N

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EL

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AN

Final Control Element

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Final Control Element

Final Control
El
Element
t

controller
output

displacement

Actuator

manipulated
variable
(actuating signal)

Control
valve

provides an output
p
p p
position p
proportional
p
to the

JA

Actuator
input signal

or position 'x'

EC

EL

AN

Control Valve
variable

adjusts the value of the manipulated

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Final Control Element

m

controller
output

Final Control
Element

displacement

Actuator

or position 'x'
x

manipulated
variable
(actuating signal)

Control
valve

EC
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9 The actuator accepts a signal from the control system and,

and in
response, moves the valve to a fully-open or fully-closed position, or
a more open or a more closed position (depending on whether
' / ff' or 'continuous'
'on/off'
' ti
' control
t l action
ti is
i used).
d)

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Actuators

Pneumatic
actuators

spring
diaphragm
piston
motor

Electro-pneumatic
Electro
pneumatic
actuators

Actuators

EC
EL

AN

JA

Electric
actuators

Hydraulic
y
actuators

Motorizedrotary or linear
Solenoid
operated

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Pneumatic Actuators

Spring Diaphragm type Actuators

spring

input
pressure
m
(3-15 psi)

diaphragm

backing plate

stem

EC

AN

JA

output position
x

constant
thrust force

EL

9 Diaphragm actuators have compressed air applied to a flexible

membrane called the diaphragm.

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Pneumatic Actuators

Spring Diaphragm type Actuators

9 At equilibrium, (assuming no
change in thrust force on the
stem): mA = Kx

spring

input
pressure
m
(3-15 psi)

diaphragm

backing plate

output position
x

constant
thrust force

JA

stem

m = the change in input pressure

A = the effective
ff i area off the diaphragm,
i
K = the spring constant (including
diaphragm),
x = the change in output position (stem)

EC

EL

AN

Note: The actual value of x (stroke length) is limited within

and
d 3 depending
d
di on th
the size
i off th
the actuator.
t t

Another Variation:

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AN

Spring Diaphragm
t
type
A
Actuators
t t

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Direct-Acting and Reverse-Acting

Pneumatic Spring-Diaphragm Actuators

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Direct-Acting and Reverse-Acting

Pneumatic Spring-Diaphragm Actuators
Reverse-acting Actuator:
(spring-to-extend)

This actuator is designed with

the spring below the diaphragm,
having air supplied to the space
above the diaphragm. The
result, with increasing air
pressure, is spindle movement in
th opposite
the
it di
direction
ti tto the
th
reverse acting actuator.

The diaphragm is pushed

upwards, pulling the spindle up,
and if the spindle is connected to a
di t acting
direct
ti valve,
l the
th plug
l is
i
opened. With a specific change of
air pressure, the spindle will move
sufficiently to move the valve
through its complete stroke.

EC

EL

AN

JA

Direct-acting Actuator:
(spring-to-retract)

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Pneumatic Actuators

Positioners

Whyy Positioners are pprovided with Actuators ?

9 To overcome high static friction forces in the actuators.

9 To improve response time.
9 To improve linearity and to reduce hysteresis.
9 To reduce loading on controller output
output.

EC

EL

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IIn case off using

i actuators,
t t
we have
h
non-linearities
li
iti due
d to
t diaphragm
di h
area and the spring constant. So the change in position due to change
in controller output is non-linear. With the use of positioners we can
decrease the effect of non-linearity.
non linearity

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Pneumatic Actuators

Positioners
Features

9 A positioner ensures that there is a linear relationship between the signal

input pressure from the control system and the position of the control valve.
9 A positioner may be used as a signal amplifier or booster.
9 Some positioners incorporate an electropneumatic converter so that an

EC
EL

AN

JA

electrical input (typically 4 - 20 mA) can be used to control a pneumatic valve.

9 Some positioners can also act as basic controllers, accepting input from
sensors.

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Pneumatic Actuators

Spring Diaphragm Actuator with Positioner

n

gain = 1

Relay

restriction

spring

Air supply
Bellow
Bellows
(Ps)

Kb m

JA

m
input
p pressure
p

EC
EL

AN

n nozzle back pressure

n
y

Feedback
lever

b
x
a

K m b x
y = b
2
a2

stem

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Pneumatic Actuators

Spring Diaphragm Actuator with Positioner

9 At equilibrium, Baffle-Nozzle

gain = 1

Relay
restriction

spring

Air supply
Bellow
(Ps)
Bellows

Kbm

c
m
i
input
pressure

n
y

b
x
a

n nozzle back pressure

y=

Feedback
lever

Kbm b x

2
a2

stem

separation
p
is:
bx K m
y = + b
2
a2
Kb is the bellows stiffness factor
Nozzle back pressure: n = Kn. y
Kn is the nozzle g
gain

EC

K
K n A >> K ,
0, and y 0.
Kn A

EL

Now,

AN

JA

The change in output pressure is related to the back pressure as:

Kx = nA, K is the spring constant and A is the effective area of diaphragm.
nA
b K
n
Kx
Kb m
Kx
=
x
y
=

n=

2
2
a
K
A
K
K
A
K
A

A
n
n
n
b
Kb m x
a

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Pneumatic Actuators

Spring Diaphragm Actuator with Positioner

n

gain = 1

Relay

restriction

spring

Air supply
Bellow
(Ps)
Bellows

Kbm

m
input pressure

n nozzle back pressure

n
y

b
x
a

y=

Feedback
lever

Kbm b x

2
a2

stem

Conclusion:

AN

JA

9 Thus,
Thus change in output position is related to change in input pressure with
only feedback lever ratio and the bellows stiffness factor, and it is not dependent
(if KnA >> K) on the spring-diaphragm non-linearities.

EL

EC

9 As a >> b, large position change is obtained with a small change in bellows

position, thus ensuring linear characteristic of the bellows.

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Pneumatic Actuators

Piston type Pneumatic Actuator

m

piston

spring

EC

AN

JA

9 They are generally used where the stroke of a diaphragm actuator would
be too short or the thrust is too small.

EL

9 They are used for long strokes.

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Pneumatic Actuators

Motor type Pneumatic Actuator

m

Air
Motor

EC

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spring

EL

9 They are used for large thrust forces. Large torques are generated
from motor-gear arrangements to balance large thrusts.

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Electro-pneumatic Actuators
9 When the controller output is electrical and a suitable air supply is available,
using an electro-pneumatic actuator, a large output power may be obtained from
a low
l power control
t l signal.
i
l

cascading an electro-pneumatic
converter
t and
d a pneumatic
ti actuator
t t

EC
EL

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Realization

an electro
electro-pneumatic
pneumatic actuator

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Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro pneumatic Converter
Electro-pneumatic

EC
EL

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JA

i electrical
'i'
signal
input
(current
4-20mA))

Electropneumatic
Converter

pneumatic
output 'm'
(3-15 psi)

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Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro pneumatic Converter
Electro-pneumatic

input
current

former (support system)

pneumatic
output (m)

Nozzle
m

Voice
Coil
Motor

Restriction

air supply
pp y
(Ps)

EC
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balance beam

Feedback bellows

voice coil motor

- linear motor

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Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro pneumatic Converter
Electro-pneumatic

input
current

former (support system)

pneumatic
output (m)

S
Voice
Coil
Motor

Nozzle
m
N

Restriction

a
S

balance beam

air supply
pp y
(Ps)

voice
coil

used in
loud speakers
S

Force

voice coil motor

- linear motor

m
b

Feedback bellows

B
l
N

flux density
mean length / turn
no. of turns

EC
EL

AN

JA

Effective force
experienced
p
by
y the
former is a linear one.

force
= BlNi

force

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Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro pneumatic Converter
Electro-pneumatic

input
current

former (support system)

pneumatic
p (m)
( )
output

Nozzle
m

Voice
Coil
Motor

Restriction

a
S

bl
balance
beam
b

air supply
(Ps)

voice coil motor

- linear
li
motor
t

At equilibrium, for a change in input current

i
i , the change in output pressure m
m is:

a .B ln i = b(mAb )

Ab = the active area of the bellows assuming

a small Baffle-Nozzle separation.

EC
EL

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JA

Feedback bellows

aBlN
m=
i
bAb

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Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro pneumatic Actuator
Electro-pneumatic
Relay

Air supply
(Ps)

gain = 1

diaphragm

Restriction

input
i
current

Nozzle

EC

EL

AN

JA

Voice
V
i
coil
motor

spring

balance
b
l
beam d

Feedback
lever

Feedback
spring
(Ks)

x output
position

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Electro-pneumatic Actuators
Electro pneumatic Actuator
Electro-pneumatic

Relay

Air supply
(Ps)

gain = 1

diaphragm

Restriction
input
i
current

spring

At equilibrium,

c(B ln i ) = d . x.K s
a

Voice
coil
motor

Nozzle

Feedback
lever

t t
x output
position

Feedback
spring
(Ks)

EC
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balance
beam d

Ks = spring constant of the

feedback spring (for a small
Baffle Nozzle separation)
Baffle-Nozzle

Conclusion: output x is independent of the

characteristics
h
t i ti off di
diaphragm
h
and
d spring.
i

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Electric Actuators

Motorized Rotary Actuator

input

Error
amplifier

Position
sensor

output
position

Low inertia
servo motor

EC
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gear train
to increase torque

low inertia servo

motor - fast response

Motorized Linear Actuator

Rack and pinion

output
p position
p

Servo Motor

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EC

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AN

Electric Actuators

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Electric Actuators

Solenoid Actuator (for On/Off Operation)

Armature

AC or DC

JA

C il
Coil

Spring

Output position

EC

AN

9 A spring return type electric solenoid is used to actuate an iron cored armature.

EL

9 A shading band type armature is used with AC supply to create unidirectional

pull.

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Hydraulic Actuators

They use iincompressible

Th
ibl fl
fluid
id (oil).
( il) These
Th
are
used for high power and high speed applications.

EC
EL

AN

JA

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Control Valves

9 A control valve in a pipeline acts as a

variable restriction. An
actuator controls the lift of a control valve to alter restriction.

9 All control valves have an

inherent flow characteristic that

defines the relationship between valve opening and flowrate
under constant pressure conditions.
9 The
Th th
three main
i

ttypes off control

t l valves
l
available
il bl are:
opening

quick/fast

percentage

EC

equal

EL

AN

JA

linear

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Control Valves

EC
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9 The physical
i shape off the plug and seat arrangement, sometimes
i
referred
f
to
as the valve 'trim', causes the difference in valve opening between these valves.

Typical trim shapes for spindle operated globe valves

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Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

% flow = v
100
vmax

Manipulated
variable v
(or flow)

Position x
(or lift)

Control Valve

% lift = x
100
xmax

EC
EL

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JA

From laws of fluid dynamics,

v = Kh x
K overall coefficient
h difference in head across
valve

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Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Quick/Fast Opening Control Valve

( dv )

9 Here, the valve sensitivity

dx at any flow decreases with increasing
flow. The fast opening characteristic valve plug will give a large change in flow
rate for a small valve lift from the closed position.

EC
EL

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9 Fast opening valves tend to be electrically or pneumatically actuated and

used for 'on / off' control.

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Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Linear Control Valve

EC
EL

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9 The linear characteristic valve plug is shaped so that the flow rate is directly
proportional to the valve lift, at a constant differential pressure. Here the valve
sensitivity is (approximately) constant.

Flow-lift
Fl
lift characteristic
h
t i ti
for a linear valve

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Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Equal Percentage Valve

EC
EL

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JA

9 These valves have a valve plug shaped so that each increment in valve lift
increases the flow rate by a certain percentage of the previous flow. The
relationship between valve lift and orifice size (and therefore flow rate) is not
linear but logarithmic.
g

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Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Equal Percentage Valve

9 For these valves, sensitivity increases with flow. As the valve sensitivity at
any given
i
flow
fl rate is
i a constant percentage off the
h given
i
flow
fl rate, the
h term
equal percentage is used.
dv
Valve sensitivity
sensitivity,

dv
= Kv
dx

where K is a constant.
constant Or,
Or

dx = K
v

i.e. sensitivity expressed as percentage of flow (= 100K %) is constant.

EC
EL

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JA

( dv dx )

0 vmin
working range

v
vmax

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Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Rangeability of a Control Valve

maximum controllable flow ( v max )

R=
minimum controllable flow ( v min )
9 The

EC
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JA

minimum controllable flow of a control valve depends on

its construction. The range of R is usually between 20 and 50
under constant pressure drop across the valve (equal to constant
head). It is typically 50 for a globe type control valve.

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Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Relation
R
l ti b
between
t
% fl
flow, % lift and
d rangeability
bilit under
d
constant pressure drop (or head) across the valve

Li
Linear
Valve
V l
v
vmax

vmax vmin
v = vmin + x

xmax
v

vmin
0

xmax

vmax

vmax

xmax

1 1 x
1
x
+ 1
= 1 + ( R 1)

R R xmax R
xmax

JA

vmin vmax vmin

=
+
vmax vmax

EC

EL

AN

v
1
x
= 1 + ( R 1)

vmax R
xmax

dv R 1 vmax
=

dx R xmax

Valve
Sensitivity
constant

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Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Relation
R
l ti b
between
t
% fl
flow, % lift and
d rangeability
bilit under
d
constant pressure drop (or head) across the valve

E lP
Equal
Percentage
t V
Valve
l
v
vmax

=R

xmax

EC

AN

JA

dv
l R
dx = ln

,
v xmax

Differentiating, 1 dv

= R
vmax dx

Equal Percentage
characteristic

EL

Valve Sensitivity is proportional to v

vmax

xmax

.ln R.

.ln R.

xmax

ddv ln
l R
=
v,
dx xmax

1
xmax

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Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Relation
R
l ti b
between
t
% fl
flow, % lift and
d rangeability
bilit under
d
constant pressure drop (or head) across the valve

E lP
Equal
Percentage
t V
Valve
l

V& = volumetric flow through the valve at lift H,

EC
EL

AN

JA

e &
&
V = Vmax
R

x = (ln R )H ,

R = valve rangeability,

H = valve lift (0 = closed, 1 = fully open),

V&max

= maximum volumetric flow through the valve.

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Flow-Lift Characteristic of Control Valves

Relation
R
l ti b
between
t
% fl
flow, % lift and
d rangeability
bilit under
d
constant pressure drop (or head) across the valve

E lP
Equal
Percentage
t V
Valve
l

V& = v

According to our previous notation:

ex
V& = V&max
R

Therefore,

(ln R ) x x
max
e
v=
R

or

(ln R ) x x
max
v
e
=
v max
R

x
= (ln R )
ln R
x max

v
ln
v max

= ln(R )

EL

EC

JA
AN

or

v
ln
v max

H=

x max

can be written as,

or

or

v max

and

x max

or

or

(ln R ) x x
max
v
e
= ln
ln
v
R
max

v
ln
v max

v max

= (ln R )
1
x

max

= (R )

x max

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Classification of Control Valves

Control Valves

Sliding Stem Valves

EC
EL

AN

JA

Single -Seat
Plug Valves

Double-Seat
Plug Valves

Rotating Shaft Valves

Lifting Gate
Valves

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Single-seat Sliding-stem Control Valves

Stem

Packing
gland

open

position

close

v
(fluid flow)

AN

JA

EL

vary.

EC

9 Here,
Here depending

plug

on the plug shape

shape, flow
flow-lift
lift characteristic will

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Single-seat Sliding-stem Control Valves

Stem
Packing
gland

open

position

close

v
(fluid flow)

Plug Types

plug

V-port

Parabolic

linear characteristic

Poppet

quick opening characteristic

EC
EL

AN

JA

plug

equal percentage characteristic

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Single-seat
Sliding-stem
Control Valves

Another
variation

Friction allowance = F

( A P ) +

JA

A= Valve seating area (m2)

EC

EL

AN

p
P = Differential pressure
(kPa)

F = Closing force required (kN)

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Single-seat Sliding-stem Control Valves

Stem
Packing
gland

open

position

close

v
(fluid flow)

Features

plug

9 Can

be shut off completely to provide zero flow an advantage.

9 Requires large thrust force, thus a powerful actuator is necessary
a disadvantage.

9 To

EC

AN

JA

Solution ?

EL

overcome the disadvantage, double-seat arrangements are

used, which require a small thrust force to operate.

x
position

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EC

EL

JA

AN

Double-seat Sliding-stem Control Valves

Another
variation

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EC

EL

JA

AN

Double-seat
Sliding-stem
Control Valves

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Double-seat Sliding-stem Control Valves

x
position

Disadvantages

9 It

cannot be shut off completely

p
y because of the differential
temperature expansion of plug and body (when hot fluid is flowing).
9 If

EC

AN

JA

plug expands more than body, it may cause breakage. If body

expand more, there will be significant leakage or offset in the
system.

EL

Double-seat valves are used where it becomes impractical to provide

sufficient force to close a conventional single seat valve.

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Lifting-Gate Control Valves

'x' position

open

close

gate

JA

9 These

Si l
Single-seat
t Lifti
Lifting-Gate
G t Valve
V l

EC

EL

AN

are used to control flow of fluids containing solid matters

(e g paper pulp)
(e.g.
pulp).
9 Here no change in direction of fluid flow takes place, due to the
control action.

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Rotating-Shaft Control Valves

Rotating - shaft control valves

Butterfly

Louver

used to control
liquid flow
(e.g. oil to burner)

used to control
air,gas and liquid
at low pressure
difference

use to control
air flow at
low pressure
(draft control)

Rotary plug

9 Rotary

EC

EL

AN

JA

type valves, often called quarter-turn valves, include plug

valves, ball valves, butterfly valves etc. All require a rotary motion to
open and
d close,
l
and
d can easily
il be
b fitt
fitted
d with
ith actuators.
t t

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Rotary plug type Control Valves

rotation
x
stem

(circular opening)

plug

9 When

plug (shown open)

EC

EL

AN

JA

the pipe opening and plug opening completely align,

complete flow takes place. If they do not align at all, no flow takes
place.

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Rotary plug type Control Valves

rotation
x
stem

% fl
flow

100

(circular opening)

rectangular opening

plug

0
0

plug
l (shown
(h
open))

Circular

AN

JA

plug opening
(or part)

9 Here
H
100%

V-shaped

Rectangular

100

x
100
% rotation =
xmax

for different
flow-rotation
characteristics

EL

EC

rotation
i corresponds
d to an angular
l rotation
i or
movement of 90o for x.

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Ball Valves

F t
Features

9 It consists of a spherical ball

located between two sealing rings
in a simple body form.

EC
EL

AN

JA

9 Rotating
g the ball through
g 90
opens and closes the flow
passage.

9 Ball valves are an economic

means of providing control with
tight
g shut-off for many
y fluids.

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Butterfly Valves
vane

circular vane

rotation

Circular

Vane

Rectangular

% flow

Circular vane

EL

EC

AN

JA

100

100

% rotation

9 Here, 100%
rotation corresponds
to an angular
rotation of 90o .

Another
variation

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EC

EL

JA

AN

Butterfly
Valves

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Louver Valves
rectangular vane

linkage

AN

JA

rectangular duct

EL

EC

9 Louvers cannot provide tight shut off due to long length of seating surfaces.
Hence considerable leakage takes place.

rectangular vane

linkage

v
x
v

rectangular duct

% flow

100

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EC

EL

JA

AN

Louver Valves

0
100
% rotation

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Three-port Valves

EC
EL

AN

JA

9 Three-port valves can be used

for either mixing or diverting
service depending upon the plug
and seat arrangement inside the
valve.

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Methods of Fluid Control
Methods of fluid control

Series
throttling

Bypass

Variable delivery
(variable source)

EC
EL

AN

JA

requires
q
no separate
p
control valve

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Methods of Fluid Control
Series Throttling

Head
tank

inflow

Command

JA

head

control
valve

outflow
to process

EC

EL

AN

9 For fluctuating or intermittent inflow, closed-loop control is necessary to

maintain
i t i constant
t t outflow.
tfl
Th
The closed
l d loop
l
control
t l will
ill generate
t necessary
command for the control valve to maintain constant outflow.

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Methods of Fluid Control
Bypass

Head
tank

head

Process

restriction

JA

by pass

Control valve
command

EC

AN

9 Bypass is required when we cannot shut down the source, then the extra water is
bypassed. the control valve employed will have inverse gain.

EL

9 By pass is not economical, as a considerable portion of fluid is wasted.

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Methods of Fluid Control
Variable Delivery

Speed command

Process

Storage
t k
tank

Variable speed
pump

EC
EL

AN

JA

Variable Delivery from a Variable Speed Pump