Unidad 6 Protección de Generadores

Generation System Protection PROT 409
Section 8 - Generator Stator Protection
Revision Table
Revisions
Tech Review
Editorial Review Date
CLS
CRT
CLS
5-28-03
Corrections from markup notebook PA
LGP
CRT
MF
2-18-04
Revisions for 2004, template
LGP
CRT
MK,EB,CLS
4-23-04
Revisions from rev 6, proofed
10-4-04
Added summary on stator protection application

Several changes. Add differential examples (slides 9-19,
and summary protection applications).
Add slides 18 and 19
LGP
Rev #
LGP
CLS
3-8-05
LGP
CLS
12-19-05
10
LGP
WS
7-7-06
11
Cls
7-12-07
12
Aleks D.
LGP
Generator Stator Protection_r12
Comments
Style updates and editorial corrections. Markups to

slides 12, 21, 25, 26, 40, and 52.
Markups page 21


Careful consideration must be given to generator protectionnot just for faults, but also
for many generator abnormal operation conditions. There are many reasons for a generator
shutoff. These will be discussed in detail later.

Device
Number
21
Relay Function
Description
Distance relay
Backup protection against phase faults

on the stator circuit of the generator.
Protection against overvoltage / overexcitation
24
25
27
Volts/hertz relay
Synchronizing or synchronism-check device
Undervoltage relay
32
40
46
49
50
Directional power relay

Field relay
Reverse-phase or phase-balance relay
Machine or transformer thermal relay
Instantaneous overcurrent
50G
Definite-time overcurrent relay
50/51
Instantaneous/time-delay phase overcurrent
50/51N
Instantaneous/time-delay ground overcurrent
51V
59
59G
63
Voltage-controlled overcurrent
Overvoltage relay
Ground Overvoltage relay
Pressure switch
64
Ground detector relay
78
Phase-angle measuring or out-of-step protective

relay
Frequency relay
81
87G
Differential protective relay
87T
Auxiliary motor or motor generator
89
Line switch
Backup protection against faults and loss of

excitation,
Protection against inverse power (motorization)
Protection against loss of excitation
Protection against unbalanced system faults
Protection against overtemperature due to overloads
Protection against phase faults on the delta side of
the transformer
Protection against ground faults on the Y side of
the transformer
Protection against phase faults on the delta side of
the transformer
Protection against ground faults on the delta side of
the transformer
Protection against three-phase faults
Protection against overexcitation/overvoltage
Protection against ground faults on the stator circuit
Protection against overpressure in the transformer
tank
Protection against pole-ground faults on the field
circuit
Protection against loss of synchromism
Protection against over and under frequency (over
and under speed)
Main protection against phase faults in the
generators
Protection against phase faults in the generators
stator circuit
Main protection against phase faults within the
generator - transformer zone

Because of generator winding insulation aging, mechanical vibration, and fatigue,

generators will develop winding faults after a long period of time. Generator faults are
always considered serious because the high fault current they produce can severely damage
the insulation, the winding, and the core. In addition, because of slowly decaying flux,
fault current will flow for many seconds even after the faulted generator is tripped off the
system and the field is disconnected. This prolonged fault current increases the amount of
fault damage.
Whenever a fault occurs in a generator, even if the machine is well protected, costs are
incurred in repairing the generator and buying replacement power. This cost easily
amounts to multi-millions of dollars for 250 MW generators. The cost ratio for unprotected
fault damage vs. protected fault damage is roughly 6 to 1 for a 250 MW generator.
As a consequence, for generator faults that produce high fault currents, high-speed
protection systems are normally used to trip and shut down the generator as quickly as
possible to reduce damage to the machine.
Typical generator faults include phase-to-phase, phase-to-ground, and turn-to-turn faults.
The phase-to-ground fault is the most frequent fault, occurring as often as 65 percent of the
time, with phase-to-phase and turn-to-turn faults occurring 23.5 percent of the time and
11.5 percent of the time, respectively.


High-speed current differential relaying is normally used to protect generators against

three-phase, phase-to-phase, and phase-to-phase-to-ground faults.
If a generator is low-resistance grounded, current differential relaying can also protect for
winding ground faults down to a small percentage above the neutral point. For highresistance grounded generators, the much-reduced ground fault current is normally below
the sensitivity level of the current differential relay.

The diagram shows the simplest differential scheme using an instantaneous overcurrent
relay. This is sometimes called a differential overcurrent scheme.
Differential protection is one of the most effective means of protecting power equipment.
Put simply, differential protection operates on the difference between the measured current
entering and exiting the protected zone. Because it operates on the difference only and not
the total current flowing in the circuit, a relay featuring this protection can have greater
sensitivity to faults than other types of relays. And because the zone of protection is
precisely defined by the location of the CTs surrounding the protected zone, the relay is
highly selective. With high selectivity, a differential relay can trip quickly with no
coordinating time interval.

The diagram shows the behavior of the simplest differential scheme using an instantaneous
overcurrent relay during an external fault.
If the current transformers are considered ideal and identical, the primary and secondary
currents at both sides of the protected equipment are equal. There will not be an operation
for differential current.

For an internal fault, the primary currents allow the secondary currents to produce a
differential current through the overcurrent relay. If this differential (operation) current is
larger than the relays pickup, then the relay will trip both circuit breakers instantaneously.
The characteristics of differential protection can be summarized as follows:
Principle:
Measure current entering and exiting the zone of protection
If currents are not equal, a fault is present
Provides:
High sensitivity
High selectivity
Result:
Relatively high speed
10

All differential protection must deal with the challenge of remaining secure for large
through-faults.
During a severe external fault, a CT may saturate and supply less than its ratio current. In
this case, the currents do not completely cancel, and a false differential current results.
11

The figure shows the results of a simulation produced with a program property of
Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.
12

A common variation on the differential concept is the percentage restraint differential

relay. This is the typical differential protection diagram. Differential elements compare an
operate quantity with a restraint quantity.
In this scheme, the relay operates when the magnitude of the secondary operating current,
OP = S + R is larger than a certain proportion of the secondary restraining current IRT.
For this particular scheme, the restrain current is chosen to be IRT = (|S|+|R|)/2.
The proportionality constant, k, or slope, is sometimes adjustable, with typical values of
0.1 to 0.8; or, 10% to 80%.
The operating principle of the percentage differential protection is the same as differential
overcurrent protection. However, in the percentage differential scheme, for a severe
external fault the restraining current takes a large magnitude. Then, even if there is a
significant operating current, the restraint will be so large that the relay will not operate.
When the fault is internal, the operation current is considerably larger than the restraint
current, allowing relay operation.
Note: The two primary current arrows shown are a common convention in differential
protection analysis. They are generally shown with both current arrows going into the
protected equipment. The two currents will not have the same sign or angle when the
system operates normally (without faults) unless the protected equipment is a transformer.
Conversely, during normal operation, the two currents will have the same magnitude but
the phasors will be 180 degrees apart. Be aware that some authors use a different
convention.
13

In the figure above, a plot of the operating current versus the restraining current shows the
percentage differential characteristic. This figure serves to better explain the concept of
slope. The shaded area represents the points of the plane from which the relay operates.
As shown, it is the area above the straight line defined by the equation IOP = k IRT.
The slope of this line is k.
The dashed curve represents the operating current as a function of the restraining current
for external faults of different magnitudes. For low values of fault current, the restraining
current has a small magnitude, as does the operating current. For large magnitudes of
external fault current, the CTs saturate unequally and the result is a larger operation
current. The restraining current also increases, preventing any relay misoperation for the
external fault.
14

This diagram represents a more common percentage differential protection characteristic.

In this case, the restraining side of the equation includes a threshold current independent
from the restraining current.
This threshold allows for better relay response. For example, for external faults with low
current magnitudes, the current transformers do not saturate, and the minimum pickup
current serves to desensitize the relay to differential current without a fault. For systems
with energization current of unloaded transformers, the slope can be set to a lower value
than the one used in the design shown previously.
15

The diagram shows the classic electromechanical balance-beam unit in a configuration to

implement a percentage differential relay.
The coils are wired so that the operating coil receives the differential current. If the number
of turns of the operating and restraining coils are NOP and NRT respectively, the
magnetomotive forces produce by each of the coils will be NOP(S+R) and (NRT/2) R
(NRT/2) S = (NRT)(RS)/2. Neglecting the effect of the spring, friction, and the iron core
nonlinearity, the net torque on the moving piece will be:
T = k(NOP| S+ R|)2 k[(NRT)|(R- S)/2|]2
The relay operates when the torque is positive, for example:
k(NOP| S+ R|)2 > k[(NRT)|(R- S)/2|]2 , or
| S+ R| > k |(R- S)/2|
where the slope is:
s = k = (NRT / NOP)(k/ k)(1/2)
This also illustrates why restraining current is typically given as (R- S)/2.
16

This figure shows the traditional three-phase arrangement for differential protection.
Three relays (or elements) are used; one per phase. This system is segregated due to the
inputs and working method of each element being independent of the other.
17

The figure shows a classic current differential scheme:

R Restraint windings
O Operate windings
Typically, there is a Tap setting for each restraint winding.
The restraint current is the average magnitude of the phase currents.
The operate current is the vector sum of the phase currents.
The percent differential element operates when the operate current exceeds a set
percentage of the average restraint current, as well as a set pickup current.
This is the typical percentage restrained current differential scheme for generator phase
fault protection. This protection scheme is used most often for large machines.
In contrast to transformer current differential protection, inrush is of little concern in
current differential protection for generators. This is because the generator voltage builds
up slowly when the field is applied and because of metallic continuity of the stator
windings.
18

This is a simplified block diagram of a differential relay, as implemented in an analog

solid-state relay. The heart of the device is an amplitude comparator. The two input
currents are mixed, rectified, and filtered to obtain voltage signals proportional to the
magnitudes of selected operating and restraining currents. These magnitudes are then
compared after the addition of a certain minimum threshold to the restraining quantity.
The relay operates for the following:
k|S+R| > kIPU + k(|RS|) , or
|S+R| > IPU + (k/k) |RS|
The final desired equation, is obtained by defining k/2 = k/k
19

The implementation in a digital relay is equivalent to a numerical simulation of the analog

version. In the scheme shown in the figure above, three design aspects are different with
respect to the design of the previous page. In this case, the relay has blocks 1/TAPR and
1/TAPS used to compensate for differences between the current transformers. Additionally,
the restraining current is different, and the slope depends on the value of the restraining
current. The next page shows the graphic characteristic of a relay like this.
20

The figure shows a percentage current differential with two restraining slopes. Currently, this
variable slope current differential is one of the most widely used generator current differential
protection schemes. The relay operating condition is divided into three zones.
The relay averages the current magnitudes from both sides of the generator, and uses this average
as the restraining current, IRT. The operating quantity, IOP, is the vector sum of the two currents.
When the operating current is greater than the set percentage times the restraining current, the relay
operates. Thus the operating region is above the slope line, and the restraining region is below the
line.
The slope setting may vary from 5 percent to 50 percent, depending on CT mismatch and other
system parameter errors. The second slope setting gives more tolerance for CT errors at high fault
currents that may saturate the CTs.
The relay operating condition, considering the slopes s1 and s2 in per unit, is defined as follows:
IOP > IPU , for restraining currents IRT < IC0
IOP > s1IRT , for restraining currents, IRT , such that IC0 < IRT < IC1
IOP > s2IRT + v , for restraining currents IRT > IC1
From the figure: v = (s1 - s2)/IC1
For this type of relay, the operating and restraining currents are defined as:
IOP=|S+R|
IRT=(|S|+|R|)/2
Where S and R are the secondary currents at each side of the protected equipment.
21

Differential relays typically use the following settings:

IPU (A) = pickup current
s1 (per unit or %) = Slope 1
IC1 (A) = current at which the relay starts to be percent differential, with slope s2
s2 (per unit or %) = Slope 2
Notice that IC0 is set in the relay operating characteristic and does not need to be set separately.
Example: We can determine relay settings given the following system data:
CTs shown all have the same specification as ANSI Class C100.
CT ratio error is maximum 10% for 50 secondary Amps or less, with a burden of 2 .
Relay accuracy of 5%.
Range of relay pickup setting IPU: 0.5 5.0 secondary amperes in steps of 0.5 A
Range of relay slope 1: 10 % 100 % in steps of 5 %
Range of limit current IC1: 1.0 to 100 secondary amperes in steps of 1 A
Range of relay slope 2: 40 % 160 % in steps of 5 %
Solution: The current transformers are not highly accurate, but should be well matched. For currents under
50 secondary amperes, the total error is not expected to surpass 10% -(-10%) + 5% = 25 %. For increased
security set:
s1 = 30%.
The sensitivity is set at minimum value, since there will not be large errors for low currents:
IPU = 0.5 A.
Since generator subtransient reactance is 10%, a bolted close-in fault will produce 1.41 24 kA or more
(depending on the prefault loading) through the CT primary, with secure saturation of the CTs.
A high slope setting is chosen for the large current values (here I > 15 A).
22

s2 = 100 %

For small generators, it is more economical to use the self-balancing differential scheme
shown above.
This scheme uses a single, low-ratio CT for each phase. The leads of both ends of each
winding pass through the CT in such a manner that the currents flowing in and out cancel
each other during normal operation. A simple overcurrent relay is connected to the CT,
providing fast and reliable protection by detecting any difference in current flowing in and
out of the winding.
The limited size of the CT window limits the size of the conductor and, therefore, the size
of generators that can be protected.
The relay should be as low burden as possible to maintain high sensitivity and reduce the
chance of CT saturation.
23

24

25

Turn-to-turn faults are serious generator faults. The turn-to-turn fault current may be many
times higher than the generator terminal fault current.
Most turbine generator stator windings have single turn coils. If a generator has stator
windings with multi-turn coils and two or more circuits per phase, as with most
hydroelectric generators, the split-phase current differential or split-phase self-balancing
relaying scheme can be used to provide turn-to-turn fault protection.
For generators with multiple turns and without more than one circuit per phase, or for a
generator that has multi-circuit coils connected neutrally inside the generator with only one
neutral conductor available outside the generator, use a directional negative-sequence
power element or zero-sequence overvoltage (for ungrounded generators) for turn-to-turn
fault protection.
26

The figure shows the split-phase current differential scheme for turn fault protection. The
ratio of the CTs at the generator neutral terminal is twice that of the CT ratio at the
generator terminal. This difference in ratio magnitudes balances out the current difference
during normal generator operations.
This split-phase current differential scheme can also protect the generator against windingphase faults. For low-resistance grounded units, this scheme provides winding phase-toground fault protection.
27

The figure shows current circuit connections for differential protection when phase CTs
are available in one of the branches of the split-phase winding. Under normal conditions,
the total phase current divides equally in each branch. Multi-phase or turn-to-turn faults
disturb this balance and cause the differential element to operate.
28

The other way to protect the generator from turn-to-turn faults is to use overcurrent
elements with core-balanced CTs and pass the two winding leads through the CT in the
opposite direction. During normal generator operation, the currents in both windings are
equal. Therefore, the CT current output is near zero and the overcurrent protection element
does not pick up.
If one of the two windings has a turn-to-turn fault, the currents flowing in both windings
will be unequal and will cancel out in the core CT. The sensitive overcurrent element will
pick up and trip the generator.
One important consideration of this protection scheme is the emergency winding cut-out
repair.
29

In a paper published in 1983, Jack Imbertson from Electric Machinery summarized a

practice of emergency operation for machines with turn-to-turn faults. When the winding
fault is electrical in nature, but not extensive, and if the bad turns are easy to access, it may
be possible to cut out the damaged coils and put the unit back online.
The general rules for the emergency fix by cutting out the windings state that no more than
10 percent of the winding can be cut, and the resulting unbalanced current, I2, cannot be
more than 10 percent.
Cutting out bad turns in one winding of a particular phase will result in a current output
from the core balanced CTs because the two windings in the same phase will carry
different load currents.
The overcurrent protection threshold on the phase with cut windings needs to be increased
to accommodate the higher imbalance.
30

This is a relay protection scheme that provides overcurrent protection with individual
adjustable pickup thresholds for each phase. When some bad windings need to be cut for
an emergency fix, only the pickup threshold of the phase with cut turns needs to be raised.
Consequently, the sensitivity of the turn-to-turn protection for the other phases is not
sacrificed.
31

32

33

The protection schemes for generator winding ground faults depend highly on the method
used for grounding the generator.
Two types of grounding practices represent the major methods used within the industry to
ground generator stator windings: high-impedance and low-impedance grounding.
High-Impedance Grounding The left side of the figure illustrates a generator grounded
through use of a distribution transformer with a secondary resistor. This grounding method
allows the ground fault current to be limited to between 5 and 25 A. It is used on unitconnected generators.
Low-Impedance Grounding The right side of the figure illustrates a generator
grounded through a resistor or reactor. The grounding resistor, or reactor, is selected to
limit the ground fault contribution of the generator to between 200 A and 150 percent of
the generator rated current. Low-impedance grounding is generally used when multiple
generating units are operated on a common bus or when they connect directly to load buses
without a voltage transformation providing the ground source for the system.
Small generators are sometimes designed to withstand a much higher transient overvoltage
and can be ungrounded to limit fault damage and save grounding cost. The solidly
grounding method is almost never used because of the smaller generator zero-sequence
impedance and, therefore, much higher ground fault currents.
34

The figure shows sequence network connections for a phase-to-ground fault at the
generator terminal.
35

A distribution transformer with a loading resistor connected to the secondary side is

commonly used to ground the generator neutral. The figure shows this arrangement, along
with ground fault protection devices discussed in the next few pages.
36

The ground overvoltage protection scheme, 59N, can be used on high-impedance

grounded units connected to the system through delta-wye transformers.
The magnitude of the voltage the 59N measures depends directly on the ground fault
location inside the generator winding. The 59N will measure the full generator phase-toground voltage if the fault occurs at the generator terminal and will measure zero voltage if
the ground fault occurs at the generator neutral point. It is possible to set microprocessor
relays safely to detect the single-phase-to-ground faults as close as 2 percent to 10 percent
from the neutral end of the winding.
Impedance of the generator ground device is much smaller than the transformer interwinding capacitance. Therefore, when a single-phase-ground fault occurs on the system
side of the delta-wye step-up transformer, most of the voltage moves across the interwinding capacitance, and very little voltage moves across the grounding device. However,
you need to examine on a case-by-case basis what happens with the voltage. If the coupled
voltage is high, some time delay on the 59N operation may be required to coordinate with
the system ground fault protection devices.
Overcurrent protection from 50N and 51N is essentially a variation of the 59N protection.
These elements generally serve as backup protection for the 59N. They also serve as main
protection for low-resistance grounded generators.
37

A phase-to-ground fault on the wye side of the step-up transformer can produce a voltage
at the generator neutral as a result of capacitive coupling.
38

Note that the capacitive coupling will produce a voltage across the grounding resistor. To
maintain security for power system faults, it is important to take this zero-sequence voltage
into account in setting the pickup and time delay of the neutral overvoltage element.
39

Ground faults can be detected in an ungrounded system through use of a Wye-Broken

Delta PT shown in this figure. The resistor shown provides ferroresonance suppression.
40

When the generator neutral is grounded through use of a voltage transformer, the
impedance between the neutral point and ground is extremely large. Note that the
secondary side loading resistor is unused in this case. This is equivalent to an ungrounded
neutral system, and the 59GN can detect ground faults.
41

The single-phase-to-ground fault protection schemes discussed previously cannot cover

100 percent of the generator windings. When a ground fault occurs close to the generator
neutral point, the available relaying voltage and current may fall below the relay sensitive
pickup level, resulting in failure to detect the fault.
A protection scheme based on the third harmonic voltage can be used to detect faults close
to the neutral point, and when used with 59N/50N/51N, provides 100 percent ground fault
coverage for the generators.
Lets take a closer look at the 100 percent Stator Ground Protection function. For a highimpedance grounded machine, the winding neutral is connected to ground through the
primary of a distribution transformer. A resistor is connected in the transformer secondary
and is sized to limit single-phase-to-ground fault currents to 515 A primary.
For a fault 85 percent up the winding from the generator neutral, the 59N voltage relay
connected to the grounding transformer secondary sees about 0.85 per-unit fundamental
frequency voltage, making it easy to use voltage to detect this fault.
42

However, as you move the fault toward the machine neutral, the neutral voltage caused by
the fault falls below a detectable threshold. We must devise another method for detecting
faults in this area.
It is important to detect this low-winding fault for two reasons.
First, if a ground fault occurs on another phase, that ground fault current does not flow
through the ground transformer impedance and can be extremely high, causing
catastrophic damage to the generator very quickly.
Second, if a second ground fault occurs on the same phase, fast-operating protection
elements may not detect the fault. This fault will have very high currents, but slow clearing
will again result in catastrophic damage to the generator.
43

By their construction, most synchronous generators generate third-harmonic voltage

signals. In an unfaulted machine, the third-harmonic voltage has the characteristic shown
in the slide, with the voltage measured at the neutral being opposite, although not
necessarily equal to, the third-harmonic voltage measured at the generator terminals.
Each generator has different characteristics and generates a different level of thirdharmonic voltage at no load versus full load.
44

When a ground fault occurs, the third-harmonic voltage magnitude at the fault point goes
to zero. When the fault is near the neutral, we see the neutral third-harmonic voltage
magnitude drop and the terminal third-harmonic voltage magnitude rise.
A third-harmonic voltage differential element detects a low-winding fault by comparing an
adjustable portion of the terminal third-harmonic voltage to the neutral third-harmonic
voltage. When the difference is above a settable level, the element picks up.
As an alternative, a neutral third-harmonic undervoltage element can be used also. While
this protection method is less sensitive than the third-harmonic voltage differential method,
some protection specifications may require this method, or it may be necessary to use this
method when open-delta PTs are applied.
45

The combination of fundamental neutral overvoltage, 59N, and third-harmonic voltage

differential provides 100 percent stator ground fault coverage. The two elements act as
independent protection zones, each with its own settable definite time-delay.
Two important advantages of this method are the sensitivity and element overlap. The 59N
element has good sensitivity for mid-winding faults in the V3d element dead-band. The
V3d element detects low-winding faults that produce very little neutral fundamental
voltage. Both elements detect faults in the upper area of the winding, providing two
methods for detecting the more serious faults.
46

The figure shows a simple third harmonic undervoltage (27H) approach for detecting
ground faults near the generator neutral. Usually, terminal voltage supervises the 27H
element to prevent tripping when the generator is out of service. As discussed earlier, a
time delay provides security.
47

This figure shows the third harmonic voltage differential method. This approach requires
wye/broken-delta generator terminal PT. The differential configuration of this scheme adds
security to the simple (27H) approach shown on the previous page.
48

By its nature, the third harmonic-based ground fault protection requires the generator to
produce adequate third harmonic voltage. If a generator does not produce adequate third
harmonic voltage and you want 100 percent stator ground protection, you must use a signal
injection method.
49

The figure shows a zero-sequence differential protection typically used in smaller

generators. This approach does not require phase CTs on the neutral side of the winding.
Zero-sequence current differential relaying is an economical alternative to the percentage
current differential for small machines. This scheme provides excellent security against
misoperation for external faults and provides very sensitive detection of internal ground
faults when a generator is low-resistance grounded.
50

The figure shown above and the figure on the next page show a couple of ways to use a
directional element to detect stator ground faults. Both approaches use the generator
neutral current to polarize the element. Note that the operate current is the zero-sequence
fault current contribution from the system.
51

This approach is similar to the approach shown on the previous page, except that the
operate current is zero-sequence differential current.
52

Multiple ungrounded generators connected to a common bus shown in this figure can use a
zero-sequence overcurrent element to detect ground fault in an individual generator.
53

54

55

56

Section 11 - System Backup Protection
If a fault occurs on the system and one of the corresponding circuit breakers does not clear
this fault, there must be one or more elements set to serve as backup to the main protection.
These backup elements must trip the machine/transformer circuit breaker and eventually
shut down the generator.
System backup protection for generators typically consists of time-delayed phase and
ground fault protection. Depending on the type of primary protection applied, distance
relays (21) or voltage-restrained time overcurrent relays (51V) provide phase fault
protection. Backup protection should be of the same type as that used on the system to ease
the coordination burden.
You would normally apply the CTs to the neutral side of the generator so that the 51V
relays provide backup protection for the generator, step-up transformer, and part of the
system. If CTs on the neutral side are unavailable, you can use CTs on the load side of the
generator to apply a distance relay with a negative offset characteristic (small backwards
reach). The use of an offset is also effective to back up the main generator protection for
faults in the stator when the neutral side CTs are available.
Although not its primary function, a negative-sequence element (46) can also operate as an
additional backup for unbalanced faults on the system.
System Backup Protection_r11
57

When a short-circuit fault occurs at the generator terminal, three different generator
positive-sequence impedance values are necessary to calculate the short-circuit current.
These values are subtransient reactance, Xd; transient reactance, Xd; and the direct axis
generator reactance, Xd.
Because three reactances with increasing values over time characterize the positive
sequence of the generator, the generator fault current decays over time, as shown in this
slide.
As demonstrated before, the short-circuit current in the steady-state period (after several
cycles) could be less than the nominal current for the generator (less than 1 per unit). This
means that a simple time-delay overcurrent relay set with a pickup greater than the
nominal generator current will not operate for a short circuit at the generator terminals.
Before the relay operates, the current is already considerably smaller than the relay pickup.
Because of this naturally decreasing fault current, you cannot use simple overcurrent or
time-overcurrent directly to provide system short-circuit fault backup. Instead, you would
use voltage-controlled and voltage-restrained time-overcurrent elements for such backup
purposes.
58

As stated before, a simple time-delay overcurrent relay is not a good solution for generator
protection or as a backup for the relays on the system external to the generation zone.
First, the pickup needs to be greater than the maximum generator current in normal
conditions. Second, it has to have a time delay short enough to protect the generator.
Coordination constraints (with the protection for the external system) can easily cause the
trip time to be greater than 0.5 seconds, and system constraints may dictate a sensitivity
that conflicts with the need to set the pickup greater than the maximum generation.
To illustrate, the approximate t vs. I plot in the figure shows a fault with the evolution of
the current rms value. When comparing this evolving current with the static t vs. I
characteristic of the relay, notice that the relay will not operate if the relay or circuit
breaker fails on the system side.
If the relay on the system side were a distance relay, it would be difficult to coordinate a
simple overcurrent relay with a distance relay because of all possible operating conditions.
59

The voltage-controlled element uses a fixed, sensitive pickup, but this element can operate
only if terminal voltage drops below a settable value.
The synchronous reactance, Xd, is typically used to calculate fault currents for coordination
purposes with other similar protective devices on the system.
In special cases, when the excitation system design causes the current to be greater than the
steady-state synchronous short-circuit current for long periods, the corresponding current
and equivalent reactance must be used.
60

Voltage-restrained overcurrent relays are easier to coordinate than are voltage-controlled

overcurrent relays because the sensitivity of these relays is related directly to the generator
voltage. Generally, the actual pickup of a voltage-restrained overcurrent element will be 25
percent of the element setting for voltages that are 25 percent or less of nominal. For
voltages between 25 percent and 100 percent of nominal, the actual pickup to the setting
will have the same percentage ratio as the voltage. That is, for 50 percent voltage, the
pickup is 50 percent of the setting. As a result, the relay is more sensitive during fault
conditions than during normal system conditions.
As in the voltage-controlled overcurrent protection, the synchronous reactance, Xd, is
typically used to calculate fault current for coordination with other similar protective
devices on the system.
A loss-of-potential scheme can enhance security when you use a voltage-restrained or
voltage-controlled overcurrent. During a loss-of-potential condition, either type of relay
can misoperate because these relays will be at their most sensitive settings.
61

The diagram shows the linear relationship between the system voltage value and the
overcurrent pickup for a particular example relay.
When the system voltage is half the nominal value, the actual overcurrent pickup will be
50 percent of its pickup setting. Thus, the overcurrent element will be twice as sensitive as
when the voltage is normal. This diagram shows a suggested curve.
By reducing the minimum per-unit pickup to 12.5 percent, you could increase element
sensitivity for low voltages.
If applied properly, the overcurrent pickup level in both voltage-controlled and voltagerestrained time overcurrent elements will be below the generator fault current level as
determined by the synchronous reactance.
If the time vs. current curve of the element is approximated with the typical US or IEC
standard formula, and the current pickup changes with voltage as shown in the figure, the
curve can be described by the following equations:
A
t TD
B
P
I / I M 1
I PICKUP ; for V 100%
I M ( V / 100 ) I PICKUP ; for 25% V 100%
0.25I PICKUP ; for V 25%
V generator' s terminal voltage in percent of the rate voltage

I PICKUP 51V element current pickup for 100% voltage
62

The backup relays should coordinate with the relays on the system. For example, for the
system shown in the figure, all the phase-fault backup relays m, n, and p must coordinate
with Relays 1, 2, and 3. Use directional elements looking towards the transformers to
coordinate with 4, 5, and 6.
The following conditions should be achieved simultaneously:
tm>t1 ; tn>t1 ; tp>t1 ; for all faults within the protective zone of Relay 1
In some cases, it is impossible to accomplish all coordination conditions. Because of
security constraints, the setting for one or more of the backup relays (m, n, and p, in this
case) should not detect faults at remote points, close to the protection zone limit of the
main relays. Should there be such detection of a fault, the solution would be to implement
a local backup system (breaker failure relays) to effectively produce the backup trip.
63

A distance relay is the most common system backup for phase faults because distance
relays most often provide line protection, and it is easier to coordinate a distance relay
(than another type of relay) with another distance relay. Because the relay should be set to
detect faults on the system, auxiliary VTs may be necessary to provide a phase shift to the
relay so that it can properly detect faults beyond the step-up transformer.
The relay is generally set to reach beyond the remote terminal of the longest line
emanating from the station. The setting can be complicated by the number of lines and
lengths of the lines emanating from the station. For stations with multiple lines, the infeed
effect can require an extensive reach for the relay. Conversely, short lines can dictate a
shorter reach to avoid excessive time delay.
A loss-of-potential scheme can increase system security. The performance of stability
studies would help ensure proper operation during power swings.
64

One of the most widely used protection elements is the impedance element.
Relays were once designed to operate for an input voltage magnitude less than the input
current magnitude times the relay setting Zr. With some mathematical manipulation, the
operation of the relay can be shown to occur within the inner region of a circle in a
complex plane that plots the apparent impedance of the relay. The apparent impedance is
defined as the complex quotient of the input voltage divided by the input current.
A relay with this characteristic, also known as plain impedance characteristic, is not
directional. This means that faults that occur behind the relay can be detected, something
you do not want in most applications.
65

A directional impedance relay can be implemented with some modifications to the original
impedance relay design.
This element has the advantage of being directional, where you can adjust both the forward
and backward reach, called offset.
66

Generator distance backup protection normally provides one or two zones of phase mho
distance protection. Each zone has corresponding forward reach, reverse offset, maximum
torque angle, step-up transformer compensation, and time delay as needed for coordination
and system constraints.
In typical applications, the Zone 1 element protects the system up to the generator step-up
transformer. The Zone 2 element is set to reach through the step-up transformer into the
system, normally to the end of Zone 1 of the line distance protection, with a coordinated
longer time delay.
Some relays can be set for a negative offset, where the 21 element can serve as a backup
for zones in the generator stator windings. The Zone 2 element must consider the
connection of the step-up transformers. This is taken into account in the design of some
modern relays. In other relays, the engineer must calculate the settings, considering the
phase angle.
In systems with multiple lines, if the infeed effect is considered, the resulting setting of the
Zone 2 reach can be very large. This large reach setting might compromise system security
in cases of heavily loaded systems. Again, the solution is to use breaker failure protection.
Some modern relays come with a load-encroachment element that inhibits relay operation
for a relatively wide range of load conditions, as explained on the next page.
67

For backup of the system overreaching distance protection on a long line with a heavy
load, load encroachment is a great concern because the load can enter into the protection
characteristic and cause the relay to improperly trip the generator.
Some generator protection relays include load-encroachment logic that can be set through
use of the rated generator capacity and the rated generator normal operating power factor.
Load-encroachment blocking enables you to set the Zone 2 distance backup element to
reach to the end of a long transmission line without any concern about a heavy load flow.
68

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Unidad 6 Protección de Generadores

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Generation System Protection PROT 409

Section 8 - Generator Stator Protection

Editorial Review Date

Corrections from markup notebook PA

Revisions for 2004, template

Revisions from rev 6, proofed

Added summary on stator protection application

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Style updates and editorial corrections. Markups to

Generation System Protection PROT 409

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

Backup protection against phase faults

Directional power relay

Definite-time overcurrent relay

Instantaneous/time-delay phase overcurrent

Instantaneous/time-delay ground overcurrent

Ground detector relay

Phase-angle measuring or out-of-step protective

Differential protective relay

Auxiliary motor or motor generator

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Backup protection against faults and loss of

Generation System Protection PROT 409

Because of generator winding insulation aging, mechanical vibration, and fatigue,

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

High-speed current differential relaying is normally used to protect generators against

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

A common variation on the differential concept is the percentage restraint differential

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

This diagram represents a more common percentage differential protection characteristic.

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

The diagram shows the classic electromechanical balance-beam unit in a configuration to

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

The figure shows a classic current differential scheme:

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

This is a simplified block diagram of a differential relay, as implemented in an analog

Generator Stator Protection_r12

Generation System Protection PROT 409

The implementation in a digital relay is equivalent to a numerical simulation of the analog