| ’ / , / 27” An Introduction to Geplogical Structures and Maps a cdncise text 2-777 thatTeads dhe student by easy stages from the simplest deg’ on E ological structures fight through a first course on geological mapping. - ‘The appraach Desfennison adopts is designed to help styents working ‘with litle gra supervision: each new topic issimply ¢xplained and sand exercises are set on suceecding maps. Ifthe! sguudents are unable co complete the problems, they should read on to. ¢ 27 obtain mare specific instructions on how the thegry may be used to sofve - the problent in question. o ’ ‘Anenlarged fifth edition provides the opporswnity to add new ma - ‘more explanatory text. The aim isto makethe progression from simplest map to the most difficule mororéradual by increasing tb snumber of steps. The opportunity bas been taken to update terminology, particularly of fo and fault sgeuttures. The order of presentatiba has 3 been radically changed fron Garlier editions, making for a more ogical es approach. In addition ry’prablem maps based on,or adapted from, a published geological maps, reference is made in cach chapter to British x ‘Gealozital Survey maps. They are selected to illustrate the probldms & __- Wéalt with in each chapter. 7 2 ‘This new edition rings popula text up to date a G.M. Bennison wastonfieily Senior Lecturerin Geology at the °\ Ea University of Birmingham and has been a Consulting Geologist a inthe USAZ , 3 a . Ei : 1 8! ‘ a1 2 al ox By . 3 Y 158N0-340-51760-3 i Bilward ArnoldRO 7 © Geological, .. Structures. ~and Maps. —_ ONFRR RO KORO eH eH EUe | An Introduction to Geological Structures and Maps Fifth Edition G. M. Bennison Formerly Senior Lecturer in Geology, University of Birmingham Edward Arnold cabe. A division of Hodder & Stoughton yt LONDON NEWYORK MELBOURNE AUCKLAND 1A40| Teer Coatto de Cisnoiee Ms fie Meturoen Bibliewou Cates o3seoa~s 12/07/91 em seicchw (© 19006. M. Bennison Fst publened in Gest Briain 1984 Repeted 1985, 196, 1968 Secondedtion 1969 Reprinted 1971, 1973 ‘Thrdestion 1975. Feprnted 1977, 1979, 1981, 1902 Fourtnestion 1265. Repent 985, 1986, 1967, 1989 Firneaten 090 Distibutedin ne USA by Routledge, Chapman anvil, In., ‘2a West 35h Steet, Naw York,NY 0001 ‘Bitch Livary Cataloguing in Publication Data Benson 6. M. (George Mis) 1822- “Aniweductonte gosogcal sruciuresandmaps.-Sthed, 1Geotogcatmeps Mapresang Le Ssh8 ‘s@N0-240-51700-3 ‘Aig reserve. Nopartolti publication may be reproduced, ‘rtensmiie in any frm orby any means, electronically ot ‘mectantaly, nelaing photocopying. ec5r6rg or sy itmaton Soragearretievalsystem witout ether oir persion wing trom tne pubisheroralieence pemiting ected copying Inne Uniea Kingdom such oences ar lssvedby he Copyright LUcensing Agency, 38-84 Aled Pace, London WE 7DP. “Typesetin1 0191 Helios Lign!by Cole Private Limite, Singapore Phniedand boundinGrest Gran for Eonar AOI, ths ‘ecxcalona academic and medica pubssiung dion of Hodder Sho Steughon Lites, wt Rac, Sevenoaks, Kant TNI32¥O By ‘The BatnPrese and WH. Ware, Avon3 a a 0 a a a 2 a 0 =] 2 2 =) a a z = = a oe PDI DS od ove bows Contents Keytomaps . Preface . - 1 Horizontal and dipping strata Contours, section drawing, vertical exaggeration; Dip, structure contours, construction of structure contours, section drawing; True and apparent dip: Calculation of thickness of a bed, vertical and true thickness; Width of outcrop; Inliers and outiers. 2 ‘Three-point’ problems Construction of structure contours; Insertion of outcrops; Depth in boreholes. 3 Unconformities Overstep; Overlap; Sub-unconformity outcrops. 4 Folding Anticlines and synclines; Asymmetrical folds, overtolds and isoclinal folds; Similar and concentric folding; Two possible directions of strike. 5 Faults Normal and reversed faults; The effects of faulting on outcrops; Classification of faults, dip-sip, strike-slip and oblique-slp faults; Dip faults and strike faults: Calculation of the throw of a fault; Wrench or tear faults; Pre- and postunconformity faulting; Structural inliers and outliers; Posthumous faulting; Isopachytes. 6 More folds and faulted folds Plunging folds, calculation of the amount of plunge; The effect of faulting on fold structures; Displacement of folds by strike-slip (wrench) faults, calculation of strike-slip displacement; Faults parallel to the limbs of a fold; Sub-surface structures; Posthumous folding; Polyphase folding; Bed isopachytes. 7 Complex structures Nappes; Thrust faults; Axial plane cleavage. 8 Igneous rocks Concordant intrusions, sills; Lava flows and tufts; Discordant intrusions, dykes, ring- dykes, cone-sheets, stocks, bosses and batholiths, voleanic. necks. Description of a geological map; Geological history of Map 28. Numerical answers Index ac; vi vil " 16 19 ar 40 83 58 64 66 67SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Sandstone Shale Sandy Shale Limestone Sandy Limestone Clay or Mudstone Marl Conglomerate Gal Breccia SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS [AF] atoviom Boulder clay IGNEOUS ROCKS vv Volcanics (Basalt, andesite, etc.) Ashy Sediments Granite r+ METAMORPHIC ROCKS Ouartzite Slate A) Schist,Gneiss,ete Key toshading widely used on geological mapsandtext figures. vi x'| Dolerite, porphyry, etc. COC OOOO OOO CO COCDADIAIVAIAD AV VAVVVAV WN MY HIV INS |[PROFESS SEITE GEES SI99SII55533539555555000 t Preface to previous editions This book is designed primarily for university and college students taking geology as an nonours Course or asa subsidiary subject. Its aim is tolead the student by easy stages trom the simplest Ideas on geological structures right through the first year course on geological mapping, and ‘much that it contains should be of use to students Of geology at GCE ‘A’ level. The approach is designed to help the student working with litle ‘or mo supervision: each new topic is simply explained and illustrated by textfigures, and exercises are set on succeeding problem maps. If Students are unable to complete the problems they should read on to obtain more specific instructions on how the theory may be used to solve the problem in question. Probiems relating ‘0 certain publisned geological survey maps are ‘Given at the end of most chapters. Some of the early maps in the book are of necessity somo- What ‘artlicial’ so that new structures can be introduced one at atime thus retaining clarity and. simplicity. Structure .contours (see p. 5) ate ‘seldom strictly parallel in nature; itis therefore referable to craw them freehand, though = of Course ~ as straight and parallel as the map Permits. In all cases except the three-point prob- lems, the student should examine the mans ang attempt to deduce the geological structures from the disposition of the outcrops in relation to the topography, as far as this Is possible, betore ‘commencing to draw structure contours. The author wishes to thank Dr F. Moseley for ‘making many valuable suggestions when read- ing the manuscript of this book, Dr R. Pickering land Dr A.E. Wright for their continuing help and interest.PIDIVDIIIISPIIIIDIIIIIDAIIIDIVATHVLELELSEA44 [ Through successive editions additonal material hhad been fited into he existing 64 pages. Now an enlarged tit edition provides the opportunity 10 add new maps and more explanatory text. The ‘im isto make the progression trom the simplest map to the most dificult more gradual by increas- ing the number of steps. A further three maps (out (of 5 new maps) are not dependent on structure contours for their solution. The point is re- ‘emphasized that the student should always examine a map witha view lo deducing the basic structures from outerop patterns (in relation tothe opography), as far as this is possible, even on ‘maps where the precise solution is dependent on sitycture contouts. The opportunity has been taken to update terminology, particularly of fold ‘and fault siruciutes. The order of presentation has been racially changed trom earlier editions ‘and itis hoped that this will be found fo be more logical. n addition to problem maps based on, oF adapied from, published geological maps, reter- enceismade in each chapter to British Geoiogical Survey maps (generally on the 1:50,000 scale). They are selected to ilustrate the problems dealt within each chapter. While its appreciated that only some readers will have access to these Preface to this edition ‘maps, the necessity of relating problem maps to ‘real’ geological maps justiies the small amount of the book devoted to these exercises. My thanks are due to friends and colleagues for their continuing interest and helpful suggestions. | ‘am particularly grateful to Dr K.A. Moseley and Dr, D.E. Roberts. Without the expertise and di ‘gence of Dr R. Pickering this edition would not hhave been possible. My thanks to Mr Carl Bur- ‘ness for drafting the new maps and diagrams and revising many ofthe figures. Readers wishing to pursue the subject further are recommended the following reading: ‘Advanced Geological Map Interpretation, F. ‘Moseley, Edward Arnold, 1979, The use of Stereographic Projections in Struc tural Geology, F.C. Philips, Edward Arnold, 1954, The Mapping of Geological Structures, K. McClay, Geological Society of London Hand- book, 1987. Belbroughton June, 1989 GM. BennisonSERRE RORACEMHEEECEC EEE CECE CEC EEE EOECL UL DS SCALE 0 metres 1000] Map 1ebodeveddddddddddddddiddddiddiisiiiass lo 1 Horizontal and dipping strata Contours Hills and valleys are usually carved out of layered ‘sequences of rock, or strata, the individual mem= bers or beds - differing in thickness and in resistance to erosion. Hence diverse topography (surface features) and land-forms are produced, ‘Only in exceptional circumstances is the topo- ‘Gtephy eroded out of a single rock-type, Inthe simplest case we can consider strata are horizontal. Rarely are they so in nature: they are frequentiy found elevated hundreds of metres above their position of deposition, anc titing and warping has usually accompanied such uplift ‘The pattern of outcrops of the beds where the strata are horizontal is a function of the topo- ‘graphy; the highest beds in the sequence (the ‘youngest will cuicrop on the highest ground and the lowest beds in the sequence (the oldest) will ‘outcrop in the deepest valleys. Geological boun- ‘aries will be parallel to the contour lines shown ‘on a topographic map for they are themselves ‘contour lines, since @ contour isa line joining an infinite number of points of the same height. 500m: Section drawing Draw a base line the exact length of the line A-B on Map 1 (19.0 em). Mark ‘off on the base line the points at which the contour lines cross the line of section: for example, 8,5 mm from A mark a point corresponding to the intersection of the 700 m contour. From the base line erect @ perpendicular corresponding in length to the height of he ground and, since itis important to make vertical and horizontal scales ‘equal wherever practicable, a perpendicular of length 14 mm must be erected to correspond to the 700m contour (since 1000 m = 2em and 100 m = 2mm) (Fig. 1), Sections can readily be <érawn on metric squared paper (or on 1/10" in ‘some cases). ‘Map 2 shows an area of the Cotswold Hills and agjacent lowlands where the strata are virtually horizontal. Geological boundaries therefore are parallel to topographic contours, a point made ‘on page 5. Contours have been omitted for clarity but the general heights of hills and plain are ‘given. These, together with the altitude of a ‘number of points (spat-heights and triangulation points) enable us to draw a sufficiently accurate topographic profile ofa section across the map. BL Tr. Sea 700-800 ‘a0 Fig. 1. Partofasect surface (orprofile) 700 600 500 400 300level Jong the ine A-Bon Map 1 toshow the method of drawing theground Map 1. The geclogicaloutcropsare showninthe north-west corner ofthe map. Itcanbeseen that he beds are horizontalas the geclogicalboundaries coincide with, or ara paralleto, the ‘ground contour ines. Complete the geologicaloutcrops over the whole map. Indicate the position ‘ofaspring ineon the map. How thickis each bed? Draw a erticalcolumnshowing each bedio scale, 1 cm = 100 m. Drawasection along theline AB. (Contoursinmetres.) veAs — COME | mensennems CEITESThe plain lies at a height of 50 to 100 metres. Hills are around 250. to 330m KEY on | Alluvium Inferior Odite Upper Lias Middle Lias j]Lower Lias Cleeve Common « WARMARARARKRRAR KEE EEE ECE ECC COCO ES |SSG GEIL SA DADA IAD JL BHAI SSA SDI SRST L IAL IE u | Vertical Exaggeration The horizontal scale of a map has been determined at the time of the original survey. Commonly, we shall find it given {a 150,000 ~ 1em on the map tepresenting 50,000. cms or 500 metres on level ground (1:50.00 is the ‘Representative Fraction’) ‘Maps on the scale of 1:25,000 and 1:10,000 are ‘common. On older maps one inch represented ‘one mile (1:63,360) and on USA maps two miles to the inch isa usual scale. {ta similar scale to the horizontal is used vert cally we shall often find that the section is difficult 10 draw and that itis very dificult to include the geological details. For example, on Mao 2 the highest hillon the section at 317 m would be only |justover 0.6 cms above the sea-level base lin. A ‘suggested vertical scale of 1 cm 200m, with horizontal scale predetermined as 1 em = 500 m ives a vertical exaggeration of 500/200 or 5/2 or 25. Complications arise where the strata are inclined and further considerations of vertical ‘exaggeralion are ciscussed on p. 10. Land surface 77 Quarry floor Dip Inclined strata are said to be dipping. The angle ot dips the maximum angle measured between the strata and the horizontal (regardless of the slope of the ground) (Fig. 2) angie of ai ‘angle of ‘tip Ms 47, kyl Blt, 1111 Madey WLI, Fig. 2 SecionshowingdippingstrataTheangle of dipis measured from the horizontal. a OW, Fig. 3. Southerly dipping strata in a quarry. Note the relationship between the directions of dip and strike, Map 2__Thismapis based onaportion ofthe British Geological Survey map of Moretor-in-the- Marsh, 1:50,000 scale, Sheet 217. (iis slightly simpifiedandreduced tofitthe pagesize) Reproducedby permissionot the Director, British Geological Survey: NERC copyrightreserved, Drawasection along the line X- toillstrate the geology, using averticalscalcot Yom = 200 metres.PORE PER UE BU I I III II IIIIIIIIIII‘GS metres _500|‘The direction of dip is given as a compass bearing reading from 0 to 360°, For example, a typical reading would be 12/270. The first figure Is the angle of dip, the angle the strata make with the horizontal. The second figure is the direction Of that dip measured round from north in a clock- ‘wise direction (inthis example due west). In North ‘America, where the use of the Brunton Compass is almost universal, dip directions are more com- ‘monly given in relation to the main points of the | ‘compass, e.g. 10° west of south (ie. 190°) Ina direction a right angles to the dip the strata { ‘are horizontal, This direction is called the strike (Fig. 3). An analogy may be made with the lid of a desk. A marble would roll down the desk lidin the direction of maximum dip. The edge of the desk lid, which is the same height above the floor along the whole of is length, ie. itis horizontal, is the direction of strike. v2bem AVS @) Grocure contour Frocure contour exructure: Structure com Structure contours strike lines) Just as itis possible to define the topography of the ground by means of contourlines, so we can raw contour lines on a bedding plane. These we Call stucture contours oF strike lines, the former since they join points of equal height, the latter since they are parallel to the direction of strike. The terms are synonymous, but for the purposes of this book the term structure contour will be used, Construction of structure contours The height of a geological boundary is known where it crosses a topographic contour line. For ‘example, the boundary between beds S and T on g0Om omic gp () = 2s JoOm p00 0 contour 500m tour SIGS FFF SSSESSISFE FESS SESESE ESSELTE ig. 4 _(s] Plan showing structure contours and (b) section through contours showing the relationship between dip and gradient. Map 3. Thecontinuoustinesare the geological boundaries separating the outcrops of he cipping strata, beds P,Q, R, S, TandU. Examine the map and note that the geologicalboundaries are not pparallelto the contouriines but, infact, intersect them. Thisshows that the bedsare dipping. Before constructing structure contours canwe deduce the direction of dipofthe beds trom the factthattheiroutcrops 'V’ down the valley? Can we deduce the direction of dipif we areinformed thatBedUis the oldestand Bed P is the yaungest bed! the sequence? Draw structure contours for each geologicalintertace* and calculate the direction andamountof dip. (Contoursinmetres.) Instructions for drawing structure contours are given below andone structure contour on the ‘GIR geological boundary has beeninsertedon the map as an example. * Somecontsionmayaisasincethe term gasioaeal bounds oon applied bathtathenterace or setae) between ‘wobedsazoiotneoutcropof atnterare Rseomsasaislactry ermoemploy,howeverncethetwoarereaed ‘die centon genera avalos amumap 3 cute the 700m contour at throo paints ‘These points lie on the 700 m structure contour which can be drawn througa them, Since these early maps portray simply inclined plane sur- faces, structure contours willbe straight, parallel and - if dips are constant - equally spaced, Having found the direction of strike 85°, we know that the direction of dip is at right angles to this, but we must ascertain whether the dip is ‘northerly’ or ‘southerly’. A second structure con- tour can be drawn on the same geological Bound- ary ST through the two points wivere it cuts the {600 m contour. From the spacing of the structure contours we can calculate the dip or gradient of the beds Fig, 4a). Gradient ie. As the scale of the map is given as 2.5 em ‘500 m, 100 min 1.25 em = 100 in 250 m, Hence, the gradient is 1 in 2.6, 10 175° Frequently it is more convenient to utlize gradi- ents, although on geological maps the dip is always given as an angle. By simple trigonome- ‘ty we See that the angle of dip in the above ‘case is that angle which has a tangent of 2 or 0.4, 18, 22°, 10 175°. (Fig, 40, 700 m ~ 600 min 1.25 m 100 m in 4.25 em, Section drawing The topographic profile is ‘fawn by the method already described on age 1. The geviogical boundaries (iniertaces) ‘can be inserted in an analogous way by marking the points at which the line of section is cut by structure contours. Perpendiculars are then ‘craw from the base line, of lengtn correspond- {ng to me height of tne structure contours (Fig. 5) ‘eo0m Soom sete” reike Fig. 5 Section to show the method of accurately inserting geological boundaries, Truc and apparent dip the siope of a desk lid, oF of a geological bound- ary (interlace) or bedding plane, is measured in any direction between the strike direction and the irection of maximum dip, the angle of dip in that direction is known as an apparent dip (Fig, 6). IIs value will ie between 0° and the value of the ‘maximum or true dip. Naturally occurring or man- ‘made sections through geological sirata (elilfs, ‘quarry faces, road and ral cuttings) are unlikely 10 bbe parallel to the direction of true dip of the strata, What may be observed in these sections, there- fore, isthe dip ofthe strata in the direction of the section, i. an apparent dip (somewhat less than true dip in angle). The trigonometrical relation- ship is not simple: Tangent apparent dip = Tangent true dip x Cosine f (see Fig. 6b; and Table Il, p. 66). However, the problem of apparent dip caleula- tion is much simplified by considering it as a ‘gradient. Just as the gradient of the bed in the direction of maximum dip is given by the spacing ff the structure contours (1.9m = 380m in Fig. 6b, representing a gradient of 1 in 3.8, since the scale of the map is cm = 200m), so the {gradientin the direction in which we wish to obtain the apparent dip is given by the structure con tour spacing measured in that direction (3.25 cm = 650 min Fig. 6b, representing a gra- dient of in 6.5). In road and rail cuttings the direction of dip of strata is of vital Importance to tne stability of the slopes. Where practicable 2 cutting would be parallel to the direction of cip of the strata, minl- ‘mizing stippage into the cutting since there would bbe no component of dip at right angles to the face of the cutting. Factors other han geological ones Getermine the siting and direction of cuttings. Frequently tney are not paralie to the dip of the strala and, as a result, we see an apparent dip in the cutting sides. In the event of a geological section being at right angles to the airection of dip it will be, of ‘course, in he direction of strike of the beds. There vil be no component of dip seen in this section and the beds will appear to be horizontal. (Of Course, close examination of such a quarty face Cr cutting will reveal that the strata are not hori- zontal but are dipping towards or away from the observer.) AAAAAAIVIADVIAVADVIAIG RARAADRAAARAA An ar reeecreé dood d IIS ISTSITITIVIITIIdIIIIIGG ddvved jwidd Map 4, Draw stuclure contour onthe geological Boundaries, Give the gradient ofthe beds (dn. Draw a section along the east-west ine Y~Z. Calculate the thicknesses of beds B, C, O and E, Indicate on the map an inler and an outer. ———_. | UF() 600 m do, structure contour ‘Structure contour (b) Fig. 6 [a] Diagram and (b) plan ot map of structure contours to illustrate the relationship between true and apparent dip. Calculation of the thickness of a bed ‘On Map 4itcan be seen thatthe 1100 m structure Contour for the geological boundary O-£ coin- cides with the 100m structure contour for boundary C-D. Thus, along this strike direction, the top of bed D is 100 metres higher than its base. It has a vertical thickness of 100 metres. ‘Ths is the thickness of the bed that would be penetrated by a borehole drilled at point X. Turn back to Map 3. The 200 metre structure contour for ine Q-R boundary, which has already been inserted on the map, passes through the Fig. 7. Section showing the relationship between the vertical thiekness (VT} and the true thickness [T] of «dipping bed. 8 point where the P-O boundary is at 400 metres. Since structure contours are ail parallel - where beds are simply dipping as in this map ~ this line Is also the 400 metre structure contour for the PO boundary. Ifoliows that bed Q has a vertical thickness of 200 metres, You will find that on ‘many problem maps bed thickness is often 100 metres, 200 metres or some multiple of 50 ‘metres in order to produce a simpler problem. Vertical thickness and true thickness Since the beds are inclined, the vertical thickness penetrated by a borehole Is greater than the true thickness measured perpendicular to the geo- logical boundaries (interfaces) (Fig. 7). The angle @ belween VT (vertical thickness) and T (true thickness) is equal tothe angie of dip. VT o. T= VT x Cosinew ‘The true thickness of a bed is equal to the vertical thickness multiplied by the cosine of the angle of ip, Where the dip is low (less than 5*) the cosine is high (over 0.99) and true and vertical thick- nesses are approximately the same (see Table I, . 66). Now Cosine = nananarercecrereerecercececerceerccenrecn |SaeATIIITTAGL LES LLLE besscddedéss é ddddé Width of outcrop Ht the ground surface is level the width of outerop ‘of a bed of constant thickness is a measure of the ip (Fig. 8a). ‘Naturally, where beds with the same dip crop ‘out on ground of identical siope the width of ‘outcrop is related directly to the thickness of the beds (Fig. 8). More generally, beds crop out (or outcrop) on sloping ground and width of outcrop is a function Of dip and slope of the ground as wellas bed thick- ress. In Fig. 8b beds Y and Z have the same thickness (and dip) but, due tothe different angles of intersection with the slope of the ground their Widths of outcrop are very ifferent, (T, = T, but W, is much greater than W;,) Nt will be noted that in the case of horizontal width of outcrop sttala the geological boundaries are parallel. to the topographic contours, In dipping strata tho {geological boundaries cross the topographic contours, and with irregular topography the steeper the dip the straighter the outcrops. In the limiting case, that of vertical strata, outcrops are straight and unrelated to the topography. Inliers and outliers ‘An outcrop of a bed entirely surrounded by out- Crops of younger beds is called an ines. An out- crop of a bed entirely surrounded by older beds (and so separated from the main outcrop) is called an outlier. In Map 4 these features are the [Product of erosion on structurally simple strata ‘and are called ‘erosional inliors and outliers. (See 35 for detaits of other iniers and outliers.) width of outcrop Fig. 8 {a} Sections showing the diferent widths of outcrop produced by a bed ofthe same thickness (T) with high dip and low dip. (b) Beds ofthe same thickness (T, =) outcropping on differing slope. [c] Heds of different thickness (T, : ‘T, 2) outcropping on a uniform slope.Vertical Feapeeratian It is very dificult to ‘make the vertical scale equal to the horizontal scale for a one-inch to the mile map, which is of course, 1" = §,280 fect. It is necessary to intro- duce @ vertical exaggeration which should be kept to the minimum practicable, No hard and fast rule can be made, The Britsh Geological Survey commonly employ a Vertical Exaggeration of two or three, but sections provided on BGS maps range from true scale to a vertical exaggeration of as much as x10 where this is necessary. The immensely useful “Geological Highway Map’ series of the USA (published by and obtainable from the AAPG, Tulsa, Oklahoma) illustrate the forts of an qverlarge VF of 20. With ane inch to the mile maps a vertical scale of 1° = 1,000 {ect is particularly convenient and the VE at approximately x5% is generally accoplable, nis essential to realize tnat wnere the section is Ccrawn with a vertical exaggeration of three, for ‘example, the tangent of the angle of dip must be ‘multiplied by three to find the angle of dip appro- priate to this section. (It is not the angle of dip which is multiplied by three.) A dip of 20° should’ bbe shown on a section with a VE of x3.as.adipot 448°. Look up the tangents and check that this is correct. ‘Sections across published Geological Survey Maps Henloy-on-Thame: 1:50,000 (sheet 254) Solid & Drift Edi In. Examine the map and section, ‘noting the relationship of tdpography to geology. (The Chalk is one of the most resistant {formations in South East England forming the high ground of the Chiltems, Downs, etc.) Note ‘numerous outiers to the west of the main cuesta. ‘structure contour map is included. You will se that the structure contours are approximately parallel but not straight as on most problem maps which cover a smaller area as rule. What do you ‘conclude from the curvature of the structure contours? Aylesbury: 1” (Sheet 238) Excluding the rather extensive Pleistocene and Recent deposits (which form a quite thin superticial cover), the oldest strata are to be found in the north-west of the ‘area with successively younger beds to the south-east, This gives the direction of dip. The ‘amount of dip can best be determined by ensuring that beds are made the appropriate thickness ‘on the section, e.g, Lower Chalk and Middle Chalk should each measure approximately 200 feet if the section has been correctly drawn. Draw a section along a line in a rorth-west-south-east direction across the map to ilustrate the structure of the area, Note on the Aylesbury and Henley-on- Thames sheets. When dealing with an area ne 82@ 0! one of these maps itis founc that strata are ‘ot uniformly dipping (as is the case on the sim- pier problem maps) but may be slightly flexured. Structure contours - if they could be drawn — would not be quite straight nor precisely parallel Tne beds cannot be inserted on a section by con- sttuciing structure contours: they must be ‘fitted to the outcrop widths and crawn at their correct thicknesses, using information given in the strati- ‘graphic column in the margin of the map. Notes on BGS Maps The British Geological Survey produces a much wider variety of maps 10 than formerly, both in range of scales employed ‘and in the kind of information included. ‘Most of England and parts of Wales, together ‘with about hal of Scotland has now been covered by maps publishes on the 1:50,000 scale, Some areas are covered by still available and most use- fulonesneh to the mile sheets. Both solid geology editions and drit editions nave been produced for some areas. For the purposes of investigating geological structures the solid ecitions are the more usetul. However, drift ecitions, showing the superficial deposits, are of vital importance to the engineering geologist concerned with plan- fing motorways, dams and foundations. in areas wnere drift deposits are not extensive a single edition combining Soli and Drift is usually published, REPKE RCE KEL EE LES OC OCOE LOO CON OOO WW AAASIIIIITIFIS SIT Iss III IIS ISTH FTLELELELESE 2 ‘Three-point’ problems It the height of a bed is known at three of more pois (0! in a straight ine), is possible to tind the direction of stke and to calculate the dip of the bed, provided dip is uniferm. This principle has many applications to mining, openeast anc borehole problems encountered by applied geo- logists and engineers but ths chapter deals ony withthe fundamental principe and includes afew ‘simple problem maps. ‘The height of a bed may be known at points where it outcrops or its neight may be calcuated {roms known depth in boreholes or mine shas ithe height is known al three points (or mote) only one possibie solution exis as tothe Grec- tion and amount of dip, and this can be simply calculated Construction of structure contours Note: since Map 5 portrays a coal seam, and an average seam is ofthe order of 2 metres or less in thickness, on the scale of 2.5 cm=500 m its thickness is such that it can satistactorily be represented by a single line on the map. There is ‘no need to attempt to craw structure contours for Observe the height of the seam at points A, B ‘and C where it outerops. Join witha straight ine the highest point on the coal seam, C (600 m) to the lowest point on the seam, A (200 ri). Divide the line A-C into four equal paris (since 600 m—200 m= 400m). As the slope of the ‘Seamis constant we can find a point on AC where te seam is al a height of 400 m (the mic-poin), We also know that the seam is at a height of 400 m at point B. A straight line drawn through these two points is the 400 m structure contour. Ona simply dipping stratum such as this, all struc- ture contours are paralel. Construct the 200 m structure contour through point A, the 800 m, the 500m and the 600m structure contour - the latter through point C. Having now established both the direction and the spacing of the structure contours, complete the pattern over tne whole ot themap. Depth in boreholes Relative to sea level, the height of the ground at the site of a borehole can be estimated from its proximity to contour lines and tnat of the coal ‘seam at the same point on the map can be calcu- lated from the structure contours. Quite simply, n the ground su: to which the bore- 1"Map 8 Deduce the dip and strike of the coal seam whichis seen o outcrop at points A, Band. At ‘what depth would the seam be encountered ina borehole sunkat point D? Complete the outcrops of the ‘seam, Woulda seam 200 m below this one also outcrop within the area ol the map? Contours inmetres, 12= 2 ~~ = = = = ~~ od . 3 Insertion of outcrops ‘The structure contours were drawn by ascertain- ing the height of the coal seam where it out- cropped on contour lines. Wherever the seam ~ defined by its structure contours ~ is at the same height as the ground surface ~ defined by topographic contour lines ~ itwill outcrop. We can find on the map a number of intersections at which structure contours and topographic con- tours are of the same height: the outcrop of the ‘Seam must pass through all these points Further, these points cannot be joined by straight lines. We must bear in mind that where the seam lies between two structure contours, e.g. the 300 m and 400 m, it can only outcrop where the ground is also al a height of between 300 m and 400m, ie. between the 300 m and 400 m topographic contours (Fig. 9). The out- crop of a geological boundary suriace cannot, on ‘amap, cross a structure contour or a topographic contour line except where they intersect at the same height, Fig. 9. The insertion ofa geological boundary on a map with topographic contours and structure Map 6 Borehole Apasses hroughacoalseamatadeptho!S0 mandreachesalower seamat ‘adeptho! 450 m. Boreholes Band reach the lower seamatdepths of 150 mand250 m respectively. Having determined ne dipandstrike, mapinthe outcropsof the twoseams (assume thatthe seamshaveaconstant vertical separationof 400 m).Indicate the areas where theupper seamis tadepthoflessthan50 mbelow the groundsurface. tisnecessary tofirstcalculate the height relative to seaievel) of thelower coalseamat each of thepoints A, BandC where boreholesaresited. 13Map 6 “4aa SISSSFSS ESET ESESE EEE SCALE metres 00] Map 7_ Three bedsoutcrop — conglomerate, sandstone andsshale. Complete the geological boundaries betweenthesebeds, assuming that nebeds allhave thesamedip. Indicate on the ‘mapaniniorandanoutier. 153 Unconformities In terms of geological history an unconformity represents a period of lime during which strata fare not laid down, During this period, strata already formed may be uplifted and tited by earthmovements which also terminated sed- mentation, The uplified strata, coming under the elects of sub-acrial weathering and erosion, are ‘worn down’ to a greater or lesser extent before subsidence causes the renewal of sedimentation {and the formation of further sirala. As a result we find, in the field, one set of strata resting on the eroded surface of an older set of becs. Many of the features which characterize Lunconformities cannot be deduced from map evi- dence alone. For example, only nthe fieldcanone ‘observe ine actual erosion surface, the presence ff palaeosols, hardgrounds, etc. Derived trag- ments of the older strata may be redeposited in the postuncontormity strata (sometimes as a ‘basal conglomerate) and the analogous but much rarer phenomenon of derived fossils may be seen. Howaver, the evidence of agap inthe strati- ‘graphic succession should be indicated in the stratigraphic column provided on a map and some of the above features may be referred to in the data given. ‘On a map the main evidence of unconformity is: a difference of dip and strike direction in the pre- ‘and postunceniormity strata. Earth movernents which, by uplift, terminated sedimentation and subsequent sinking which permitted resumed sedimentation frequently resulted in differences of dip and strike. ‘An exception to this can be found on the mar- ‘ins of tne London Basin, where the Lower Ter- liary beds rest uncontormably on the Chalk with litle diference in strike or dip yet, by comparison with successions of strata on the otner side of the ‘Channel, we know that this is a major unconform- ily representing a long period of time since, in Britain, tne uppermost stage of the Chalk and the lowest wo stages of the Tertiary are absent in some cases an unconformity represents a time interval of such length that the older strata were intruded by igneous rocks or were subjected tometamorphism. Overstep Usually the lowest bed of the younger series of sirala, having a quite different dip and strike from that of the older strata, rests on beds of different ‘age. This teature (Fig. 10) Is called oversiep; bed X is said to overstep beds A, B, C, etc If the older strata were tilted before erosion took place, they meet the plane of unconformity ‘at an angle, and there is said fo be an ‘angular ‘unconformity’ (Fig. 10). Overlap ‘As subsidence continues and the sea for exam- ple spreads further on to the old land area, suc- cessive beds are laid down, and they may be of greater Geographical extent, so thal a particular 'bed soreads beyond, or overlaps, the preceding bed. This feature (Fig. 11) may accompany an unconformity with or without overstep. Bed Y ‘overlaps Bed X. (The converse effect, that of successive beds being laid down over a pio- gressively contracting area of deposition, due to {fadual upltt, is known as oftlap. Such a feature is rarely deducibie from a geological map and will bbe discussed no further.) Map 8 Findthe plane of unconformity, Deduce the drectionandamountot ipo! thetwoseries otbeds. Drawasectionslongtheline fromthe north-wes! ‘comer of themap tothe south-east corner, Wouldthe coal seambe encounteredinborehc! ssiluatedatpoints A, BendC?ifthe coalispresentcaiculateits depthbelow the ground surface, fitisabsent suggest an explanation foritsabsence. Indicate the position of the coalseambeneathbedY. 16 IPA RARARRARAR ee frees nanrenrereere rrr rere re |Map 8 PLELAALALLLPPPLPLP LPO RALEPO CSO OO RPP RDoverstep Two principal types of unconformity are recognizable: (1) planes of marine erosion, readily definable by structure contours, (2) buried landscapes. Sub-aerial erosion nad ot produced a peneplain and the post- unconformity sediments were deposited on a very irregular surtace of hills and valleys, grad- Lally burying these features. Problem maps 8, 16 and 20 ere exercises based fon type (1). Usually, itis necessary to look at a bbroader regional geology to see the effects of buried landscape. See below the note on the ‘Assynt one-inch geological shoot. Sub-unconformity outcrops ‘An unconformity represents @ period of erosion, Tens or hundreds of metres of strata may be removed. How can we examine this phenomenon ‘and deduce what remains of the older strata ~ Sections across published Geological Survey Maps ‘special sheet Examine the wosternpartof the map tofindthe Assynt 1" Geological Surv Fig. 10 Block diagram of an angular unconformity. Fig. 11 Block diagram of an unconformity with overlap. since they are now covered by post-unconformity strata? We could, of course, in practice remove all post-unconformity strata with a bulldozer and ‘other earth-moving equipment to reveal the plane of unconformity. We can, by a study of the struc ture contours, deduce trom 2 map Just what we should expect to see if that was possible. ‘What we seek are the ‘outcrops’ of the older strata on the plane of unconformity. This plane can be defined by its structure contours. If we now take the structure contours drawn on the ‘geciogical boundaries of the older set of strata and note where they intersect, not ground con- tours, but the structure contours of the plane of unconformity, we can plot ~ where th. two sets of structure ‘contours intersect at ine same height ~ a number of points which will Gefine the ‘sub-uncontormity outcrops. This exercise can be atiempted on Map 8, The topic will be revised on a laler page and Maps 10 and 16 give further practical exercises. unconformities at the base othe Torridonian and ine base ofthe Cambrian, Drawvasectionalong thenorth~south grdline 22 to show inese unconformities. From your knowiedge of the conditions under which the Torridonian andLower Cembrian were deposited.can you explainhow andwhy theseuncontormities itfer? ‘Shrewsbury 1” MapNo.152_ Examine the map carefully. Howmany othe unconformities Indicatedin he geological columnin the marginsare deducible from the map evidence? 18 nanrenrrereercercecececerceccerreccerce |4 Folding We have seen that strata are frequently inclined (oF dipping). On examining the strata over a wider area itis found that the inclination is not constant and, 8 a rule, the inclined strata are part of a ‘uch greater structure. For example, the Chalk of the South Downs dips generally southwards towards the Channel ~ as can be determined by ‘examination of the 150,000 Geological Survey map of Brighton (Sheet No. 315). We know, how: i ‘ever, that in tne North Downs the Chalk dips to the north (passing beneath the London Basin); the Inclined strata of the South and North Downs are really parts of a great structure which arched up the rocks including the Chalk over the Wealden area. Not all arching of the strata is of this large scale and minor folding of the strata can be seen to occur near the centre of the Brighton sheet Folding of strata represents a shortening of the 1 earth's crust and results from compressive forces. Anticlines and synclines Where the beds are bent upwards into an arch the structure is called an anticline (anti= opposite: lino = slope; the beds dip away from each other anticLine SYNCUINE i ' 1 1 T i Fig. 12 Diagrammatic section of folded strata SIEPTS TAA TESTE EGE EEE ETITEI 444445506 | (on opposite sides of the arctuike structure) Where the beds are bowed downwards the structure is called a synciine (syn=together clino= slope; ‘beds dip inwards towards each ther) (Fig. 12). In the simplest case the beds on each side of a fold structure, ie. the limbs of the fold, have the same amount of dip and the fold is ‘symmetrical. in this case a plane bisecting the {old, called the axial plane, is vertical. The fold is called an upright fold whenever the axial plane is inter-limb angle Fig. 13 Block diagram of a symmetrical anticline jan upright fol) sx ari0! plone inter-limb angle Fig. 14. Block diagram of a syrametrical syncline [an upright fold). 19vettcal or steeply dipping. (Where axial planes have a low dip oF ate nearly horizontal, see Fig, 38a, folds are called tat folds.) ‘The effect of erosion on folded strata is to pro- ‘duce outcrops such that the succession of beds ‘of one limb is repeated, though of course in the feverse order, in the other limb, In an eroded anti- cline the oldest bed outcrops in the centre of the structure and, as we move oulwards, success- ively younger beds are found to outcrop (Fig, 13). In an eroded synciine, conversely, the youngest bed outerops at the centre of the structure with successively older beds outcropping to either side (Fig. 14). inter-limb angle Dg Fig. 15 Block diagram of an asymmetrical syneline (an inelined fold) Asymmetrical fold: In many cases the stresses in the earth's crust Producing folding are such that the foids are not symmetrical like nose describes above. It the ‘beds of one limb of a fold dip more steeply than the beds of the other limb, then the fold is asym- ‘metiical. The difierences in dip of he beds of the {wo limbs will be reflected in the widths of their uterops, which will be narrower in the case of the limb with the steeper dip (Fig, 15). (See also p.9 and Fig. 8). Now, the axial plane bisecting the fold is no longer vertical but is inclined and the. {old is called an inctined fold. Overfolds Ifthe asymmetry of a lold is s0 great that both limbs dip in the same direction (though will different angles of dip), that is to say the steeply dipping limb of an asymmetrical fold has axial planes Fig. 16 Block diagram of an overfold fan overfolded syncline} 20 Fig. 17 Block diagrams of isoclinal folding (a) upright folds (6) overfolds rr/ererreereceerrceecece ccc$bbbb0s SST TEIIIGIIII5 9943455500000 - been pushed beyond the vertical so that it has a reversed - usually steep - dip, the fold is called ‘an overfold (Fig. 16). The strata of the limb with the reversed dip, it should be noted, are upside down, ie. inverted. Figures 14 to 17 show a progressive decrease inintersimb angle Figures 14 to 17 illustrate fold structures pro- duced in response to increasing tectonic stress, Further terminology should be noted. Where the limbs of a fold dip at only a few degrees itis a gentle fold, with somewhat greater dip (Figs. 13, 14) a fold is described as open, with steeper dip- bing limbs a fold is described as close and with Parallel limbs (Fig. 17a, b) the folding is isoclinal axial planes Fig. 18 In an area of more complex structural geology, not produced simply by one epach of compression, fat folds such as these may be found. They are open folds with horizontal ot near-horizontal axial planes. Isoclinal folds Isociinal folds are a special case of over-folding in which the limbs of a fold both dip in the same direction at the same angle ((sos= equal: clino= slope), as the term suggests (Fig. 17). The axial planes of a series of such foids will also be approximately parallel over a ‘small area, but over a larger erea extending per- haps forty kilometres (greater than that portrayed ina problem map) they may be seen to form a fan structure. ‘compression faulting stretching of beds (compression on inside of are) Similar and concentric folding When strata, orginally horizontal, ae folded itis ‘lear that the higher beds of an anticine form a ‘greater arc than the lower beds (and the converse ‘applies in a syncline). Theoretically at least two ‘mechanisms are possible: the beds on the out. side of a fold may be relatively stretched while those on the inside are compressed, or the beds Con the outside of a fold may slide over the surface of the inner beds (Fig. 19). bedding slip Fig. 19 The response of strata to folding, wo possible mechanisms, 21LEEEEE EET III III IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII ‘IIIS; 22SESEFESSTAVIL IGS SEESECCTECR TS ad The way in which beds will react to stress depends upon their constituent materials and the level in the crust at which the rocks lie). Compe- ‘ent rocks such as limestone and sandstone do not readily extend under tension or compress under compressive forces bul give way by fact turing and buckling while incompetent rocks such as shale or clay can be stretched or squeezed, Thus in an alternating sequence of sandstones ‘and shales the sandstones will fracture and buckle while the shales will squeeze into the available spaces. Concentric folds The beds of each fold are approximately concentric, Le, successive beds are bent into arcs having the same centre of cur- valure. Beds retain their constituent thickness found the curves and there ‘is litle thinning or attenuation of beds in the limbs of the folds (ig. 208). concentrle folding ig. 20, The sha Two possible directions of strike A structure contour is drawn by joining points at Which a geological boundary surface (or beading plane) is at the same height. By definition this surface is at the same height along the whole Jength of that structure contour. Cleary, if we join points X and Y (Fig. 21) we are constructing a structure contour for the bedding plane shown, {or not only are points X and ¥ at the same height, but the bedding plane is at the same height along Straight imbed folds also maintain the uniform ity of thickness of the beds (except in the hinge of {he fold) and folding takes place by slip along the bedding planes as it does in the case of concen Wie folds. Although typically developed in thinly bedded rocks (such as the Culm Measures of North Devon) most of the problem maps in this ‘book which illustrate folding have straight limbed folds since these provide a simple pattern of equally spaced structure contours on each limb of atoid. Similar folds The shape of successive bed- Ging planes is essentially similar, hence the name (Fig. 206). Thinning of the beds takes place in the limbs of the foids (and a strong axial plane cleav- ‘age is usually developed). This type of folding probably occurs when temperatures and pres- ‘sures are high, imllor folding fof concentric and similar folding seen tn section, Fig. 21. Block diagram co illustrate the direction of structure contours in folded strata 23PIDFIDIDIPIIIIIIIIIIIIGVI IFS IIIs ssUUUU or dow 24SIISTSAA AAA ATSTTTA TATA TTT STEEL L SSS the line X-. Il, however, we join the points W dX, anough they are at the same height, we are not constructing a structure contour. for the bedding plane isnot at the same height aiong the line W-X; it's folded downwards into a synciine Thus, if we alternpt to draw a structure contour pattern which proves to be incorrect, we should look for the correct direction approximately at right angles to our fist attempt. I should aiso be noted that an attempt fo visualze the structures, must be made. For example, in Map 9 the valley sides provide, in essence, a section which sug- {gests he syncina structure, especially i the map istumed upside down and viewed irom the non Map 11: similarly reveals the essential nature of the sttuctures by regarding the nocihern valley side asa section. To facilitate his, fold the map at Tight angles along the line ofthe valley bottom Now regard the top nal of the map as an approx ‘mate goological section. What isthe fest of whether we have found the correct direction of strike? In these relatively sim- ‘ple maps the structure contours should be paral Ie and equally spaced (at least for each limb of a fold sruciure). Furthermore, calculations of true thicknesses of a bed at diferent points on the ‘map should give the same value. Note on Map 10 You should find three areas where Bed E occurs underneath younger beds, ‘The eastern extent of Bed E could be deduced by Published Geological Survey Maps Joining the three points where the DIE junction is Cut by the base of Bed X. However, to contitm that this is correct itis necessary to use the inter- section of the two sets of structure contours (on iE and on the base of). This method is the only way in which the westem exient of Bed E can be delined. Remember (see p. 18 ‘Sub-uncontormity out- crops’) that the topography is irrelevant fo the solution of this part of the problem. The surface (on which we are plotting the outcrop of the D/E boundary is the plane of unconformity, defined by the structure contours drawn on the base of Bed X. You will find it necessary to use intersections of ‘structure contours which are now above ground level: although the strata in question ave now been eroded away from these points, the points themselves remain valid as construc tion points. Notes on the Lewes map Here, as elsewhere in the south-east of England, the Chalk of Upper Cretaceous age is a compact rock more resistant to erosion than the softer clays and sands of pre- Chalk age. There is less information on dip of strata than desirable, although dips are given to the north and south of the town of Lewes. Remember to allow for the vertical exaggeration bby multiplying the gradient (tangent) of given dips by 4. Where dip information i less than adequate the beds must be fitted to the outcrops at an angle of dip which gives tne correct thicknesses of strata shown in the stratigraphic column on the map. Lewes, 1:50,000, BGS Map Sheet No. 918) Solid &Dritedition, 1979 Siudy the geology of this reaonthe southernlimb ofthe Wealden antcine. Note the general structuraltrend, close to E-W, andthe" younging‘of beds southwards. Study therelationship of topography to geology Drawasection along thelineof Section 1 (south ofgridine 117). Make the verical exaggeration x4 (thesameas the BGS section onthismap) Map 10 _Indicateon themap the outcropof the plane of unconformity. Insert the axialtracesof thetolds. Draw asection along theline PQ toilustrate the geology. Indicateonthemapthe extentot Bed Ebeneath the overlyingstrata | 25PEELE ECEUUUL LULU Ce ee I IS IIIGI IS FIIIAS[PSSST VES ETTIIITIIT III Fb sss eb VED VDe0y 5 Faults The previous chapter showed how geological strata subjected to stress may be bent into difer- ‘ent types of folds. Strala may also respond to stress (compression, extension or sheating) by fracturing, Faults are fractures which displace the rocks, The strata on one side of a fault may be vertically displaced tens, or even hundreds, of metres rela- tive to the strata on the other side. In another type of fault the rocks may have been displaced hori Zontally for a distance of many kilometres. While Nature a fault may consist of a plane surface ‘along which slipping has taken place, it may on the other hand be represented by a zone ol brec- lated (composed of angular fragments) rock. For the purposes of mapping problems it can be treated as a plane surface, usually making an angle with the vertical All structural measurements are made with feterence to the horizontal, including tne dip of a fault plane. This is a measure ofits slope, cl the dip of bedding planes, etc. The term ‘hade’, for. ‘meriy used, is the angle between the fault plane ‘and the vertical (and is therefore the complement Of the dip). It causes some contusion but it will be widely encountered in books and on maps ands, down-throw upthrow congieot role ts fede want, HEAVE Fig. 22. Section through strata displaced by « ‘normal fault (after erosion has produced a ‘ear-level ground surface) {or this reason, shown in Figures 22 and 23. itil, ‘no doubi, cradually drop out of usage. ‘The most common displacement of the strata On either side of a fault is in a vertical sense. The vertical displacement of any bedding plane is Called the throw of the fault. Other directions of => Itcan be seen thal since the fault plane dips, the intersections with a bedding plane on each side (of the fault do not coincide (in plan view). Con- sider an economically important bed, for example (of coal or ironstone. in the case of @ normal fault there is a zone where a borehole would not pene- trate this bed at all duo tothe effect of neave (see Fig. 22). This is important when calculating eco- nomic reserves, for example in a highly faulted Coalfield. The estimate of reserves could be as much 85 15% 100 greal unless allowance had been made for fault heave. In the case of a reversed fault 2 zone exisis where a borehole would penetrate the same bed twice. Figure 28 shows, in section, how a borehole after pene- twating'a coal seam would penetrate the fault plane and, beneath it, ne same seam. In calcu: lating reserves itis vital to recognize that itis the same seam which the borehole has encountered or reserve calculations would be wrong by @ factor of approximately two. imo borehole Fig. 28 Section to show a ‘low angle’ (high hade) reversed fault end its importance in mining, problems. Wrench or tear faults Inthe case of these faults the strata on either éide Of the fault plane have been moved laterally rela tive to each other, i.e. movement has been ahor!- zontal displacement parallel to the fault plane. In the case of simply dipping straia the outcrops are shifted laterally (Fig. 29) so thatthe effect, on the ‘outcrops, is similar to that of a normal dip fault (ct Fig. 29 Block diagramofa wrench |= teat fault, Notethat theeffectonthe outcropsissimilar to thatof anormal dipfault (ef. Fig. 276). Fig. 27) ~ and inthis case itis usually impossible to demonstrate strike-slip from the map alone {apparent slp only can be found). In some geological contexts the terminology based on the direction of movement relative to the dip and strike of the fault plane is preferable. Faults in which movernent has been in the strike irection of the fault plane (= strike-slip faults) include wrench faults. Notes on Map 13 The dip of the strata at Eis ‘anomalous, the result of a phenomenon called faultrag, ‘The effect of faults which are parallel to the dip of the strata to laterally shit outcrops (see p. 31 ‘and Map 12). The extent ofthis shift depends on two factors, the amount of throw of the vault and the angle of dip of the strata. AC, on Map 13, the ‘geological boundary is displaced very little, but at D the displacement is considerable {the shift is ‘almost equal to the width of outcrop of Bed 4). At Cand D the dips of the strata are similar so we ‘can conclude thatthe fault at O has a much larger thvow than the fault at. tmay be assumed that all the faulting here is normal. Since we have no means of calculating the dip of the fautt planes, in your section give faults a conventional dip towards the downthrow of 80 to 85°. Map 13. Onthemapindicate the downthrow direction ofallfaults whereithasnot been shown, Indicate exampiesof a)acraben and{(b) step faulting, Drawasectionalong the nearly east-west line XY tollustrate the geology. Reproducedby permissionot the Director General, British Geological Survey: NERCcopyrightreserved.CALE metres S00 FOTO OE OE OEE EO OOCCE REEF RAAALAAARAATAAN66 pete Pre- and post-unconformity faulting Alter the deposition of the older set of strata earth ‘movements causing upiilt may also give rise to fauling of the strata. The unconformable series (the younger set of beds), not being laid down Lntila later period, are unaffected by this faulting, Earth movements subsequent to the deposition of the uncontormable beds would, if they caused faulting, produce faults which affect both sets of strata. Cleatly, itis possible to determine the rela- tive age o a faut from inspection ofthe geological ‘map which will show whether the fault displaces only the older (pre-unconformity) strata or whether IN displaces both sets of strata. A fault is later in age than the youngest beds it cuts. ‘A fault may also be dated relative to igneous Intrusions, a topic deait within the last chapter. Structural inliers and outliers The increased complexity of outcrop patterns ‘due o unconformity and faulting greatly increases ‘the potential for the formation of outliers andiniiers (hese terms have been defined on p. 9). Indicate ‘on Map 16 inliers and outliers which owe their existence to such structural features and sub- sequent erosional isolation, Posthumous faulting Further moverneni may take place along an exist- Ing fault plane. So the displacement of the strata Iattrbutable to two or more geological periods. It follows that an older series of strata may be isplaced by an early movement of the fault which did not affect newer rocks since they were laid down subsequently. The renewed movement ‘along the fault will displace both strata so the older strata willbe displaced by a greater amount since they have been displaced twice (the throws are ‘added together). Isopachytes thick) are lines (of equal thickness. The simplest use of isopa- cchytes is to show the thickness of cover material overlying a bed of economic importance, such as ‘acoal seam or ironstone, The overlying material ~ whatever its composition: strata, soll and subsolt = is called the overburden. Its thickness can be determined where the height of the top of an economic bed (ironstone, Map 15) is known trom, itsstructure contours, and the height ofthe ground al the same point is known from the topographic contours. Wherever structure contours and topographic contours intersect on the map we ‘can obiaina figure or the thickness of overburden (by subtracting the height of the top of the iron- ‘sone from the height of the ground). Joining up the points of equal thickness gives anisopachyte. Where ironstone and ground are at ihe same height the thickness of overburden is nil and the bed must outerop. (lis outcrop would be the 0m Isopachyle.) Bed (or stratum) isopachytes, con ‘cerned with beds of varying thickness, are dealt with on p. 45. Note on Map 14 The zone in which a borehole penetrates the seam twice is defined by tne lines Of intersection of the fault plane and ine coal seam (Fig. 28). The surlaces intersect where thay are atthe same height (where the coal seam structure contours and the fauit plane structure contours ofthe same height coincide, Map 14 ThelineFFis he outcrop ofafaultplane. Theotherthicklneonthemapis the ‘outcrop of acoal seam, Shade ereas where coalcould be penetratedby aborehole (whereithas notbeenremovedby erosion). nckcateareasin whichany borehole wouldpenetrate theseam twice, Whattype of fautis this? Drawasectionalong the lineX—Y..Draw the 100 moverburden, Isopachyte, i.e. alinejoiningall points where the coalisoverlainby 100 mot strata Lurks - cc BUTTS CT |CMM U OU OEE EUR EEUU SI GV III IIIIG lao] |_— Iso |15|20 BOREHOLE DATA [DEPTH TO BASE OF] ATB[C SHALE IRONSTONE Map 15 36dovdvovvddodIdG VHF LEEK ELELELE ‘ weueveve jaw PublshedGeologicalSurvey Maps Chestertiold:1 Geological Survey map(ShoetNo. 112) Findthemajorunconformityonthis ‘map, Locate some faults whichare older thanthe Permian bedsandsome which are younger, Drawasectionalongalineacross themap ensuring thatitpasses through the Ashoveranticinein thesouth-west. Published Geological Survey Maps = Leods1:50 000MapNo.70 Drawasectionalong the'Lineot Section’ engravedon themapto showthe geologicalstructures. Map 15 Thewesternpartofthemap.comprisesethree-polntproblem enablingustodraw structure contoursat 10 mintervalson the base ofthe ironstone. Assuming thetop ofthe ironstone tobe 20 mhigher, why does borehole Bpenetrateonly 15 mofkonstone?Eastof the ‘ault(anormalfauitothigh angle of dip), produce the structure contoursandre-number them 20 mlower(since the fautisshownashavingadownthrowot20 mtothe east). Shade cutcrops. ofironore onboth sidesofthe fault Also snadeareas where theironstonecouldbe worked ‘opencastifnotmore than 40 mot overying shaleistobe removed,i.e. draw the overburden isopachyte for 40 m. Drawasectionalonganorth-south line passing through point andanother sectionalongan east-westline passing throughB, e 37* ACOA AAA IO BORO ACRE COOOTOCOCOCOCOAGCCIGSah ehhh hahahah6 More folds and faulted folds Plunging folds In the folds so far studied, the axis ofthe fold has ‘been horizontal. The axis isthe intersection of the ‘axial plane with any bedding plane. (Make a syn- inal fold by taking a piece ot paper and folding it in two to make a simple V-shape. Drop a pencil into this and it will assume the position of the axis, ‘ofthe fold.) Sucti a fold, with the axis horizontal, is called @ non-plunging old. The outerops of ine limbs tend to be parallel (but of course are atlected by the configuration ofthe ground) since the structure contours crawn on one limb are par all to those drawn on tne other limb. (They have, as wel, been paralle to the axial plane anc, in cases where the axial plane was vertical, parallel to the axial trace (=outorop ofthe axial plane),) ‘Where the fold axis isnot horizontal, buts In- clined, the fold is decribed as plunging. Some fold siructures can be traced for many kilometres, ctners are of much more limited extent. Evento: aly @ fold wll die out by plunging (Fig. 30). Ant Clinal folds which die out by plunging at both ends, giving rise to eliptical outcrop pattems, are 40 called pericines and are a common occurrence. Simple folds which have been subsequently tited by further earth movements will also plunge, This is, furthermore, the simplest way of ‘considering such structures although they may originate in other ways. This lype of foldis referred Fig, 30. Map showing the outcrops of antic aly eds omen to in some earlier books as a ‘pitching’ fold, and ‘ot infrequently the terms ‘pitch’ and ‘plunge’ are used. synonymously. The advanced student should consult F.C. Philips's The Use of Stereo- graphical Projection in Structural Geology 3rd edition (London, Edward Amoid, 1971), which Geals fully with these terms. It is best to restrict the term ‘pitch’ to such linear features as striae, slickensides or lineations on a plane. They have both plunge (the angie they make with the horie zontal) and pitch (the angle they make with the sirike direction of tne plane), Reject the use of the term pitch when referring to folds, Since problems entailing pitch can be solved (quite simply) by the Use of stereographic projection they are not included in this book. Lee RE RE RE REE R AAR A AAR AR AAAAS IIITlela ee eee | Fig. 31 Block diagram of a plunging syncline. Fig, 32a) Block diagram of a plunging anticline ‘with the plunge towards the observer, (b) Plunging anticline wich the plunge away from the observer, eroded strata showa in broken lines. ‘The effects of erosion on plunging folds are ‘seen in Figs. 31 and 32, The outcrops of the geo- logical interfaces (on the srike) of the wo limbs of a fold are not parallel. While the structure con- tours are parallel for the beds of each limb, those Of the two limbs converge, meeting at the axial plane (Fig. 33), Fig. 33 Mapofthe structure contourpattern ofa plunging fold.VIDd “Od au au Guole vonoas e mi2ig “dew ain Uo seuE( rere plo} axa 40 sdos0INo YesUI Zs9xe-pjO} Ou) Jo @BuNd Jo UNOUe ink “uorss20Ns ou UI (Aye! 0A) 194014 wl ODE SOM YOUMA wos JOYJOUE Jo dos04NO Ou} OSU OBIy “7 PUR A YEUMOD 1nd Je uidep ain uMeI2q “wees feod AU} Jo dosoInO ayy B}2\dwOD “x PaYeU SjUIOK je1oAoS 'S9}04210q 94) Ul S9s19UY ODE Jo UIdOp Bye PUNO} O9[@ SEM] WEDS EOD JodoNINO ay JOURdsMoYs dew ay) BL deyy ID ID DE IMS DD MDE WE di 2eee REESE Seer TETRNESORTEE SEVERE EDS Calculation of the amount of plunge Just as the inclination of the beds (dip) can be calculated {rom the spacing of the structure contours (see 'p. 6) measured in the direction of dip, so can the ‘plunge of the fold be calculated from the spacing ff the structure contours measured in the direc tion of plunge, ie. along the axis. The plunge of the fold shown in Fig. 33s, expressed as a gragi- ent, 1 in 3.5 lo the north), ifthe scale of the dia- ‘grams 1 cm=200 m, since the structure contour spacing measured along the axis is 1.75 em, (The dip of the bedding plane of each limb is 1 in 2: check that this is so.) Where we have no structure contours enabling accurate calculation of the angle of plunge, itis ossibie to give some estimate of it from width of ‘outcrop. In Figure 30 the outcrop of tne coarsely slippled bed is about twice as wide in the direc tion of plunge as itis in the limbs of the fold, We ccan conclude thal the amount of plunge is consid- erably less than the angle of dip ofthe limbs of the fold. The relationship of dip to width of outcrop was discussed in Chapter 1 ‘The effects of faulting on fold structures We have seen in Chapter 5 that the effect of dip- slip faulting (normal and reversed faults), followed byerosion, producesalateralshittof outcrop inthe direction of the dip of the strata on the upthrow side. Observe that on Figure 34 the vertical axial plane of a symmetrical fold is not displaced but ‘the dipping planes snow a shit of outcrop. Remember that the lower the angle of dip the ‘greater the shift of outerop, Fig. 34 Block diagram showing folded strata {one bed is stippled for clarity} displaced by a ‘portal fault ‘Since the shift of outcrop is down-dip asa result (of erosion, it follows that on the upthrow sige of a fault the outcrops of the limbs of an anticline are more widely separated (than on the downlhrow Side). Conversely, the outcrops of the limbs of a ssyncline are cioser together on the upthrow side (than on the downthrow) (Fig. 34). On an asymmetiical fold, tere will be @ more pronounced shift of the outcrops of the limb with the lower angle of dip and a less pronounced shift of the outcrops of the steeper dipping limb. In the “imiting’ case of a monoctinal fold with a vertical limb there will be no shift of outcrops of the vert- cal beds. The axial plane of an asymmetrical fold dips, therefore the axial trace will be displaced. In the case of overfoids - where both limbs dip Inthe same direction (see Fig. 16) ~ naturally the outcrops of both limbs will be shifted in the same direction by a dip-slip fault. Of course the out- Crops of the shallow limb willbe shilted more than those of the steeper dipping overturned limb. Displacement of folds by strike- slip (wrench) faults A wrench fault causes a lateral (horizontal) dis- {ovation o° displacement ofthe strata which may in some case be of many kilometres. The effect of a wrench faults to displace the outcrops of beds, always in the same direction ~ and its effect on the outcrops of simply dipping strata in certain circumstances is similar to that of anormal fault: it may not be possible to recognize from the evi- dence a map can provide whether a feult vertical or a lateral displacement (see p. 29). However, the effects of a wrench fault on folded axial plane ig. 35 Block diagram showing similar beds to Hig. 34 displaced by a wrench fault 43beds is immediately distinguishable trom te elfecis of a normal fault since it will displace the outcrops of both limbs by an equat amount and in the same direction (whether the fold be symme~ vical or asymmetrical) and, further, the outcrops of a bed occurring inthe limbs ofa fold will be the same distance apart on both sides of the fault plano (Fig. 36). The axial plane will, of course, be laterally displaced by the same amount as the out- crops of the beds occurring in the limbs of the fold, and this displacement occurs whether the axial plane Is vertical (in a symmetrical fold) oF inclined (in an asymmetiical fold). Compare Figs. 24 and 35. Calculation of strike-slip displacement Where any vertical phenomenon is present, for example the axial plane of a symmetrical fold, vertical strata, igneous dyke, etc. the lateral dis- placement by’the fault can be measured directly from the map. Ifthe strata are dipping and the fault is a purely strike-slip tautt with no vertical compo- nent, oF throw, (Le. it is not an oblique-stip fault, see Fig. 25) then we can simply find the lateral shift by measuring the dispiacement of any chosen structure contour on a given geological bouncary. Where strata are folded it is easy 10 measure the lateral displacement of fold axes of ‘xia pianes (Fig. 35), Faults parallel to the limbs of a fold So far we have considered faults which were per- Pendicular to the axial planes of the folds or, at least, cut across the axial plane. A fault which Is. Parallel to the strike of the beds forming the limb Of afoldis, of course, a strike fault. This willcause _’lther repetition of the outcrops or suppression of the outcrops of part of the succession, in the ‘manner discussed on p. 29, Sub-surface structures ‘An interesting and important geological consider- ation is the deduction of the disposition of strata ‘beneath an unconformity. In effect we are consid- ering the ‘outcrop’ pattern on the plane of uncon- formity. If we could use a bulldozer to remove all 44 strata above thal plane we would see the earlier, ‘re-unconformity strata outcropping. This problem was touched on briefly in Map 8 ‘where unconformity was introduced. not already completed, retuin to Map 8 and insert the sub- ‘unconformity outcrop of the coal seam, (Remem- bor that topographic contours are now irrelevant; the surface we are considering is the plane ‘of unconiormity which is defined by the struc- ture contours drawn on the base of Bed Y. Since botn sets of structure contours are in each ‘case straight, paraliel and equally spaced - tepresenting constant dips - their intersections ‘iving the sub-Y outcrop of the coal seam should Hieon a straight line.) Posthumous folding After the strata in an area have been laid down they may be uplted, folded and eroded as we have seen in the last chapter. Further subsidence ‘may cause the deposition of strata lying uncon- formably upon existing beds. Later stil the pro- cesses of uplift and folding may recur, when this ‘second period of folding is sald to be posthumous = ifthe fold axisin tne younger beds is parallel to, land approximately coincident with, tne similar fold axis in the older beds. The trend of the two ‘sels of folds may be parallel and the fold axes ‘may coincide, as in Fig. 36, or they may be paral lel but not coincident. ‘An excellent example of this can be seen demonstrated by the Upper and Lower Carboniferous age beds in the Forest of Dean area included on the BGS 1:50,000 map of Monmouth (Sheet 233). == <{ plane of Unconformity Fig. 36 Block diagram showing the effects of posthumous folding. L L & ~ ¥ ¥ . . . . . . . . « « « « « « « « .‘dp Sy 2onpep 0} Jops0 U} BUE}A Ne} BY} JO} SINO|UOD BINJonU|S MEd O} AressoDOUOg WAIL JOTTEL SMA IONISUCD OL “aUE ype] aly pu BUO|SpuES <4) ‘wes eEOO al} JO Sdos0}No @UCISOLUT LeIUILOY-qAs au dew! 949 UO Y2Su| AX OU Ou} SuOe LORODS eojGojoeb e mesg ‘dew atj Uo Se0EA [exe PIO} a4 HEsU) ‘sweted do;2;n ay] WYSE) eNJONN'SUWAySonpEG OZ dA© 100 200 oO ) OA metres oe N 350/ © 360 300 3500 co 1001 150 DO 50! 9-19 © 200 20 Map 21_ A wedge-shaped, igneous, sil-ike body is encountered in boreholes. The land surface: {s flat and horizontal over this area and the depths from the surface to the top and base ofthe sill are given beside each borehole. Construct structure contours forthe top of the sill and its base — ‘assuming that both top and bottom are uniformly dipping (but not parsllel). Construct iscpachytes ‘at 0 mintervals to show how the sill varies in thickness. Shade the araa where the sil outcrops. ‘Why isthe sill absent in boreholes A and B? Ifit was not found in boreholes at C and D how would you expiainits absence? 48 PTOMO KPT E CELE EOE FOCAFFFFERARAAAAAAAAAAAAPublished Geological Suvey Maps. fiaverfordwest:1:50,000 Map No.228 Draw section along the north-south grid line 197. tote the ctference in amplitude ofthe fldingin the Lower and Upper Palaeozols racks Tabudate Iinchronological order the geological events. s 2° . . ® 2 2 2 Por the coal seam using a 10 feet contour interval. inserton the map the 50ft and 1 00ft overburden isopachytes. (These willpass through all pointe where Be Bound contours end the structure contours forthe coalintersect and ater in height by Rryreetandby 100 eet. at: Natural, the overburden isopachyies willbe approximately parallel {othe outerop of he coalseam since inthis quite smallaroa ofthe map the topography Is rat Complex. Draw amap to show the isopachytes for he coal seam thioknessusinge centers’ vee 2 & i bevcvve z & ‘ g é. 7 2 5 8 5 s 3 2 z i g : z intersections ofthe two sets of structure contours deduce the thickness ofthe Lower Goal Measures at as many points as possible. Daw isopachytes at 60 mintervals or the Lower Coal Measures. (Note that nether structure contours norisopachytes can be drawn with aruler nave gxample.) Draving isopachytes can be done very conveniently onan overlay of acing paper ‘Alternatively, offerent colours may be used for fold evil traces, structure contours aro ‘sopachytes. Draw a section along a north-west—south-east in using a vertical scale ot 1 emn= 200 m(averica exaggeration 2.6). weebbbedesdd 49« as 7g ‘ P7960 4s “4 ry PPP PALLG tHE SC oy fs 238 / ¢ obo gniny Abs = Coal absent tracks © boreholes SCALE: 1inch = 200 feet u Map 22 join 50 ‘aahaaer neh‘ PIIPIPIIIIIPIII IAI IMI I MV VHLLLLLLL! | Map 23 827 Complex structures Nappes Following the discussion in Chapter 4 in which Overtolds were described, structures in which beds are overturned beyond the vertical, we next consider nappe structures. A nappe arises irom a Very large averfoid in which the strata are nearly horizontal over wide areas. The fold structure is felerted to as a recumbent fold and has been ‘pushed over’ so far that both limbs nave low angles of dip, and are approximately paral, although in the case of one limb the beds are actually upside-down; i.e. the succession is Inverted. Oniy atthe ‘nose’ of the structure where the strata are folded back on themselves will steep dips be encountered (Fig, 38a). ‘Of course, minor folding is usually super- imposed on a major fold suchas this so that locally sleep dips may be seen. This folding may be formed parasitic. The nature of the folding is Felated 10 its position on the averlold (Fig. 38b), ‘This minor folding, frequently seen in the field, is Of such a scale that it would be revealed only on large scale maps. The axial plane of a recumbent overlold is ‘nearly horizontal, but may be curved as in the Fig. 38 their positon on the overfold: M folds occur in the hinge region, § and 2 folds are fous oa ox tabs. above figure. Not infrequently the intense lateral Stresses producing recumbent folds aiso cause rupture of the strala and produce a ‘iow angle’ Feversed fault (making a low angie with the hori zontal), The thrust recumbent fold is a nappe structure (Fig. 39a). Thrust faults ‘A thrust is @ low angled fault plane along which movement has taken place, the strata above the thrust plane having baen carried often for great Gistancesin anear-horizontal direction, by intense earth movements, over the strata beneath. The thrust strata may have been displaced for a dis. tance of many kilometres and may, for example, in the case of the Moinian rocks of Assynt (Sutheriand) above the Moine Thrust, be quite dit- {erent from any of the other rocks inthe samme cis- trict. On the other hand, the strata above the thrust ay be similar to those beneath the thrust, but it ‘should be noted that frequently older rocks may bbe thrust over younger ones. Thus itis possible 10 find Pre-Cambrian rocks overlying (due to thrust. ing) Cambrian rocks. (b) {a} Wdealized block diagram of a recumbent overfold. (b) The relationship of minor folds to 53wee ve ee ISI I FI SSI I SS AIIIS SOV VOU UUUUULULE “Asojsiy eor6oj006 oy) ezuEWUNS AOU “8UY YINOS—YOU B OUOTe LONONS v MEAP pUuB dew! 04M 84) JaRO SdOLO}NO aU 21e1dwo9 "umexp eq 0} sunojuoa eunjona}s axqEUS 0} ]UE!OYINs Ing ‘dew oun AqpaxesOd ease syjUIMa; axe SdOIINO ye deWXu ‘The strata above a thrust plane may be approxi- ‘mately paraie! to it but, on the other hand, their dips may be unrelated to the inclination of the thrust plane, a whole block of rocks having been ‘moved en masse. Frequenlly, just above a thrust plane, dips are locally affected by the movement ‘along the thrust, beds being overturned due to the effects of drag over the rocks beneath the thrust. The strata beneath a thrust plane may be very ‘really allected by the forces associated with the thrusting. The effect on these beds is to produce imbricate structures. These comprise many paral: \etor near-paralel faults, sometimes of high angle of dip although they are reversed faults, which divide the unthvust area or foreland into “slices! (Fig. 39b), Fig 39 a Section of recumbent fod whic has bee thrust [a append [seton show Imbscate aructurs which commonly occur beneath such staan eee ™ Axial plane cleavage ‘When rocks which are bedded (oossessing what ‘may be termed primary structuros) are subjected to pressures = 0° stresses - they may, as We have discussed, become fractured by faults or they may become crumpled into fold structur ‘The stress applied to a rock may aleo oause Ito be deformed and new structures are formed such, as cleavage and schistosity. Cleavage is devel ‘oped a8 @ result of shortening of the rack in a Girection perpendicular to the cleavage planes with a stretching or extension of the rock in the plane of the cleavage. Cleavage is often found in rocks which are folded, The greatest shortening of strata due to folding is perpendicular to the fold axial planes ‘nd it therefore follows that cleavage planes are Parallel tothe fold axial planes, hence the cleav- ‘age is called axial plane cleavage: (This will not bbe true for a sequence of bods of citferent com- Petency nor, of course, in the case of complex Fefoided folds.) Cleavage dips, indicated by a symbo! euch ‘8. should not be confused with dips of bedding planés ~to which there may not seem at first ‘Sight to be an obvious relationship. This informa- tion must not, of course, be dismissed as some thing clouding the issue: if the cleavage Is axial Plane cleavage (the most frequently found) there willbe a consistent relationship between the Cleavage direction and the main structural fea- tures (folds). The cleavage will be paralie 1o the ‘axial planes ofthe folds. 55.Jini SCALE ch=1mile KEY ay | _A— Thrust planes =:— Fold axial traces 9,10 8 6.7 5 Upper Cretac, Lower Cretac. Jurassic Triassic 2,3,4 Upper Palaeo ~zole PORE OEP ERA E AR ARAARRASAAAANARIAIIIO NN A‘The relationship between the cleavage dip and the dip of the bedding reveals, in overfolds, in which limb the beds are the right way up and in which limb the beds are inverted. Cleavage dip steeper than bedding =rignt way up: bedding oip sleeper than cleavage dip=inverted (Fig. 40). This ‘Tule’ is necessarily true when there has been only one period of folding, Fig. 40. Section showing cleavage/bedding. relationships in overfolds with axial plane cleavage. Published Geological Survey Maps Assynt: 1" Geological Survey map (Special Sheet) | How may the thrust planes be distinguished from the unconformities? Find on the map some examples of imbricate structures. Map 25 adpted rom aporton the nc tothe mie sheet 63 Adams Lookout, Aber, cana. tia nay fede wn ot Upoar bauecrssund assis tate Sone ted sbuches pers longi tna tes ha rougiy NW-EE tend ote ne Grectono he Rormpont ons map: Oher pling li, expecay nar tsa ony Boal soveloped. Ter are steoy doping trata (Covered iu) Thy ro oko fouls ina Soutrwveteydpof about 0" telly reel isconaerae, 200 ot tom vate Potiom o pets butcontoushave been omit tom Map 25 for srptty. brava Sroe-ecton rue sek) slong the Pcon the pris provised (Fg. 41) Mos of the fi Sat rcet oo shown on ema. dete oy dtr wich ms hae been omits Show stash oks we ymca sk th) an Sch ar antcinal mak va A 8000_ 7000- p 6000 - 5000 4000 5000 3000 2600 2000 -| 1000 sea level ‘Topographic profile for section P-Q, Map 2. Fig. 41 878 Igneous rocks Igneous rocks may be divided, according to their mode of occurrence, into extrusive (lava poured ‘out onto the surface) and intrusive rocks (injected into existing rock). The intrusive igneous rocks may be further classilied according to thet form, but they fall from a structural point of view into {wo groups, namely, transgressive or discordant intrusions and concordant intustons, Concordant intrusions Sills The chief intrusions of this category are Sills, "beds’ ranging in thickness from metres to a {ew milimetres of igneous material, commonly dolerite or basalt or felsite, which are parallel to the bedding of the sedimentary rocks into which they have been intruded. The intrusion seldom causes any observable disturbance of strata so that a sill behaves structurally as though it were part of the stratigraphical succession: if, subse- ‘quent to intrusion, the beds are tited or folded then the sil is also tilted with the same dip or is folded. One respect in which a sil is distinguishable {rom the strata including it, apart from its petro- logy. is that itis younger than those strata: it has been intruded after they were laid down and ‘consolidated, perhaps long ter the sedimentary beds were formed. Consequently, the strata into which a sil is intruded may already have been faulted, so that we may find beds displaced by faults which do not displace the sil. Of course, faulting which occurs alter the intrusion of a sill wil displace sill and strata alike. ‘A Sill although normally concordant, may. change its horizon occurring at one level in tne sequence at one locality but ata different horizon at another locality. Otten such changes in horizon (or stratigraphical position are accomplished in ‘sieps’, Le. the changes are abrupt, the molten material being intruded taking advantage of lines. ‘of weakness such as joinis or existing fault planes (Fig. 42), Sills may also show changes in thickness, for 58 example the Great Whin Sil of northern England ‘may be as much as 39 metres thick in some out- ‘crops but in others less than 30 mettes. A sill may split laterally into ‘leaves’, a phenomenon not ‘seen in lava flows. is possible, however, to con- fuse this with rafts of sedimentary strata some- times caught up in ava flows. Sills, being composed of resistant rock, may ‘often be found capping hls, for example those on the Fite-Kinross border. A sill may form a pro- ounced escarpment such as the one on which Sitiring Castle is builtor the one which runs across Northumberland (made by the Great Whin Sill) on ‘which part of Hadrian's Wallis buil Other concordant intrusions such as laccoliths and lopolths, the form of which are described and defined in any petrology book, are of much less frequent occurrence and are not dealt with here. Fig. 42 Block diagram showing a sll intraded into dipping strata, Note that the sill is seen to change horizon abruptly POOCOOOCOOOOCEOCFRR RARE FARA RFA RR RADII III‘oIyssod 6194) se 3 se SYoo: sNOSUD} oY} josaBeannEa gy ui eonpap osty “sesnjea, jeunonsys soyjo oy) Pu SY901 sNoaUD} ot Jo WHO} Ot) MONS O| GEUFeLy 880198 SUOH}DOS MHI gz EN sioswoitby syD08 snoanor 900 02 1 | tn aivbs ONLava flows and tuffe ‘These are the products ejected trom active vol- ccanoes, bul in Britain there are many examples ‘esulling rom former periods of vuicanicity. From ‘map information alone a lava tlow may be dificull, to distinguish trom a sill, especially as both may be classed petrologically as basalt: rock type iS ‘nota reliable criterion, I! alavais poured out on to {an eroded surface it may come to rest on beds of cierent age, producing in effect an unconformity Ititis poured out on the sea bed or on to recently Luplitted un-eroded sediments then it will be ‘conformable’ and structurally resemble a stil ‘The field evidence that the upper surface of alava, is frequently weathered whereas that of a sil is Not, and the fact that a sill thermally metamor- hoses the overlying sediments, cannot be ‘deduced from map evidence. Voleanic ash which falls into water will be mixed with detrital sediment which is being deposited giving rise to ashy sediment. When volcanic activity is more intense beds will be comprised entirely of volcanic ash. Ash beds ‘may also be deposited on land. Beds of consoli- dated ash, known as tutt, may be interbedded with lavas or with sedimentary strata and, in the latter case may be regarded as sedimentary rocks despite their volcanic origin. Discordant intrusions Dykes These are vertical or near vertical intru- sions, commonly of dolerite or basalt, varying fom a few centimetres in width to several metres (ut rare examples are tens of metres wide). They are frequently traceable across country for many kilometres, cutting through the strata into which they nave been intruded. Since they were approximately vertical when intruded their outcrops are usually straight, Tegardiess of variations in topography. It is pos sible, in certain races, tn lata a ryke tolalive to the Sedimentary strata: il must be lator in origin than the youngest beds which it cuts and, in adgi- tion, where an uncontormable series of younger strata occur itis possible to see whether a dyke Couls both the younger and older series (ct. the ating of faults, p. 35), Dykes are intruded during periods of crustal tension, Widening cracks or joints permit igneous ‘material to be intruded from below (and laterally), ‘They may be very numerous near to volcanic centres where they may represent a consider- ‘bie extension of the crust, for example see the south coast of the Isle of Arran (Map 27). Ring-dykes A special example of dykes, circur Jar in plan or arcuate with a diameter up to § kilo- metres, ring dykes are vertical or very steeply ipping. In some cases they are associated with

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