be a major contributor to lameness.

Experience has shown that attention to detail is required during the construction process to
provide a cow-friendly floor. Characteristics of a floor that can be used to define it as cowfriendly include a floor that:
1. provides a relatively dry walking surface,
2. provides confident and comfortable footing, and
3. is durable.
Additionally, intuition tells us that at least a portion, if not all, of the flooring surface should have
resilient characteristics in order to offer a cow reprieve from hard concrete.
Floors also need to be designed and constructed so they are structurally sound. This will ensure
that original floor characteristics will last for some time.
Please check this link first if you are interested in organic or specialty dairy production.
Cows and Concrete Floors
Concrete floors that are roughened in an attempt to preclude slippage can wear hooves
excessively, and smooth floors do not offer sufficient traction. There is a fine line between a
concrete floor surface that is too rough and causes injury due to abrasion and one that is too
smooth and causes injury because of inadequate footing. Experience has shown that the finish on
a floor is often the biggest mistake made during barn construction. Rough finished floors will
speed foot wear by up to 20 percent, with cows being culled in three weeks of new barn
occupancy due to lameness (Bray, 1998).
Desirable characteristics of a grooved concrete floor include:
1. Flat surface between grooves,
2. Smooth surface between grooves,
3. Smooth groove edges with a right angle between the groove and the
floor surface, and
4. Proper groove width, spacing, and depth.
Cast-In-Place Concrete Floors
By far, the most prevalent flooring surface in new and older barns alike is cast-in-place concrete.
Concrete is attractive to use because it is durable, economical, relatively easy to place, conforms
to irregular areas well, and can be finished in various ways to provide some level of traction to

dairy cows. Traction by the cow is traditionally provided by creating parallel grooves or groove
patterns in the concrete surface. In special instances, anti-slip aggregates applied to the concrete
surface and epoxy floor coatings can also be utilized.
In many cases, the method employed to provide traction for cows is based on a producers or
contractors individual experiences and preferences and/or the tools currently in-hand to
accomplish the task. While this may be acceptable in some cases, it is generally best if the design
of the floor finish is based on enhancing the traction offered to the cow by maximizing
characteristics of the cows sole that are largely responsible for her overall stability.
In determining how to best provide traction for cows, the recommended dimensions, orientation,
and configuration of grooves and patterns should be known. Then this information can be used to
determine how to best apply grooves or patterns to a concrete surface.
Groove Dimensions, Orientation, and Configuration
There is a lack of consensus between references reviewed regarding the most appropriate
dimensions, orientation, and configuration of grooves or patterns installed in concrete to create a
slip-resistant floor. It appears that two schools of thought exist relative to grooving concrete.
The first theory is to space grooves in such a way that they provide an edge to catch a cows hoof
after slippage initiates. For example, Albright (1995) reports that grooves can be spaced from 4
to 8 inches apart. MWPS-7 (2000) recommends that 1/2 to 1 inch wide parallel grooves with a
depth of up to 3/8 inch should be spaced 4 to 5 inches on center with alignment parallel to alley
length when flushing or alley scrape manure removal is used. If a diamond pattern is desired,
MWPS-7 (2000) indicates it can be constructed using the same groove dimensions with the
spacing adjusted to 6 inches on center. Bray (1998) reports that grooves should be 1/2 inch wide
and 3/8 inch deep, spaced 3-3/4 inches on center; grooves should be first cut parallel to the
longitudinal direction of the alley and then cross-grooved.
With grooves spaced at these distances, slippage may occur before the hoof contacts a groove.
The other theory is to space grooves closer together so that at least one of the four primary hoof
contact surfaces lands in a groove when a foot is put down, preventing initial slip. This theory is
based on research conducted by Dumelow (1993). Dumelow looked at the slippage of a
simulated hoof on various grooved concrete surfaces topped with dairy manure. Dumelow
concluded the following for creating a floor that provides confident footing.
1. Space parallel grooves 1.5 inches apart.
2. Grooves lateral to the cows backbone produce less slip than
longitudinal grooves.

1 Maximum traction is provided by creating a regular pattern of

hexagons with sides of 1.8 inches in length, as shown in Figure 1.
1 Groove width should not exceed 0.40 inches.

In practice, creating a hexagonal pattern in concrete is difficult to properly accomplish. Orienting

parallel grooves perpendicular to the length of an alley will maximize their effectiveness for
cows, but may compromise manure removal. Graves et al. (1997) recommends installing 3/8 to
1/2 inch wide by 3/8 to 1/2 inch deep grooves spaced 2 to 3 inches on center parallel to the
direction of scraper travel.
The recommended dimensions for parallel grooving a concrete alley in one direction are shown
in Figure 2.

Parallel grooves can be created while concrete is setting up or after it has initially cured.
Stamped patterns are created while the concrete is still green. Each method is discussed below
along with its respective advantages and disadvantages.
Parallel Grooves In Green Concrete
Bullfloating is a standard task that is performed when constructing concrete slabs-on-grade after
screeding takes place. The primary purpose of bullfloating concrete is to eliminate high and low
spots (birdbaths) and to embed large aggregate particles below the finished surface.
Commercially available bronze grooving attachments can be attached to standard bullfloats and
be used to create grooves in freshly placed concrete. By using many of these grooving
attachments at once on a bullfloat, parallel grooves can be created. Thumbscrews on each
attachment allow for lateral adjustment relative to the bullfloat, allowing the bullfloat operator to
change the distance between grooves as needed. Grooves can also be installed with a homemade
beveled groover fabricated from plywood and wood strips (see MWPS-7 [2000] for details).
Proper moisture content of the concrete makes for easier grooving by the bullfloat operator and
results in a quality finished product. Bullfloating grooves should be formed after the concrete has
been placed and screeded but before any excess bleed water accumulates on the surface (when
normal bullfloating should occur). When the concrete is too wet, the bullfloat is hard to operate
due to increased resistance and the grooves tend to fill in with the recently displaced concrete.
When the concrete is too dry, the grooving attachments will not fully penetrate the concrete
surface, resulting in less than desirable groove depths, exposed aggregates along the edge of the
grooves, and consequently a poorly finished product.
Practical experience is needed in order to become proficient at creating a quality grooved floor
with the bullfloat grooving method. After experience is obtained, a worker can groove a floor
rather rapidly compared to installing grooves with the stamp method (discussed below).
However, even experienced crews can fall behind in their work because of erratic delivery of
ready-mix concrete to the job site, resulting in a poor grooving job. Another plus for floating

grooves versus stamping is due to the inherent nature of the bullfloat tool: the concrete material
displaced by each attached groover is smoothed by the bullfloat passing over the surface of the
concrete. This produces grooves without sharp or rough edges and exposed aggregates.
The cost to install parallel grooves in one direction by this method varies between 10 and 20
cents per square foot.
Cut Grooves
New concrete floors can also be grooved after initial curing takes place. Older concrete floors
can be re-grooved as needed to enhance traction. A saw similar to that used to cut expansion
joints in concrete roadways can be adapted with a series of diamond dato blades to cut grooves in
cured concrete.
Cutting grooves in hardened concrete eliminates the need for the concrete contractor to have
experience with grooving wet concrete and the requirement for time-sensitive completion.
Concrete slabs-on-grade for use as barn alleys can be placed, screeded, floated, and lightly
troweled to provide satisfactory results by readily available concrete finishing crews. Then,
another contractor that specializes in grooving concrete alleys can be hired.
Dairy producers report that the cost to have parallel grooves cut into initially cured concrete is 40
cents per square foot for grooving in one direction and 80 cents per square foot for twodirectional grooving.
Stamped Patterns
Diamond and hexagonal patterns can be created in green concrete by using a metal stamp.
Usually, the metal stamp is fabricated from round stock material that is cut and meticulously
welded together. The stamp has a metal handle assembly attached, allowing it to be pushed into
and removed from the concrete surface while workers are in a standing position. The stamp must
be moved several times to fully pattern a barn alley. A stamp is one possible way to create the
hexagonal pattern recommended by Dumelow.
Personal experience has shown that stamping concrete is more difficult to accomplish properly
than bullfloat grooving, and stamping is very sensitive to concrete moisture conditions. Concrete
that is too wet will tend to stick to the stamp causing undesirable rough edges and a sloppy
finish. Concrete that is too dry will bulge up in the inner space between each round stock
member used to form the pattern. This bulging of concrete results in the floor having several
convex areas that do not uniformly support cows hooves. Also, when the concrete bulges, it
usually cracks on the surface. The quantity of cracks and their size depend on the moisture
content of the concrete at the time the stamp was applied, the design of the stamp, and how far it
was pushed into the concrete. Surface cracks like this are not desired as they provide an opening

for moisture to penetrate, potentially causing premature floor deterioration due to freeze-thaw
action.
Concrete that has a rough, abrasive final finish after stamping can be remediated by dragging
concrete blocks behind a tractor or skid-steer loader for several passes. This process should be
done before the problem areas are populated with cows. Walking on the concrete floor
comfortably with bare feet is a good way to determine if the floor will be acceptable for cows.
Anti-Slip Aggregates
Milking center cow decks, areas in and around remotely located restraint facilities, and cattle
loading chutes are all locations where cows and people interact. This interaction may be
accepted, or at least tolerated by a cow, depending on several factors including her past
experiences in the given area. In certain circumstances, human contact or perceived human
contact by the cow may frighten her, and she may try to flee from the objectionable area. The
lack of confident footing while attempting to flee may cause hoof slip and trigger additional
anxiety. For this reason, extra attention needs to be dedicated to providing adequate flooring in
these areas.
Welchert and Armstrong (1992) present one possible solution for providing enhanced traction in
potentially high anxiety areas. They describe how to top newly placed, uncured concrete with a
dry shake mix composed of three parts anti-slip aggregates (aluminum oxide or corundum) and
one part Portland cement by weight. Welchert and Armstrong (1992) give a complete description
of how to accomplish this process. A brief synopsis of the procedure is as follows. After the
shake mix is prepared, it is hand applied at a rate of 60 to 100 pounds per 100 square feet of floor
space after the concrete has been placed, screeded, and floated and surface water has
disappeared. Subsequent to application, the mix is power floated lightly to partially imbed the
anti-slip aggregates and then steel trowelled until the aggregate surface is uniform and lightly
textured.
When applied as prescribed, Welchert and Armstrong (1992) report that the resulting floor
surface will be non-slip and highly wear resistant. Floor life is estimated to be 20 years as
opposed to seven years for regular floors.
One of the authors experiences with the application of a dry shake mix resulted in two cow
decks in a new milking center with an unacceptable level of traction. The reason for the poor
outcome can be attributed to the finishing crews inexperience with the dry shake mix application
process. This is a sensitive process, and only crews experienced with applying a dry shake mix
for the intended final application should be used. Otherwise, an extremely hard floor surface will
most likely result that offers no enhancement of traction over a hard troweled concrete floor.

It should be emphasized that a dry shake mix should not be used in freestall alleys or other areas
frequented by cows several hours per day. Experience has shown that excessive wear of cows
hooves will result, causing the need to prematurely cull many animals from the herd soon after
barn population (Martin, 1999).
Epoxy Floor Coatings
A carefully selected epoxy flooring system, which is appropriate for the application, can be
employed to improve cow traction. Epoxy flooring is most applicable as a surface rejuvenation
agent to relatively small areas that can be made free of cow traffic for a few consecutive days.
Ample time is needed to properly prepare the existing floor (which is crucial to final product
durability), apply the product, and allow for proper curing. Additionally, the cost normally
associated with an appropriate quality epoxy flooring material is usually high and hinders its use
on a wide-scale basis.
Cow decks in milking centers that operate less than 12 hours per day are the primary candidates
for installing an epoxy flooring system. The epoxy coating works well for this application since
it can be cleanly installed around the structural support post for each milking stall. To facilitate
installation, cows can be milked on one side of the parlor while work is undertaken on the other
side. After the first side is completed, milking sides can be switched and the other side can be
treated.
The U.S. Naval Academy dairy, located outside of Annapolis, Maryland, installed an epoxy
flooring system in their milking parlor to remedy poor floor conditions in about 1982. In fall
1995, it was noted that the floor appeared to be holding up well. The herdsperson reported that
the cows had experienced no significant slippage problems since the epoxy floor was originally
installed.
When considering the use of an epoxy flooring system, contractors and producers must do their
homework to ensure that the product they are considering will provide a cow-friendly surface. It
is recommended that a manufacturers product specialist be consulted to discuss the application
before a final product is chosen. Strict adherence to the manufacturers recommended surface
preparation and product application procedures is required to achieve a durable final product.
Construction Considerations
Concrete slabs-on-grade constructed for use as alleys and walkways in cow barns need to be
designed and constructed following good concrete practices. Poorly designed and/or constructed
slabs will fall short in characteristics that make it cow-friendly initially or over time.
Concrete slabs-on-grade are only as good as the subbase material they are constructed over.
Well-compacted gravel fill material with a minimum depth of 8 inches is generally recommended
as a subbase material. A subbase serves to provide more uniform support for the slab than if it

were carried directly on the natural ground and to improve the drainage of water from beneath
the slab, particularly important to locations subject to freezing and thawing.
Concrete should be procured from a readi-mix plant that uses a mix design that has been
laboratory tested. Minimal water is needed for hydration of Portland cement, and additional
water should not be added at the construction site, as excess water will reduce the final strength
and durability of the concrete. Concrete with a slump of 4 inches or less is recommended. If
additional workability is desired by the concrete crew, the use of a concrete admixture specially
formulated to enhance workability without sacrificing final strength is recommended.
Concrete slabs need to be reinforced to resist loading, restrained shrinkage, and thermal
displacements. The addition of Fibermesh reinforcement to readi-mix concrete is a contractor
friendly and a very successful way to provide needed reinforcement. Fibermesh is essentially
polypropylene fibers that are hair-like in nature. Field experience has shown that the use of
Fibermesh as a reinforcing material outperforms woven wire mesh with respect to labor required
for installation and slab crack control.
After concrete is placed, it should be cured for 5 days by preventing moisture from escaping.
Several methods can be used, but the most popular are covering the top and exposed edges of the
slab with a plastic film membrane or applying a spray-on sealer. Other measures are needed to
provide proper curing conditions in hot and freezing conditions (see PCA, 1979).
Concrete alleys in freestall barns are of sufficient length and are placed in such a manner that
joints are required. Three types of joints are used when constructing most concrete slabs-ongrade: expansion joints, contraction joints, and construction joints.
Expansion Joints
Expansion joints, sometimes called isolation joints, permit movement between an alley slab and
fixed elements such as water trough bases. They are also generally used around structural
columns to avoid uncontrolled cracking of the slab over the column base. Typically a
compressible material of about inch thickness is placed between the slab and the fixed
member, as shown in the Figure 3, and a joint sealing compound is placed over the expansion
material after the slab is constructed.

Contraction Joints
When concrete cures (hardens), it shrinks. As it shrinks, tension is created in slab-on-grades due
to the frictional resistance developed between the bottom of the slab and its gravel subbase
material. Tension is also created in the slab with low temperatures due to contraction. Concrete is
very weak in tension compared to when loaded in compression, resulting in slab cracking.
Contraction (crack control) joints are used to ensure that shrinkage cracks will be straight, in a
regular pattern, and protected from the elements. They are usually constructed by sawcutting the
slab within one or two days after concrete placement to a depth of about a quarter of the total
slab thickness, as shown in Figure 4. A liquid sealer is poured in the sawcut to prevent moisture
from penetrating the crack and causing freeze-thaw damage. Slab reinforcement, if used, is
usually continued without interruption across contraction joints. They may be doweled as well, to
improve load transfer. Contraction joints are best located at intervals of structural post spacing
since alley slabs will tend to crack at post locations (if the slab is placed adjacent to a building
column) and are cut laterally across the slab. The maximum spacing between contraction joints is
generally recommended to be no more than 20 feet.

Construction Joints
Construction joints are required wherever operations must be discontinued and later resumed. A
true construction joint permits neither vertical nor horizontal movement between slab sections,
and must usually be provided with tie bars and possibly a keyway as well. Because such joints
are troublesome and expensive to construct, they are often avoided by terminating the work at
expansion or contraction joints. A contraction joint used for this purpose should be provided with
a shear key.
Pre-Cast Concrete Slatted Floors
Pre-cast concrete slatted floors (slats) were primarily developed to reduce the amount of daily
labor required to clean barn alleys and as a means to passively transfer liquid manure directly to
a storage or gravity collection gutter located immediately below the barn alley. Slats have been
used in most cow-frequented areas associated with confined housing systems including alleys
between rows of stalls, adjacent to feeding surfaces, transfer lanes, and in milking center holding
areas. Additionally, some producers locate slats at the ends of poured-in-place concrete alleys
with the intention of using them as scraped manure drop sites. However, slats are not designed
for this application, and therefore this practice is not recommended. The relatively large volume
of manure deposited in an alley will not effectively drop through the few narrow slots of a slatted
floor located at the alleys end. A 8 to 10 inch wide continuous slot positioned transversely in
each alley will provide adequate space for scraped manure to drop through into a storage pit or
gravity flow pipe located below.
Slats are available in two basic configurations: conventional slats and waffle slats. McFarland
(1994) reports that conventional slats have a 1-3/4 to 2 inch slotted opening that spans the width
of an alley, and between each slot is a 6 to 8 inch wide tread. The MidWest Plan Service
Livestock Waste Facilities Handbook (1993) states that the distance between slats for dairy cows
should be 1-1/2 to 1-3/4 inches. Albright (1995) and Kirchner and Boxberger (1987) recommend
that a slot width should not exceed 1-1/4 inches with a maximum tread width of 3-1/4 inches, as
these dimensions avoid excessive pressure on the cows sole and help to prevent feces buildup on
the slats.
A more recent slatted floor configuration, called waffle slats, is popular in Pennsylvania and
other areas of the country. This design uses a series of openings approximately 1-3/4 inches by 8
inches spaced about 3 inches lengthwise and 5 to 6 inches apart (McFarland, 1994). An isometric
drawing of a waffle slat floor section is shown in Figure 5.

Little conclusive research appears to exist relative to the impact of slats on foot health and cow
behavior. Reports suggest that slats can cause foot problems and reduce assertive behavior,
resulting in less estrous detection. On the other hand, they have been shown to lower the
incidence of lameness due to interdigital dermatitis when compared to solid floors. Observation
has shown that when given a choice, cows prefer to walk on solid flooring or floors covered with
a rubber surface than on slatted flooring.
Alternative Flooring Surfaces
Foot and leg stress increases for cows when they stand on a concrete surface for extended
periods of time. Standing on concrete is directly related to the development of hoof lesions
(Bergsten, 1988). Many producers who have confinement facilities recognize this fact and
usually try to give cows a reprieve from concrete by moving them to managed grassed areas or to
earthen lots, when environmentally appropriate, during the dry period. This practice has been
shown to be beneficial to overall foot and leg health. However, the level of dairy animal
confinement will most likely continue to increase with time due to economic and environmental
factors. Some form of an alternative flooring surface may be a large component of the overall
solution that is needed to provide a satisfactory level of foot and leg health and improve cow
welfare for lifelong confined cattle.
Guard (2000) reports that claws of confined dairy cattle are commonly shaped in less than
desirable forms, and misshapen claws will experience extreme localized pressures created by
unforgiving surfaces. High pressures are reported to contribute greatly to damage of underlying
hoof structures. Durable flooring surfaces that are forgiving and conform to the cows hoof and
are economical to install should be considered. Guard (2000) suggests barn floors should be

surfaced with something other than concrete and that, combined with routine trimming, may
prevent many cases of severe lameness.
Perhaps the initial reason many producers employed alternative flooring surfaces was to increase
cow comfort at the feed bunk and hope that dry matter intake would correspondingly increase.
Consequently, many producers are installing rubber belting in a 6-foot wide portion of the scrape
alley adjacent to the feed bunk. One thought may be that perhaps cows would stand longer at the
feed bunk and thus would be tempted to take that extra mouthful of food. Research is needed to
determine the potential economic gain of this practice.
Alternative flooring surfaces are usually best installed flush with adjacent concrete surfaces by
recessing the floor where the product is to be placed. Otherwise, adjustments will need to be
made to manure scraper blades to accommodate an uneven alley if such manure removal systems
are employed. Alternatively, rubber floor surfaces can be surface mounted at the feeding area and
as a designated walking strip if manure is removed by a flush system or if the rubber covers the
entire alley. These various locations and placements for installing rubber flooring are shown in
Figure 6.

When evaluating whether to cover part or all of the concrete alleys with rubber flooring, little
research is available to aid in making this decision. Observation has shown that cows prefer to
walk on rubber flooring instead of concrete, to the point where cow flow is hampered due to
cows waiting to gain access to the rubber-floored portion of the alley. From a capital cost
standpoint, rubber flooring costs approximately 10 times as much as grooving concrete
(assuming a concrete floor is required in both instances). If the concrete alley is recessed to
receive a rubber floor, an additional construction labor cost is incurred for the extra concrete
forming required. Approximate cost for each additional form board erection and subsequent pour
needed beyond those required for a normal alley is $1.00 per linear foot.
Required Characteristics of Alternative Flooring Materials
Materials installed to enhance cow comfort and well-being must also be capable of withstanding
the barns many environmental factors. Flooring materials are subjected to repetitive
compressive loads from cows hooves and manure removal and bedding delivery equipment.
Turning cows and equipment create torsional loads. Shear loads are developed when cows and
equipment move across the floor. Temperature variations can cause thermal expansion and
contraction. Automatic alley scrapers and skid-steer loader blades cause abrasion forces when
they pass over a floor. Skid-steer loaders used when bedding stalls probably exert the most force
on a floor surface due to the short, quick turns performed by the operator. Experience has shown
that most rubber flooring products fail as a result of material failure around mechanical fasteners.
Alternative Flooring Material Options
Flooring alternatives to a traditional concrete surface include, but are not limited to, reclaimed
rubber belting, rolled rubber flooring, rubber mats, and poured-in-place rubber flooring. All
options require a concrete or another non-forgiving base material to provide support and a means
to anchor the product. These alternative flooring products are most easily installed during new
construction but sometimes can also be retrofitted into existing facilities with various degrees of
preparation effort. Each option is discussed below.
Reclaimed Rubber Belting
Much of the rubber belting used in dairy barns has been reclaimed from the mining industry
where it was once used as aggregate conveyor belt. Because of the varying nature of the belts
relative to the source manufacturer and their original application, reclaimed rubber beIting
marketed to the dairy producer can have varying levels of hardness. Jackson (1999) reported the
A-shore scale durometer reading is typically between 70 and 85 for most reclaimed belting that
is being used for floor surfaces. The thickness of the carbon steel reinforced belt varies between
3/4 and 1-1/4 inches depending on the original manufacturer of the material. The heavy-duty
nature of the belting allows it to hold up very well in a barn environment when properly
installed. In a limited case, the metal reinforcing cables had been pulled from a section of the belt
resulting in a potentially hazardous situation for the cows.

Belting can be custom cut in various widths and lengths to meet particular needs and is delivered
to the project site in large rolls. Additional traction may be obtained by grooving the belt
material, and this can be performed by the reclaimed belting supplier. Personal experience has
shown that non-grooved belting topped with urine and manure can be slick.
The market price for grooved rubber belting is approximately $2.75 per square foot (freight and
installation cost are extra).
Rolled Rubber Flooring
Rolled rubber flooring is similar to the rubber belting discussed above, but it is not a surplus
product. Several manufacturers are currently producing this material for the dairy industry. One
manufacturers product is composed of 40 percent post-consumer, 60 percent post-industrial
recycled material that is fiber reinforced with nylon/polyester chords. The fiber reinforcement
makes this product easier to cut in the field than the metal cable reinforced belting. Another
advantage of this product is that its thickness and hardness are more consistent from roll to roll,
which is not necessarily the case with using reclaimed belting. The durometer reading for one
product is reported by the manufacturer to be 80+5 on the A-shore scale. This indicates that this
material is about the same relative hardness as the reclaimed belting, offering about the same
level of resiliency per unit thickness. Their standard roll dimensions are 1/2 inch thick, 4 feet
wide, and 150 feet long. Another manufacturer sells a rolled product that is manufactured with a
high percentage of virgin rubber. Virgin rubber products seem to be more durable in a barn
environment than those comprised of mostly recycled materials.
A ballpark price for the rolled rubber flooring material is about the same as for reclaimed rubber
belting (between $2.50 and $2.75 per sq. ft.). Products that use a percentage of virgin rubber are
usually higher.
Rubber Mats
Rubber mats are many times identical in composition to rolled rubber flooring if produced from
the same manufacturer. Mat sizes are typically available in either rectangular or square
configurations with dimensions ranging from 4 to 6 feet. Some mats are puzzle cut on the ends
with a water jet cutting tool at the factory. Both the square cut end and the puzzle cut end need to
be secured to a base material to ensure they remain in place.
Constructed In-Place Rubber Floor
Another consideration for providing a resilient surface for cows is a constructed in-place rubber
floor. This type of flooring material is comparable to that used in athletic running tracks found at
some athletic facilities. Such surfaces are highly resilient. Contacts made to a few major material
suppliers and installation contractors revealed that neither have provided or installed their
materials for a dairy housing application, but they believe that their floors should be able to
endure the environmental factors found in a barn. Contacts were quick to mention that they

routinely installed their products in horse stalls and in riding arenas and that product service has
met customer expectations. Much of the following information was obtained by discussing the
application of the contacts product specifically to the dairy industry.
In general, installing a constructed in-place rubber floor is similar to pouring a concrete slab-ongrade. Ground post-consumer rubber (aggregates) and a urethane resin (Portland cement and
water) are proportioned and mixed together in a stationary batch mixer. The resulting product is
placed between forms, screeded to the desired depth, troweled, and finally cured before putting it
into service. The material placement process can be performed manually for smaller jobs or with
special paving equipment that lays the material in 11-foot wide strips for larger projects. Like
concrete, this process has optimum temperature and humidity ranges that must exist in order to
obtain a quality final product.
Application thickness can vary between 1/2 to 1-1/2 inches. With a concrete base, one installer
indicated an application of 1/2 inch is sufficient for horse stalls. If compacted stone is solely used
as a base material, a 1-1/2 thick rubber floor is needed. When the product is applied properly to a
clean, moisture-free base and has cured, contacts indicate that it should stick to the base
indefinitely. A urethane sealer can be used to seal the top of the floor after it has cured, enhancing
wear resistance and preventing moisture penetration.
Initial cost and lack of a dairy application proven product are the prevailing reasons why dairy
producers have avoided using it. One estimated price to install a 1/2 inch thick floor in all alleys
of a new 200-foot long 6-row freestall barn was $2.75 per square foot. A 1-1/2 inch thick
application was $5.40 per square foot. A closer look at the cost of the raw products indicates that
the material needed to construct a 1/2 inch thick floor should be able to be purchased for around
$1.00 per sq. ft. (Jackson, 1999). The high price quotes are comparable to the prices acceptable
to the equine industry.
While this type of rubber flooring system has not been proven in the dairy industry, it appears to
be the type of flooring system that may meet the needs of the cows.
Securing Rubber Flooring Products
The following paragraphs pertain to rolled and sheet rubber flooring materials.
Securing of rubber floors to a substrate is commonly done with mechanical fasteners (hardened
nails). Fasteners need to be highly resistive to the corrosive nature of urine and manure. Stainless
steel fasteners will outlast carbon steel fasteners. However, experience has shown that most
rubber floors will fail before the fastener sufficiently corrodes to the point of failure. In the case
of floor failure, usually the rubber material around the fastener fails and not the fastener itself.
Manufacturers of rubber products for barn flooring should consider reinforcing the area around
the fastening sites in order to better endure applied loads.

Flooring installation contractors should follow flooring manufacturing or supplier

recommendations, when they exist, when securing rubber floors in place. One supplier suggests
using corrosion-resistant nails placed 12 to 16 inches on center along the rubber floor perimeter.
It is important to slightly counter-sink mechanical fasteners into the rubber floor so puncture or
bruising of a cows sole is precluded. Rubber floors that are more resilient than others will
require a greater counter sink depth since they will deform greater under cow foot loading. An
angled seam at each joint location is suggested to better resist applied forces from tractor blades,
skid-steer loaders, or mechanical alley scrapers.
Alternative Flooring Questions
All new products available to the dairy producer generate several questions regarding their merit
and value as an addition to the farm business. Alternative flooring surfaces are no exception. The
author is not aware of any data directly addressing the effects of alternative flooring on lameness
or dry matter intake for freestall housed cows that can be used to assist with making a purchase
decision. However, in a related study area, Bergsten (1994) observed that cows in commercial
dairy herds tied in stalls equipped with rubber mats had significantly less severe sole
hemorrhages than those tied in concrete stalls. Laminitis-related disorders have been found to
decrease with rubber mats in tie stalls by both Bergsten (1994) and Thysen (1987). Also,
numerous anecdotal reports by dairy producers and observations by the author indicate that
freestall cows prefer standing and walking on resilient surfaces when given a choice. Guard
(2000) believes that rubber flooring surfaces are a step in the right direction. Unanswered
questions include the following.

Which available surface(s) best meets the requirements?

Does using alternative flooring surfaces solely at the feed bunk offer
sufficient reprieve from concrete?

How thick should the alternative flooring surface be?

What kind of return on investment does an alternative flooring surface

provide?

Floor Slope
The floors used by dairy cows are usually sloped in order to provide adequate drainage of surface
water runoff or to facilitate the connection of two different cow use areas with unequal
elevations. Sloping barn alleys provide drainage of urine, rainwater, and excesses sprinkling
water, if such a heat stress relief system is in place. Alleys are also sloped to facilitate planned or
future flushing operations and to possibly conform to existing topography. Sloping of barn alleys
is not possible if gravity flow waterers are used. All waterers need to be at the same elevation for
the water delivery system to function properly.

Barns connected to a milking center may have sloped walkways depending on the existing
elevations and the configuration and layout of each building. As the magnitude of any sloped
floor increases, the level of cow slip hazard correspondingly increases. The range and optimum
level of slope for different cow-frequented areas on a dairy farm is provided in Table 1. Most of
the values found in the table were initially presented by Welchert and Armstrong (1992) with a
few of them updated by the author.

Table 1. Floor Slope Specifications for Various Cow Areas Frequented

on a Dairy Farm.
Cow Frequented
Area

Range

Optimum

Parlor Cow Decks &

Exit Area

1 to 3 percent

1.5 percent

Parlor Holding Area

1.5 to 6 percent

2 to 3 percent

Feedline & Freestall

Alleys

1 to 4 percent

1.5 to 3 percent

Flushed Alleys

1 to 4 percent

3 percent

The maximum slope in any cow transfer lane or walkway should not exceed 6 percent. If specific
circumstances require that walkways must be greater that 6 percent to create a connection
between two areas, install 6 to 8 inch steps placed at least 3 feet apart. The treads may be sloped
no more than 1.5 percent to help achieve the required elevation change.
Construction Specifications for Cow Flooring
Shortcomings in flooring for dairy cattle can be minimized by following complete construction
specifications that clearly articulate in writing the required materials, construction procedures,
and finish for floors. Several such specifications may be needed depending on the size of the
overall project. For example, flooring specifications for the freestall barn will be somewhat
different than those for a loading ramp. (The ladder will probably require a more aggressive
flooring surface, as cows will be subjected to more stress and more susceptible to slip.)
Contractual documents should reference flooring specifications (in fact, all specifications for the
job).
Summary

Modern dairy confinement facilities are housing cows for much if not all of their entire lives.
Concrete is the prevalent flooring surface in dairy barns and shelters at this time. Concrete must
be properly grooved or patterned to provide confident footing for cows. Ragged groove edges
and rough finished surfaces are abrasive to cows' hooves and must be avoided. Even a properly
finished and grooved concrete surface causes excessive stress on cows feet and legs due to its
unforgiving nature. Alternative flooring surface options like rubber belting, rubber mats, and
constructed in-place rubber floors are more resilient than concrete and seem to offer a degree of
relief to the cows. Research is needed to determine the optimum alternative flooring surfaces for
cows and how much of it needs to be installed in a barn.
Whatever flooring surface is chosen by the dairy producer for a new facility, the desired end
product must be clearly understood by the contractor to help ensure that an acceptable product is
provided. Contractual documents should clearly specify type of flooring to be provided by the
contractor along with minimum levels of acceptance. Floors that do not conform to the
specifications should not be accepted by the dairy producer until shortcomings have been
remedied.
Types of Pen for ruminants
At different times in your life, you may have slept in a cradle, a crib, a bunk bed or a cot. You
may have lived in a townhouse, a cottage, a college dorm or an apartment. Where you lived
depended on where you were in your life. Were you a toddler or a bachelor? A student or a young
married person?
Just like people, animals live in different places depending on their stage of life.
Read about some common farm animals and where they live as they mature:
Pigs
When it is time for baby pigs (piglets) to be born, their mothers are moved to what are called
farrowing crates. These small pens have metal bars that separate the mother from the piglets
when they are born. This allows the piglets to nurse from her, but prevents the mother from
accidentally laying on the baby pigs and crushing them.
Piglets stay with their mother for about two to four weeks. After that, they are moved to a
nursery. Here, they are kept warm and given special food to help them transition from their
mothers milk to the adult pig feed they will be eating later on.
After these pigs have been in the nursery for four to eight weeks, they are moved to a finishing
barn. This is where they are housed in pens and fed a diet made mostly of corn (for energy) and
soybean meal (for protein). More recently, Dried Distiller's Grains with Soulbles (DDGS), a co-

product of ethanol production is being use quite extensively in swine diets. When they grow to
weigh around 260 pounds, they are ready to be taken to market.
Watch this video about pig farming in Illinois:
Sheep
The type of housing given to sheep depends on what kind of production system the farmer is
using. In farm flock production systems, the farmer may allow his sheep access to pasture
during the day and keep his sheep in a barn at night. During the winter, he may keep some sheep
in the barn all day. These systems are usually found in the eastern part of the United States,
where farms are smaller. In the western United States, range flocks are more common. These
production systems often let sheep run free throughout the year, with the farmer moving with
them as they graze. The sheep are less intensively managed than in farm flocks. The farmer has
less control over his flocks environment, but the sheep get more exercise and more time to
graze.
The type of housing necessary for sheep also depends on what time of the year the baby sheep
(lambs) are born. Because the producer has more contact with his sheep and more choice over
where they are housed, this is more of an issue for farm flocks.
Usually, female sheep (ewes) are what farmers call short-day breeders, which means that it is
easiest for them to get pregnant when the days are short, during fall and winter months. A ewes
pregnancy lasts around 147 days, so lambs from ewes bred in the fall are born in the spring.
Spring lambs
Spring lambs are fairly easy to house. Weather is normally mild, so farmers only really have to
worry about providing shelter from the wind, whether it is in a barn, an open shed or simply a
wind-break like a stretch of fence or trees. These lambs will be fed enough solely by drinking
their mothers milk.
Sometimes, though, farmers may want to have lambs born at different times of the year. Because
not a lot of people in the United States eat lamb on a regular basis, some producers like having
their lambs ready for market at times of the year when demand (and price) for lamb is the
highest: Christmas and Easter. Lambs born in the spring will be ready for Christmas, but will be
too young to go to market by Easter. Farmers who want to sell their lambs at that time will have
to breed their ewes earlier in the year. This is a difficult process and requires a lot of planning
and preparation.
Depending on whether the ewes are bred in the spring or in the summer, their lambs may be born
in either the fall or winter months.

Fall lambs
Lambs born in the fall are sometimes weaker than lambs born in the spring. This is because their
mothers were pregnant with them during the hot months of the summer. Heat places stress on the
pregnant ewe and can negatively affect the lamb inside of her. As a result, fall lambs need to be
more carefully monitored than spring lambs, and may need to be kept in the barn or in a shelter
during their first weeks of life. This may be difficult for the farmer to do, because fall is a busy
time of year on a farm, and his attention may be needed elsewhere.
Winter lambs
Lambs born in the wintertime are easiest to care for if the farmer has a good supply of hay and
grain. Because it is more difficult for the ewe to graze in the wintertime, the farmer may choose
to supplement the ewes grazing with hay, or to keep her confined to the barn and give her all of
her food in a complete ration.
When the lamb is born, the farmer will have to feed even more hay and grain to the ewe, to give
her enough energy to produce milk for a lamb. This gets to be very expensive, so the farmer
wants to wean the lamb as soon as possible. He does this by allowing the lamb access to creep
feed, a high-energy mixture of grain that is kept behind a small gate. Only the lamb can get
through this gate to eat because his mother is too big to fit. This is why it is called creep feed.
Eventually, the lamb will drink less milk and eat more hay and grain, until he is completely
weaned and ready to leave his mother. For winter lambs, this happens when the lamb is about 60
days old.
After weaning, lambs may be loaded onto a truck and sent to a feedlot. These are large farms
where lambs are kept in open pens and fed until they reach about 160 pounds. When they reach
the proper weight, they are sent to market.
Beef cattle
In the commercial beef cattle industry, there are several different stages of production.
The cow/calf producer is responsible for breeding new calves to go to market and new young
female cattle (heifers) to grow into new mothers for their herd.
These cows and their calves are housed in a barn and allowed access to pasture during the day,
though some farmers choose to keep their cattle outside all day on pasture. When it comes time
for the cow to give birth, the farmer may bring her into the barn so that he can monitor her until
her calf comes.
Calves will usually stay with their mothers for seven or eight months, but the exact time of
weaning depends on the condition of the cow and whether she is still making enough milk to
feed the calf.

After they are weaned, calves are sent by truck or train to a feedlot. These are large farms where
cattle are kept in group lots and fed until they reach market weight, usually 1,200 to 1,400
pounds.
Sometimes, though, calves can be sold as stocker cattle. These calves are usually smaller or
weaned at a more difficult time of year, making them less valuable. They are bought by farmers
who have room in their herds and allowed to graze until they grow big enough to be sent to a
feedlot.
Dairy cattle
Unlike most other farm animals in larger production systems, dairy cows tend to stay in one
place for most of their lives.
When baby cows (calves) are born, they are separated from their mothers to prevent the
spreading of diseases from cow to calf. They are fed colostrum from their mom as quickly as
possible. Colostrum is the first milk from the cow, which has special antibodies to protect the
calf from diseases. Calves are then fed milk replacer for six weeks in order to preserve their
mothers milk for human consumption.
The female calves (heifers) are placed in individual pens, such as hutches, or together in groups,
where they are fed milk replacer, grain, water and hay. At about seven weeks, calves are weaned,
taken off milk, they are moved into group housing with other dairy heifers. These heifers then
grow and once they have a calf, they begin producing milk and move into a barn with other
cows.
The male calves are either kept to grow into dairy bulls or sold to other farms to be raised for
veal or beef.
Adult dairy cows are usually kept in large, open barns with free stalls, meaning that they have the
freedom to walk around the barn at will. These stalls are bedded with straw, sand, wood shavings
and other bedding materials that make it comfortable for the cow to lie down.
On some farms, dairy cows are allowed to graze periodically throughout the day and are also
provided with feed and water when they return to the barn. At least twice a day, they are taken to
the milking parlor, where their milk is collected and pumped into a large steel vat and held there
until a milk truck takes it to be processed.
Broilers (meat-type chickens)

There are two types of domestically-kept chickens: broilers and layers. Broilers are chickens that
are raised for meat. They may live in several different places before they are old enough to go to
market.
On special breeding farms, fertilized eggs are laid by a breeding hen. These eggs are taken to a
hatchery and stored for up to ten days before they are placed into incubators. These incubators
keep the eggs at a temperature of 5588 F before they hatch into chicks at 21 days.
After hatching, the chicks are taken to other farms where they will grow to market weight. When
the chicks first arrive, farmers may choose to divide their long, ventilated chicken houses into
smaller sections, as the chicks are still very small and may have trouble finding their feed and
water in a large space. Farmers may use brooding rings (small, round pens) to keep the chicks
close to the food, water and heaters necessary to keep them healthy and warm.
As the birds grow, the farmers will take the dividers down and let the chickens move around the
entire barn. The chickens will be kept in this barn until they weigh about six pounds and are
ready to go to market.
Laying hens
After they have hatched, laying hens are kept in cages until they are around 17 weeks old. They
are then moved into a laying house where they begin laying eggs. On larger farms, laying houses
are connected by a series of conveyor belts that transfer the eggs from each house to a central
building. Here the eggs are refrigerated and either processed on the farm or transported to
another facility for further processing.
In conventional layer chicken systems, farmers can keep their chickens in either a floor system or
battery-style cages. The floor system is a lot like broiler chicken housing, where chickens can
roam the floor of the barn. Farmers can also keep their chickens in battery-style chickens, which
separate the chickens from each other to prevent them from fighting.

Different Tools And Equipment for Maintenance

1. Pickup truck:
Before we bought our indispensable pickup, we bought an old Chevy Blazer, but what we
quickly realized is that an SUV is not, and never will be, a pickup. Pickups are probably the most
versatile and useful long-term investment you can make for your farm. They are essential for
hauling everything from building supplies to feed, and firewood to sod. Teamed with a trailer
(see item 3), you can move livestock and much more. Although a pickup is a big investment,

when well cared for (remember to change that oil every 3,500 miles) it is an investment that can
last for decades, and good used pickups can often be bought at a reasonable price.
Add a basic topper to your pickup and you can haul items that need to be kept dry, use the truck
for camping, or haul small animals. Weve gotten some entertaining looks at gas stations and
other stops over the years, when the topper held a menagerie. Some of my favorites were the
time we were driving 30 rather-large turkeys to the poultry processing plant, or the time we had
half a dozen ducks and geese, and several big rabbits, hanging out in the back. Goats, sheep, and
small pigs are also easily moved under the topper.

2. Utility vehicle/Compact tractor

Even if you dream of working your land with animals, a tractor or farm utility vehicle (an ATV,
or a cargo-ATV, often called a ute) is a practical thing to have. Although we like to use our
donkeys for packing firewood when time permits, winter often finds us (well, maybe I should
say Ken) out with the ATV, equipped with its own trailer, bringing in wood.
Compact tractors (see Taking on a Tractor, December/January 2004 issue) are versatile pieces
of equipment that are perfect for small farms. Depending on the attachments you have, they can
do just about anything: mowing acres of lawn, digging a foundation, baling hay, pushing snow,
setting fence posts; its all possible with a compact tractor.
For those in the under 60-acre category, a ute (see Small-Farm Utility Vehicles October/
November 2003 issue) will often do all the work you need done, for less investment than a
tractor, and manufacturers now make attachments ranging from front-end loader buckets to
manure spreaders, that are specially designed to work with these rigs. The fat tires, light weight,
and low center of gravity make these units easy on the land. If money is not a big issue, and you
have a larger piece of land (say 160 acres or more), having both a tractor and farm utility vehicle
is the way to go. The tractor can do heavy work, like baling hay, but the utility vehicle can haul
supplies, or get you across the farm quickly to move a paddock fence, or check on the stock and
crops.
Two-wheel drive trucks, tractors, and utility vehicles are OK for flat ground thats not too
muddy, but if youre in hilly terrain, a snowy climate, or tend to have frequent muddy conditions,
invest the extra money up front in 4-wheel drive.

3. Livestock trailer
If you intend to have large livestock (horses, cows, llamas, yaks ), plan on getting a stock
trailer. We dont actually use our trailer that frequently for hauling livestock, but I still consider it

one of the best investments weve made in 20-some years of buying. When we do need to haul
our animals, we dont have to try to borrow or rent a trailer, and in between animal trips, we have
used it to haul firewood, feed, hay and lumber. During the several household moves weve made
since we purchased our trailer, it has done duty as a moving van, hauling furniture and household
items. And, it often serves as a temporary storage shed. Although two-horse trailers are readily
available, opt for a bigger trailer that can accommodate four animals or more.
4. Handcarts
This is the first tool I would invest in! Priced between $100 and $400 depending on capacity,
they are a bargain thats hard to beat. They are lightweight, yet they carry big loads easily. Unlike
their single-wheeled cousins, they are sturdy and steady over uneven ground, or through mud or
snow, and they are just plain hard to tip. Best of all, they are balanced in such a way as tobe easy
on the back. Some carts come with an accessory that converts them to a trailer for pulling behind
a ute or small tractor.
We have used our carts for everything around the farm. In the garden or yard, theyre great for
moving topsoil, plants, seed, fertilizer or tools. In the barn, they are handy for cleaning up small
piles of manure, or dragging tack from point A to point B. They are perfectly sized for moving a
bale of hay, or a few 50-pound bags of feed. We have also brought newborn calves easily from
field to barn in bad weather, with mama tagging along right next to the cart.
5. Manure spreader
If you are going to have any livestock, sooner or later you need a manure spreader. Even if your
animals will spend most of their time on pasture, piles of manure accumulate, and spreading this
manure thinly over the land improves soil fertility, reduces contaminated runoff, and helps keep
fly numbers down. Several manufacturers have come up with compact manure spreaders that are
ideal for small farms (see Tools of the Trade on page 86). The tractor-driven units carry more
manure in one trip, and are probably the best way to go if you have a significant number of
animals that are kept in the barn regularly. The ATV units are good for operations with only a
few animals stabled regularly, or with a larger herd that is out on pasture most of the time.
6. Composter
I love composting. Its one of the most environmentally friendly practices: reducing the waste
going to landfills and incinerators, while at the same time feeding soil and plants. How can
anybody not compost?
You can make a homemade compost box, but there are an assortment of commercial units
available, starting at about $25 for a perforated polyethylene sheet that creates a 32-inch
diameter bin, and running as high as several hundred dollars for some of the largest capacity

tumbling composters. The tumbling units are attractive for folks with small yards, and are easy to
use; they generally yield useable compost the quickest, because they make mixing and aerating
easy. They are also animal resistant, reducing worries about rodents and other unwanted visitors.
For do-it-yourselfers, check local recycling offices for construction plansmany of which use
recycled materials, like tires or pallets. (Pick up a container of worms in the spring at your local
bait supplier, and add them to your compost pile or bin to speed things up even more.)
7. Electric tools
There are dozens of electric power tools available at hardware and home stores, but there are two
must-haves for any type of around-the-farm construction project: 1.) A circular saw; and 2.) A
drill/driver (preferably the rechargeable battery operated type). Need to build your own compost
bin? Out comes the saw and drill. Hanging a new barn door? Get the saw and the drill.
Youll find these two versatile tools are useful for myriad projects, so invest in the best heavyduty models you can afford. If you plan to do lots of construction and remodeling (thinking
about that sunroom addition on the house, or that new barn?), consider adding a heavy-duty
reciprocating saw to the electric-tool collection.
8. Hand tools
Every farm needs a variety of hand tools. Companies like Sears (with its line of Craftsman tools)
and Snap-On (available at many auto parts stores) make hand tools that will last for generations,
and that come with a lifetime warranty to prove it. First on my list of items to purchase: A 25foot and a 100-foot tape measure; a good claw hammer with a comfortable grip; electricians
pliers; a socket and driver set; adjustable wrenches in several sizes; a screwdriver set with both
regular and Phillips head drivers.
9. Garden tools
Every small farm needs a flat spade and a pointed spade for digging. A good digging fork is a
multipurpose tool, used for breaking up and turning soil in the garden, harvesting, and for
manure cleanup around the barn. My preference for hoes is the collinear hoe designed by
gardening guru Eliot Coleman, and available from Johnnys Selected Seeds. This style of hoe
takes the back-breaking out of weed control, by allowing you to stand straight up while you
work.
10. Fencing tools
Farms and fences go hand-in-hand. Plan on purchasing a fence-post driver. A driver is a heavy
iron tube that goes over the top of a T-post, and that has handles on the side. You use it to pound
the post into the ground. A pair of fence pliers is a great, and fairly inexpensive, specialty tool to

have. We are fans of electric fencesthey are economical, efficient and safebut when you
have an electric fence, you need a fence tester.
11. Miscellaneous
We always carry pocketknives when out working, and a Leatherman type is a handy all-in-one
tool. Heavy-duty flashlights are a must when the lights go out during a heavy storm, or when you
need to tend to a livestock emergency in the pasture at 2 am. Garden hoses are a must, but when
buying, purchase the longest and strongest available (fall is a great time to find really good buys
on garden hoses). The good ones come with long-term guarantees (often 25 years or lifetime),
and we save the guarantee card with the receipt stapled to it, because under farm-use conditions
that lifetime turns out to be only a few years. The last miscellaneous tool on the list is a
digging bar. We use ours for breaking ice in winter; for digging large rocks out of the garden,
construc
Types of Pests in Farm Structure
1) Insect:
These are important and major pests. Insects have three pairs of legs, two pairs of wings,
segmented body and characteristic compound eyes and antennae. Insects are tricky and cause
damage in different ways viz. sucking sap from plants, biting plant parts, boring in to fruits,
twigs and leaves, attacking roots, barks and blossoms etc. The damaging stages of different
insect pests are larvae, adults and nymphs.
2) Mites:
These are creatures like insect but have soft body and four pairs of legs. These tiny creatures
have red or pale yellow colour. They suck the sap from the plant and attack the crops in huge
number.
3) Rodents This group of pest eat away large amount of human food and also damage the crops on large
scale. They are also responsible for heavy loss to stored grains on farms, in warehouses and
houses.
4) Animals:
Animals like Wild Boar, Deer, Elephants, Wild Buffalo, Jackals, Monkeys, Squirrels cause direct
damage to crop plants. They eat away the plants and by and large they waste huge amount of
crops.
5) Birds:

Birds attack the crop plants and eat grains. Crow, Parrots and Sparrows are major among birds
that attack the crops.
What is Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
PPE is defined in the Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations as: All equipment
(including clothing affording protection against the weather) which is intended to be worn or
held by a person at work which protects them against one or more risks to their health and
safety.
PPE includes equipment such as safety footwear, hard hats, high visibility waistcoats, goggles,
life jackets, respirators and safety harnesses.
Waterproof, weatherproof, or insulated clothing is subject to the Regulations only if its use is
necessary to protect employees against adverse climatic conditions that could otherwise affect
their health and safety.

PPE must always be regarded as a last resort to protect against risks to safety and health.
Engineering controls and safe systems of work must always be considered first.
For example, it may be possible to do the job using methods that will not require the use of PPE.
If this is not possible, more effective safeguards should be put in place. For example, fixed
screens could be provided rather than individual eye protection.
There are a number of reasons why PPE must be considered as a last resort:

PPE only protects the person wearing it, whereas measures controlling
the risk at source protect everyone in the workplace

theoretical maximum levels of protection are difficult to achieve and

the actual level of protection is difficult to assess. Effective protection
is only achieved by selecting suitable PPE and if it is correctly fitted,
maintained and used

PPE may restrict the wearer to some extent by limiting mobility or

visibility, or by requiring additional weight to be carried. Thus creating
additional hazards.

Types of PPE
Hearing protection
There are three main types of hearing protection:

earmuffs/defenders, which completely cover the ear

earplugs, which are inserted into the ear canal

semi-inserts (also called canal-caps), which cover the entrance to the

ear canal.

Hearing protection must be worn by anyone who is likely to be exposed to noise at or above the
Exposure Action Level set by The Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005.
For more information, see our page on Noise.

back to top
Head protection
There are three widely used types of head protection:

industrial safety helmets (hard hats), which are designed to protect

against materials falling from height and swinging objects

industrial scalp protectors (bump caps), which are designed to protect

from knocking against stationary objects

caps/hair nets, which protect against entanglement

Tasks where head protection may be required include:

construction

building repair

work in excavations and tunnels

work with bolt driving tools

driving motorcycles and all-terrain vehicles, etc.

Turban-wearing Sikhs are exempt from the requirement to wear hard hats on construction sites
by virtue of The Employment Act 1989.
Eye protection
There are several types of eye protection:

safety spectacles: these are similar to regular glasses but have a

tougher lens. They can include side shields for additional protection.

eye shields: a frame-less one piece moulded lens, often worn over
normal prescription glasses

safety goggles: these are made with flexible plastic frames and an
elastic headband

face shields: heavier and bulkier than other type of eye protector, face
shields protect the face, but do not fully enclose the eyes so do not
protect against dusts, mists or gases.

Tasks where eye protection may be required include:

handling hazardous substances where there is a risk of splashing

work with power driven tools where materials are likely to be propelled

welding operations

work with lasers

using any gas or vapour under pressure.

Foot protection
There are a number of types of safety footwear:

safety boots or shoes. Normally have steel toe-caps but can have other
safety features (e.g. steel mid-soles, slip resistant soles, insulation
against heat and cold)

Wellington boots, which can be supplied with steel toe-caps

anti-static and conductive footwear. These protect against the build-up

of static electricity.

Tasks where foot protection may be required include: construction, demolition, building repair,
manual handling where there is a risk of heavy objects falling on the feet, work in extremely hot
or cold environments, work with chemicals and forestry.
Where there is a risk of slipping that cannot be avoided or controlled by other measures,
attention must be given to the slip resistance of soles and replacement before the tread pattern is
overly worn.
Hand and arm protection
Hand and arm protection comes in a variety of forms, including:

gloves and gauntlets (leather, nitrile, latex, plastic coated, chain mail,
etc.)

wrist cuffs and armlets, e.g. used in glass cutting and handling

barrier cream may sometimes be used, where gloves cannot

practicably be used.

Tasks where hand and arm protection may be required include: the manual handling of abrasive,
sharp or pointed objects, work with vibrating equipment such as pneumatic drills and chainsaws,
construction and outdoor work, work with chemicals and other hazardous substances (e.g. bodily
fluids) and work with hot or cold materials.
In order to eliminate the risk of ill health through exposure to latex, a number of organisations
have phased out the use of latex gloves replacing them with nitrile.
Body protection
Types of body protection include:

overalls, aprons and coveralls (protection against hazardous

substances)

clothing for cold, heat and bad weather

clothing to protect against machinery, e.g. chainsaws

high visibility clothing (e.g. jackets, vests)

harnesses

back supports

life jackets.

Tasks where body protection may be required include: work with hazardous substances, work
next to the highway or other areas with moving transport or vehicles (e.g. construction sites),
outdoor work, forestry and grounds maintenance work.
Respiratory protection
There are two main types of respiratory protective equipment:

respirators that filter contaminated air or clean it as it is breathed in

respirators that supply clean air from an independent source.

Work with harmful dusts, fumes, vapours can require respiratory protective equipment. Tasks
where respiratory protection may be required include; welding, work with harmful substances,
work in areas where large amounts of nuisance dust is present, work that creates dust (e.g. disc
cutters).
Terminology Used in Ruminants

Ruminant
a cud-chewing animal that has a forestomach that allows fermentation of ingesta
Breed: It is groups of animal that are result of breeding & selection have certain distinguishable
characteristics.
OR
A group of animals related by decent & which are similar in most of the characters like general
appearance, size, colors, horns it is called breed.
OR
A breed may be defined as a cluster domestic animal of a species where individuals are

homogenous in certain distinguishable characteristics which differ from one to other group of
animals.
Species: A group of individuals which have certain common characteristics that distinguish them
from other group of individuals with in species the individuals are fertile when in different
species they are not.
Sire: The male parent of the calf.
Dam: Female parent of the calf.
Calf: Young one of cattle or buffalo below the age of six months is called calf.
Heifer: The younger female of cattle above age of six months to first calving.
Cow: The adult female of cattle from the date of first calving is called cow.
Bull: It is unsaturated of, cattle used for breeding or covering the cows.
Bullock: It is the castrated male of cattle used for work.
Service: The process in which mature male covers the female i.e. in heat with the object to
deposit spermatozoa in the female genital tract is called service.
Conception: The successful union of male and female gametes & implantation of zygote is
known as conception.
Gestation: It is the condition of female when developing foetus in present in the uterus.
Gestation period: The period from the date of service (actual conception) to the date of
parturition is termed as parturition period or pregnancy period. This period varies according to
species of animals e.g. is cows 279-283 days, in buffalo 310 days, sheep 148-152 days, goat 150152 days.
Parturition: The act of giving birth to young one is called parturition.
Lactation period: The period after parturition in which the animal produces milk.
Dry period: The period after lactation in which the animal does not produce milk.
Calving interval: The period between two successive calving is calving interval.

Average: It is the sum of production divided by No. of animals.

West average: It is the average daily milk yield of a cow is lactation.

W.A

Total milk yield. of a lactation (kg or Lt).

= ---------------------------------------------------------Lactation period (days)

Herd Average: It is average daily milk yield of milling animal in a herd.

Total milk yield of a day
H. A. = -No. of milking animals
Overall average: It is average daily milk yield of the animal in the period of calving interval.
Total milk yield of lactation
O.A. =
Calving interval (days)
Environment: The sum of all external influences to which an individual is exposed.
Genotype: The complete genetic make up of an individual- or its combination of genes it
possesses which influences its characters. Several different genotypes may.

Phenotype: The external appearance or some other overall or measurable characteristics of an

individual or it is the actual expression of the character as determined by his genes & the
environment in which he has lived.
Half sib: Half brothers or half sisters
Full sib: Full brothers or full sister.
Heridity: The occurrence of genetic factors derived from each of its parent in an Individual.
Heritability: The percentage of variation in individual characteristics between related
individuals which is due to true genetic difference.
Repeatability: It is the expression of the same trait at different times in the life of the same

individual or the tendency of an individual to repeat its performance e.g. dairy cow in successive
lactation.
Allel: One or two or more alternative foms of a gene. Alleles are those genes which may appear
at same locus in homologus chromosomes.
Gene: It is the unit of inheritance, which is transmitted in gametes or reproductive cells. It is the
physical basis of heredity.
Dominance: A gene is said to be dominant when its characteristic effect is expressed in the
heterozygote as well as homozygote, i.e. Aa < AA. Ability of gene to cover in block out
expression of its allele or genes that have observable effect when present in any one member of a
chromosome pair
Recessive: Genes which have no. observable effect unless present in both members of a
chromosome pair.
Epistasis: Interaction of two or more pairs of a gene that are not allele to produce a phenotype
that they do not produce when they occur separately.
Lethal: (Deadly) A gene or genes that cause death of an individual which are possessed by them
during pregnancy or at the time of birth.
Prepotency: The ability of certain individuals to stamp or impress their characters upon their
offspring or prepotency is the ability to transmit characteristics to offspring to a marked degree.
Fertility: Ability of an animal to produce large number of living young.
Fecundity: It is the potential capacity of the female to produce functional ova regards of what
happens to them after they are produced.
Sterility: Inability to produce any offspring.
Free martin: A sterile heifer born twin with the male.
Cryptorchids:The failure of testes to descend fully into the scrotum. If one testes is in scrotal
position the male is usually fertile but if both are retained in the abdominal cavity sterility
usually reported.
Atavism:The reappearance of a character after it has not appeared for one or more generation.

Buller: Cow always in estrus condition.

Teaser: A vasectomized (castrated) bull used to detect the heat or estrus of female (cow).
Herd: It is a group of cattle or buffalo.
Flock: It is the group of sheep, goat or poultry birds.
Steer: The male cattle that is castrated when he is still a calf or before the development of sexual
maturity is called steer.
Veal: The meat of calf below the age of 3 months.
Beef: The meat of- cattle past calf stage.
Pork: The meat of swine.
Mutton: The meat of sheep & goat.
Chevon: The meat of goat
Wedder: A castrated sheep is called wedder.
Prolificacy: Ability to produce large number of offsprings. The animal is said to be prolific.
Variation: The degree to which individuals differ with respect to the extent of development of
expression of characteristics.
Puberty: It is the period when reproductive tract & secondary sex organs/characteristics start to
acquire their mature form. Before on set of puberty the reproductive tract of heifer grows
proportionately to body growth but beginning at about 6 months age growth rate of these organs
is much grater than body growth. At about 10 months of age the rapid growth phase of the
reproductive tract ceases & this signifies the end of puberty. Heifer reaches puberty earlier than
bull.
Inheritance: Transmission of genetic factors from parent to offsprings.
Germplasm: The material on the basis of heredity taken collectively. The sum of gene
constitution of an individual.
Foetus: A term for developing young one during last quarter of pregnancy.

Brain Structures and their Functions

Cerebrum

Cerebellum

Limbic System

Brain Stem

The nervous system is your body's decision and communication center. The central nervous
system (CNS) is made of the brain and the spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
is made of nerves. Together they control every part of your daily life, from breathing and
blinking to helping you memorize facts for a test. Nerves reach from your brain to your face,
ears, eyes, nose, and spinal cord... and from the spinal cord to the rest of your body. Sensory
nerves gather information from the environment, send that info to the spinal cord, which then
speed the message to the brain. The brain then makes sense of that message and fires off a
response. Motor neurons deliver the instructions from the brain to the rest of your body. The
spinal cord, made of a bundle of nerves running up and down the spine, is similar to a
superhighway, speeding messages to and from the brain at every second.

The brain is made of three main parts: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The
forebrain consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus (part of the limbic
system). The midbrain consists of the tectum and tegmentum. The hindbrain is made of
the cerebellum, pons and medulla. Often the midbrain, pons, and medulla are referred to
together as the brainstem.
The Cerebrum: The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain, associated
with higher brain function such as thought and action. The cerebral cortex is divided into
four sections, called "lobes": the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal
lobe. Here is a visual representation of the cortex:

What do each of these lobes do?

Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions,
and problem solving

Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli

Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing

Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory,
and speech

Note that the cerebral cortex is highly wrinkled. Essentially this makes the brain more efficient,
because it can increase the surface area of the brain and the amount of neurons within it. We will
discuss the relevance of the degree of cortical folding (or gyrencephalization) later. (Go here for
more information about cortical folding)
A deep furrow divides the cerebrum into two halves, known as the left and right hemispheres.
The two hemispheres look mostly symmetrical yet it has been shown that each side functions
slightly different than the other. Sometimes the right hemisphere is associated with creativity and

the left hemispheres is associated with logic abilities. The corpus callosum is a bundle of axons
which connects these two hemispheres.
Nerve cells make up the gray surface of the cerebrum which is a little thicker than your thumb.
White nerve fibers underneath carry signals between the nerve cells and other parts of the brain
and body.
The neocortex occupies the bulk of the cerebrum. This is a six-layered structure of the cerebral
cortex which is only found in mammals. It is thought that the neocortex is a recently evolved
structure, and is associated with "higher" information processing by more fully evolved animals
(such as humans, primates, dolphins, etc). For more information about the neocortex, click here.
The Cerebellum: The cerebellum, or "little brain", is similar to the cerebrum in that it has two
hemispheres and has a highly folded surface or cortex. This structure is associated with
regulation and coordination of movement, posture, and balance.
The cerebellum is assumed to be much older than the cerebrum, evolutionarily. What do I mean
by this? In other words, animals which scientists assume to have evolved prior to humans, for
example reptiles, do have developed cerebellums. However, reptiles do not have neocortex. Go
here for more discussion of the neocortex or go to the following web site for a more detailed look
at evolution of brain structures and intelligence: "Ask the Experts": Evolution and Intelligence
Limbic System: The limbic system, often referred to as the "emotional brain", is found buried
within the cerebrum. Like the cerebellum, evolutionarily the structure is rather old.
This system contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus. Here is a visual
representation of this system, from a midsagittal view of the human brain:

Click on the words to learn what these structures do:

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Amygdala

Hippocampus

Brain Stem: Underneath the limbic system is the brain stem. This structure is responsible for
basic vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. Scientists say that this
is the "simplest" part of human brains because animals' entire brains, such as reptiles (who
appear early on the evolutionary scale) resemble our brain stem. Look at a good example of this
here.
The brain stem is made of the midbrain, pons, and medulla. Click on the words to learn what
these structures do:

Midbrain

Pons

Medulla