2S Will SIRE] | Hannibal Bg. Oaohnson | AKI PRESS tute, TemeFIRST EDITION Copyright © 1908 by Hana B Joon Published inthe United States of America By Eakin Pres. Division of Sele Med, In. 7, Box 90138 Austin, TX 78700 email aking. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. rsaso780 wP ay Cong again rata Da, COMMENTS Acknowledgments Prologue The Roots ‘The Riot ‘The Regeneration The Renaissance Epilogue Appendices A: The Oklahoma Jazz Hall of Fame 'B; Repor of the American Red Cross, Tula (G:Talsa City Commission Minutes, Jone 14, 1021 De Excerpts from the Negro City Directory, Tals (1941) E: North Taka Heritage Foundation, Ine “Image Builder” Award Recipients Black Business in Tala Endnotes Index 2 uo re 149 183 28 2s 247 251 255 267Coven ar ny cuay Portis ‘tia Hs work has ben shew i che San Fane ay es Ta Okuma: Cl Soin ihe San Fans Soo of Seo [ltr Hn werk range om shes {© mic book dunce hy pbeons snAicmerca sapere” te sae ae Tor prin of te gh all Stet cove: ‘act Clay Re 1868 Nena ale, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 1 join host of others in commending Oklahoma State Senator Maxine Horner and Oklahoma State Representative Don Rove for their herote contributions toward restring Tilia’ h toric Greetwood Distrito atlas fraction ofits original sper dor. Theit leadership and vision shaped the curentrenaisanc, ‘Thanks to the following indvitals and instittions for pro- viding many ofthe archives and historical insights upon which this work i based: De. John Sibley Butler Beste Doveing, Scott Ellsworth, Eddie Faye Gates, Jeanne B. Goodwin, James O. Goodwin, Esq, Jeny Goodwin, Jewell Hines, Milaid House, Marian Jones, William D. LaFortime, Esq, Marcene Mackey Judi Exion-Mlusye, Dr. Jilda Modes, Carmen Pete, Robert Powers, Kavin Ross, Geonge E. Schaefer, Shari Horner-Tisdale, and Josie Vann; the Bisiness and Industrial Development Corporation, Fast Baptist. Church of North Tulsa, the Greenwood Cultural Genter, Mt Zion Baptist Church the North Tulsa Heritage Foundation, Tne the OMlahoma’ Historical Socies the Oklahoma Jazr Hall of Rime, the Tulsa Historical Societ, the University of Tulsa MeFalin Library, and Vernon. Chapel AME Turner Good's technical skills and ken sense of placeand image produced stunning, evocative photographs. His dis: Cemment assisted greatly with the selection of the Vintage pho- tographs included im the book. Ty immensely talented nephew; Clay Portis, designed the cover at forthe book. His ability to conceptualize and transate texperiences into compelling imagery never ceases to amaze. ‘Dr Vivian Clark, Sarah TheobalelHal, Lt Tyan Jones, Kenneth J. Lest, Esp, Gary Pilgrim, Esq, Brenda Johnson Fotis, and Adam Seaman proved thoughtful, constructive feedback on various drafts ofthis work, For those additonal eyes Tam enormously grateful ‘Special thanks to- David L. Boren, president of the University of Oklahoma; Sanford Cloud, J, president & CEO of the National Conference for Community and Justice (Formerly the National Conference of Chrisans and Jews) Dr John Hope Franklin, James B. Dake Profesor of History Emeritus, Duke University; Frank Keating, governor ofthe state of Oklahoma; Wilma Mankille, former chief of the Cherokee Nation; M. Susan Savage, mayor of the city of Tulsa; and Rabbi Charles Sherman, Temple Israel, Tulsa. These individuals reviewed the ‘book and prosided comments, ‘Steve Walker's asistance with data eny helped enormoush Friends Chersl Brown, Judith A. Colbert, Esq. Nancy Day, Pinkie Fave, Sharon Gallagher, Lawrence A. Hall, Ee, Mervin Tove, Calin Moore, Eaqy Loretta Radford, Esq, Rosca Ross, and Fred Yette, Esq, provided much-needed continuity throughout the course ofthis writing “Thanks tomy parents, Remice and Frank Jonson, whose love, encouragement, and support have never waned. ‘set out on this stroll through Tulsas famed Greenwood District past and present, on a mission: to discover for myself the remarkable history of «community and vo share my findings vith the work. didnot walk alone, Loffera special "thank you" to thowe Afican-American pioneers, living and dead, who jour heed with me and upon whose shoulders 1 now stand. Ma¥ our ewardship of their legacy honor ther lives and memories for ‘generations to come, PROLOGUE We mst ac ft dapper, Bua e mut nce ae infe hape, Da. Marts LUTHER KING, JR. The termes soy of T's hinoricGrenvood Dis once cosiered “The Negro Wall Set tle of tage and wmph, oppression and oppor dpa ant dg eis teat ie humm drama sein ciy ted the “O Capi ot the Word” serrng a cast of Afie-Ameic heroes whose corage, ingen. and ath susan them tg i's highest pee sd love vale i above al tcsament tothe power of hopeandsuibucto the etnce of the human spint. Jot hw these. Aftian-Amerian peers tranaged to tus he nderckped adj nore of he Frisco Saito acs ino & thriving Midwest men ee from the runounTlba Race Rt of 1921s ae sen motion i rene remains one ofthe est hep sere Ameis Nov ern and ny Tals tne and hes tema bina o the lasing isa sigan ot the Greenwood District. a The history ofthe Gremwood District may be viewed in four phases (1) The Roots) The Re) The Regeneration and () The Renaiwance ‘Ths viewed he rich Pat Of the Greenwood Dist evokes virally every human emotion Pui ad pride, hor an ops pet and remembrance.The tre spirit of the Greenwood District pioneers i i= trated by the following exchange of letters between Curtis, a ra Detroit, an Olver his friend in Tua, in the immediate Atak of the Tusa Race Riot of 1921, Dear Over 1am, by our fora newpaper ll aise of the whole scr tage there, Now ha they ave desyed Your Mme reer bl cn and ben ir nd ied your people, 1am soe that the Nezoes wll ap ine op the fou and move North. Endo please id Ur $0.0 to pce your eke Det. ‘al be expec yo cunts Dear Canis Hw kind of you voluce yor synpabeticasistanc tes ube you to be lp hers tine of res ke this The itis me are facing tele station, es al uct the Rnd ar me the ave ee ‘Gratiot they hive edoced ur chutes ashes ae hes Face murdered our people Curt but Hcy have notched far spr And whi I speak only for met leat be sa hat Make ee and bik ny forte sth that SPIRE shall econ there wit tat SPIRIT and expect 1 Bre on Int ae here with OLIVER, “The lessons of this fragment of American history ae legion. Few ate more compelliig and relevant than the realization that the human spiit may bend, bur it need not break. Under the ion severe of life’ tests n or darkest hours, faith and hope lind fortitude work minor miracles. Every Oklahoman—indeed, ‘hey American-—should take the ime 10 lear tow Tula Greenwood District developed into one of the most prosperous SSiscamAmerican communities in the country, survived the trom race Tit in United States history, Hterally rebut itself Tom ruin, and is now enjoying along overdue renaissance THE ROOTS Roots: The cosets that one as vith some place o ‘rope as through bh, upbringing. o long fond sympa aration At the dave of the twentieth century, Tulsa shone bright She radiated youth, vibrancy, alliance, and naivete. Initially ‘called "Tallas"* Tusa began asa slumbering outpost on the ‘Arkansas River seed by a band of Creek Indians: Beginning their epic journey in Alabama in 1834, the Creeks embarked on fa twovear adysey that would eventually lead them ro a place they called “Talla” Talli Became "Tulhey Town” in the late 1800s. Tulsey Town turned to Tulsa” an incorporated munici- pals, on January 18, 1898, and became a sprawling dione Df the largest in the Southwest—by the 19205. By then, local booster fondly dubbed Tulsa the “Magic Git.” ‘Oi explained the rapid transformation from dusty hamlet (NAACP), described the caterpillarto-buterfly metamonphosis of Tula ina 1821 arti “Tala is dhrving, baling, crormounly wealthy ow of beeween 90,00 and 100000. Tn TOIO I was the home of 182 oul dead and hopeless outlook ahead Then ll was Acvered, The own grew amasngy. On December 29, 1520, Ahad bank deponts totaling $68,119,050 loot 1,000, er capita when compared withthe Federal Census igure of 1920 which gave Tule 7205. The town les in the enter[BLACK WALL STREET ‘he oil ego and many ate dhe stores a ofthe making of iho foanes bye who eve operating on eing, Some of the tories eal howe the Tartine” CatBonia The una has number of mode ofc tulding ta ent hese leat pnd ec Sager and proresiv business men who wel exer ‘Efe moat of “The iy witha ronal Tulsa was wll om her way to camming, er se athe “Oi ve World so-called "ho es” having been dsr ‘Su arond te tam he century, But twas te of wo Gis net old anda he er i, Pons 2 ring Living across the tracks hd both herald figurative UYpifince. The Frisco Raload ache served saline of demar Sinn Denween two separate yet hopeleshinerdependen, ‘rors An amicable understanding of racespectc ols and Yeposibiiessemed to prvall~amicable, that 50 Song = the Afian-Americons knoe and remained “in her place ‘Onlahomnts fist contingent of Alrcam American setlers anived during the 1890 ad 18405. They came as res, ofthe fore femal of the so-called, "Fee Cv Tied ‘Tibes” from the Soucanter Unie States {0 the Oblshoma Ter tony. These tbs lve Toles ll bret ith them both Aiea Armer: dean slaves and eed then over the legendary ol Teare” Alcan Americans and. Naive ‘nec inermaried {ders ofthe fv tes Mare fr he Cie Con Oa ett fd fee of te of Tan (Thats ory of on ‘tea 1907) The Rents 3 (Chickasaws, Choctaws, Cherokees, Cres, and Seminoles) met With federal officials in Fort Smith, Arkansas, aftr the Civil War and the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United Sues Constitution, Resultant testes provided for. the libre ‘on ofthe slaves and the adoption of freedmen into the tribes ith accompanying annuity and land rights. Most former slaves ‘eventually received alloementsof land ranging in mass fom forty to 100 acres. The number of Afican-Americans in the ‘Oklahoma Territory exceeded 6,000 by the year 1870 Like their white counterparts, ffican-Americans from the southern states saw the widesopen Oklahoma Tesrtory as the California of its ay The opening up of the Ollahoma Territory. one of the final frontiers in the continental United Sates (0 “non-Native” settlement lasted alot twenty years ‘Oklahoma became a sate of national significance with the ‘opening ofthe great ol elds ike Glenn Pool in 1805, Cushing, in 1913, and Healdton in 1018. Private fortunes were made Boomtonns were born. From 1907 through 1028, a youthful Oklahoma boldly aserted itself, claiming its postion a+ the ‘number one oil-producing sae in the entre country” Native American tribal confi the influx of thousands of setters in search of "fre land” in Ollahoma, the absence of di femible economic markets, and wntesolved cultural tensions combined to make Oklahoma, at least for some, anything but Paradise.’ Socialist newsman Oscar Ameringer painted stark, albeit highly subjective, portrait of what e sw when he visited ‘Oklahoma in 197 | found tothe old women with sicking infants on their rei breasts. 1 foun espable old en od thir ‘yor less her hands covered with rags ad exe fering te a biuit with those hands apologizing that er cute twee not as good ashe aed to mae hectse wth Her sore hand she noTonger could knead the dough i oghe tobe "sw youngsters emaciated by hookworms, amon. nd plage, who had Tost thet second teeth befoe they were ety yeas old. Isa toting ok male eck wih he infants of ther Foreen-yearoid waves om thei lap Ts ite man beng Choctaw quam wo el he on emai spring in that nelgborood oe hn hve eee4 BLACK WALL STREET afb of ater i hy ay He uma sore fSite poaleel f derdation and dey av 3 Seen hed paris ah hth sane rate ae te here avn Ge {igs en whitening he cry cabal on ae cpp sa rin mming, ba spouing ee, eeetng jeer psa abot eal Py Sl scl pegs ne ben al en orn vibe igs ey and te prt ot hp SEeLEnatevenKnoing: mach cing that hy wee weaned ojo tense aed the TRUSTE Sat amateeowsey ime The hing separ he ings never oe son eit et ea anes ad come Olio to gt fom a {out ea la my nde eso ly WORE A OP Taman ine The mg Bree ef es eae fr at hed ten wo a ser cond becoming or hm ane ha ed ach terete hes hden lhe cea et sy ete it ada ben for hose tnd courage sash mv mal ve hed ine ck en ta meer ta ey We were abs So poe Tee amt tay ha sgl oath tm ei yc est geod eon, oe Ind eet commas Okishoma. spelled opportunity, The Guess faily and scons at aie intore ta ater tm ple up sabes and ‘oud tor the pln, Many of these Alican-Americas ght {Su pacts tnd inthe Ollshoma Tevitory from Native ‘RieePamOshesrceved nd under then preaing ederat nment tay alotment poli. Indeed, Oklahoma boss S'pore lack towns and communes than any exer ate ean Remar at one tne there were some tity Xean-Amesican newspapers in Olahoma* Magan Unierty historian Corie Balled abuts the The Rows 5 ‘emarkable proliferation of all-black towns to treaties between the United tates and the Native American ties that reuited the Native Americans to fee their slaves and allot them land, African-Americane pooled their resources, and allotted lands ‘became communities. These communities opened their arms to Freed slaves from all actos the country." Many Affican-Americans came to the Oklahoma Territory in answer to the call of Avicin- American Oklahoma “boosters” These boosters viewed the Oklahoma Territory as an escape from the racism, and sometimes barbarism, they faced in the home stats, Promotional literature touting free Land, full ie enship sighs, and an escape from race-based discrimination proved irresistible for man. “The booster among boosters was Edwin P. McCabe, a prominent Afican-American from Kansas. McCabe wat 3 Republican Party politician and the state auditor in. Kansas belone coming tothe Oklahoma Territory in TS89. He dreamed ofthe day when the Oklahoma Territory would become an all- black state of at a minimum, a state politically dominated by African-Americans. MeCabe purchased 320 actes near Guthrie and coaxed long-suffering settlers tothe st. This setlement ‘became the town of Langston, named for an African-American Virginia congressman, John M. Langston. McCabe founded a newspaper, the Lamgxtin Heald and sed chilly a8 propa ganda vehicle for his boostrism of the Ollshoma Territory. McCabe appealed to Aiea Americans to abandon the back- breaking grind of Southern planation living for the greener pastures of the Oklahoma Terstory: "What wll you be if you fay in the South? Slaves liable to be killed at any time, and never treted right but ifyou cme to Oklahoma you have equal chances with the white man, fee and independent. Why do Southern whites alvays rum down Oklahoma and ty to keep the Negroes from coming here? Because they want heep them there and live off their labor. White people are coming bere ceveryday."" ‘Ultimately, McCabe's bold vision ofan all-black state gener sed blind fear and dark suspicion among whites and Native Americans. The mere prospect of losing siicant power atl influence to Afvican-Amerians engendered a sense of dread6 BLACK WALL STREET among OMaonads governing lites. Some feared the possility due McCabe could become the terstoral governor. Southern Ate poland plantacon owners earful thatthe creat Tan Stbiek sate would wreak havoc on thei primary source cheap, unsiled abor, ugh fo pers Mica-Amerins that Oklahoma land war not sable fr farming, Bsen some tcaneAmericans re meaty of McCabe's incessant boosters iaekeedmen in Okahoma came to Tesent new migans fom the South because of thei submisane, serie behavior tad ‘bites in the OMaboma Terry. Despite MeCabe’ efforts Aficn-Amercan migration co the Oklhoma Teton showed. Migration was cost and ii fat economical socially, and emotional Mhgran, nay ffm farming background ute natural feared the known ‘arial prospec tn the Odom Territory, dbious at Her di ide to quell te lingering doubts of these agrarian s ‘McCabe's personal ambitions were likewise held in check. Atdyugh Republican Party leader in Washington, D.C, ved MeCale's bi forthe governorship of the Okla Territory MeCabe evenly oeame deputy autitor and bel that pose tion until Oklahoma became a tate in 1907 Undaunted, McCabe devoted hin considerable lens tothe development of allhack towns. Tren-cight communities and Ge eelony ner founded pri to Oklahoma satod: wen) our aback communities in aan Territory ad four aback towns and one clon in Oklahoma Triton The oldest ofthe toms Tallahassee, was fovea in 1889, Bat mest were found td inthe interim beoveen the a ran of 1889 an Olahoma Setchood In 1807. Lincoln iy, organued tm 1888, and Lngto, organized in 180, were the fist two ala tows in Ollaboma Territory. Altblack towns in Indian Terstoy, ‘any founded near, Muskogee, included Tut, Boley. and Vernon" ‘Alvback tons emerge for several reasons, Some Afian Americans foun security ving “amongst their on in his foreign Tand calcd Oklahoma For oer all black towns ‘pene windows of opportunity for seledeternnation in po fern the economy, ad nal ober areas of soi Sil th- The Roos 7 rs sgh rege fom hate monger ike the Klos Klan All bk ing ep en i te ets of face in Americas proved. atracine fo Alfic-Ameicans ‘throughout the nat on _ Not all AicanAtvericne ed in all ack owns Aan nw le nd rami the ears years sme 300 Aean-Americns cone a inoitrich Olson Teron For aforanae few “cae bub bled beneath the race These Acan-Amercans, despite repeated an perintet teat fom white tested al oles to pari he opr at ks hn mie Whe ne zen nerees nthe price of produced more west fo ‘a olthg anime ene aca need elo) ad emy gamed a some prominent and socal men bers of OMlshomauhite communities. : 81007 anil in The den» national chlry ma azine escbesth ire ate of eet in Okla st (he negro of dan Teton ako a anawner: The cexslvs ofthe Five Tie ae protec thet lings se {he Indians, And inthe Okla Western ha fe we Sethe neg ws ae to hema nd 28 the shes Te tetas “opening we find comer number of tenn ‘ining clans Soin ah dons of the Sate There ate probaly larger pereniage of negroes who own ther me tn at nrc cman hat chee the Une States So willbe seen tat Okshons negro pop ‘thdon shard tobe med inproiden = PoP An OMahoman wil give you eaten for dking the ego [The Neg] nora ponies ly an ih al attimes inclined to be imple Alter talking wah many ten cllege grates professors and Northern o ed Cd ati ht ed he ain ho os to ait stung eon spat oven the lack. Pat isthe much prefer not to come personal conta wh Regio, and regard the weed "ete twnd of the Terris ay progresive, forthe single reson tt negroes stenot allowed toreside here8 BLACK WALL STREET jo Oklahoma the nego can hope for no pol or social pston tha reites whi encourages” ously i bat tar abe ra a eT eect tee igi pe tune ne sea Ri pce pe Ee cao eterno sae et Selena nt secrete i cn ar urges atin chron reat ce ermal 1 a ea peg gcc ae i eae ea Ee Ieee ta we echt So The Rents 9 Arican-Americans could neither Hive among whites as equa ‘or patronize white businesses in Tala” Send hase: foe economics proned no match forthe saci of the day: Racal police dltatel consumer marks SCeresation, for all is praca, moral nd philosophical dei CGences, lorced the development of sn insular African-American Sconony to cater co the nests ofthis wall community. Wi it am allunt clas of Afcan-Amerian entrepreneurs {developed In Tula, this increasingly prominent “Afean American entrepreneurial pol congregated primarily i 9 sn ‘lebusines dai, beginning tthe intersection of Greenwood Aremue and Archer Saret. ieetivood Avene, likely named ater Gremvood, Minsisipp" became Know 5 “The Negro ‘Wal Seen Legend han that med African-American ee. {ator and autor Booker T. Weington bestowed this moniker ‘on Tals brane black busines dnc.” Despite the succes menting on Cenwond Avenue nearby side sees evidenced the cements of poverty and cre ‘inal any urban ares, Shunt, hes ade fom packing {tates pena, hours of rept, ado jn were aot tinomation: *Choc” i bore for Cece ben 3 thick, milly ‘hie ntnicant made fom the Chex rot o dian emp.) ‘Colona "ied igh dierics” Tike those found ear Gren wood Avene often ge Het socal acepable cal ae James Haskins, sn achority om ick rim Americ, ages that je originated nome slong the Misssipps River, ot ‘otably New Orlane Ft brothel, then speaensies ronided popular venues forthe uniquely American musa arform and Sere inegral to is midexpread popular,” Jace wal Trcome aoited ith the bs and nightspots the Green wood Disc “rhe legate enterprises in the Greenwood Disc had cone thing tn common with their lesedesable counterpart ick consumers doing bosines with black vendors. In aege fated Tle, “buying black” became mores matter of sural nd lessa matter of choice for Alcan Americans, Conseqenty Droid of gods ad services in the Greenwond Dist held faptive an eager marke aid tapped into pent-up demand Dill calcd among the Creenwood Diss ing10 BLACK WALL STREET rooming houses, restaurants, billiard halls, hotels, smoke shops ‘Sroemuaket, barbers, hairdressers, shoe shiners, alors, contac tore doctors, layers dents, and other professional and bus pes extablishments That Alcan Americans prospered in Tals is illstrated by home ownership in the Greenwood District. Tulsa's progressive Aican American community boasted some of the Giy’s more ‘legant homes. One such stately home belonged co Sam and Thiey Mackey. The Mackeys purchased the land for their spacious frame house, indeding three Ite at 336 North Greenwood Avene, from Marion and Ela Marin in 1911. The Martins Siva the lan! fom the OKlahoma-based Cherokee Nation.” ‘The Mackey fairly embodied the idyllic American dream, And Tulsa became, at leas fora time, their dreamland. Though hand work and perseverance, the Mackeys prospered materia. The Mackey home rellected that fat, becoming both a monument to their prosperity and an inspiration to others inthe communi ‘Segregation forced African-Americans to invest in their awn community. Then, #508, such investment, whether coeted or ‘oluntay, elds more than mere economic rewards c promotes Community selfsufiiency and xelfdetermination as wel, So it sras in the Greenwood Distt of the early years. All fica “American Tulsns benefited. ‘Mary Elizabeth Jones Parrish, an Affcan-Ameriean woman from Rochester, New York, came «0 Tulsa in 1918. In er noe= worthy book, Ent the Taler Dane, she explained the mag hei allure that this Midwest metropolis had for Afviean ‘Americas i the early 1900: had herd of this since ind and of he sy torus ese ome snc Bat came not Ta a ‘uy came eed yt dears mang moe and beer Ingo te an wo, bt eae he node lopernon Tebsered among ou peopl, and expec the ineenony of pt and acon sha ee between the busines then and women. 7 On Creeneond ene could id ae ‘Tne places wich wel cet ay secon the thatthe msdn econ she mae hae of eal Stu pdr which wos pene the ment eel eye The Sus and mony chances weve well tended” The Roots 11 “This magical, mystical, f.off place called “Tulsa” beck ‘oned multiple souls inthe early 1900s. Mary Elizabeth Jones Parish was just one of the many pilgrims. These seekers, white and African~American alike, were oki fashioned America opt mists. There was a beter place somewhere xt there, and they were determined to find i. Tulsa herame their promised lan Most of the African-American scckers wound up it the Greenwood District. The rich and varied history and culture of Tals's Greenwood District dates back at least 10 1905, That year, Alican-Americans acquired stip of land inthe area.” At the time, a fair mumber of domestic workers “Tved-in” with their white employers and therefore lacked permanent residences in the African-American community. But Ysidences sly sprang Lup in the Greenwood Distt. As the Greenwood Distt rem the need for educators and schools forthe comunity’ children became al oo apparent Formal education in Tulsa for African-American also dates tack to 1905. Jake Dillard, a constable and businessman, built “Tls’s frst Altiaan-American school, housed it sna chore at Archer and Kenosha streets, that yea: The school moved to 3 location in another church between Cameron and Easton streets fon Hartford Avenue in 1908, Rev G. L- Prince and Lala Sins were the schools ist teachers. By 1910, Dunbar Schoo, fe Standing. weostry eghtstoom brick school, ad been complet- ced for grades one through eight. J. W. Hughes was Dunbat’s S:D. MeCre, Jane Jonson, Bini Fare, and Mrs. RT Bridgewater To aconmodate the eight tacts who hd eo pleted the lower grades, Dunbar School included the high School grades by 1512. W. Hughes and S, D. MeCree taught the upper grades IN 1918 Booker T Washington High School, fourroom franco Et Pe ad non Se aye ier CE. W) Woods, hired sx principal in 1913, accompa, vied Lala Sins and le Mekecver al foreen erty {he new fey. is fs seniors (oo) pated tn 1810. By 1018. “Booker 1.” had. grown info. twosory.sintcentoom Trick bailing. Booker added is fret spor bastebal in12BLACK WALL STREET ‘ashes TWishingon High Sho ica 1927 (Pht cote of i Nath ‘ee Here Foundation loc) 1921. Football ban, al the school tradition of erowning an onal football queen followed i 1922. F- W. Woods continued ae ead ibis legendary high school? as principal in its initial decades of existence “{ Missippi native, EW. Woods teed 10 Oklahoma by foot fom Memphis, Tennessee, in answer to a lyr proclaiming wesperate need for “colored” teachers in this area. Once in Tales Woods landed! job, brie as principal of Dunbar Schoo}, then became prinapal of the new Booker T: Washington High School Wools woul! cceupy the latter post for thistyfve years orcrealterng the ives fal who ad the good fortune to know thin A champion of youth, Woods, wth a bachelor’s degre fom Rune College (Holly Springs, Misissippi and a masters degree from Kansas State (Pitan, Karas) was considered by many 10 bethe "quimesental Tlsan.” A supreme motivator he filed the hinds of his changes with memorable exhortations, and often emiaded Booker stents of thet selEworth and potential: ‘Mou've as good as 99 percent ofall the people and better than the tex" Wino wots were meant not merely as preparation for life at Booker T, bat for Be in general ook back at the curriculum of Booker Weshington igh School in 1921, the year ofthe Riot, atests to Woods Uneavering comitiene eo excellence in education. The Rows 13. rusia Cass—Latin, English Algebra, Drawing Dometic Science snd Art, Mana Tsining, Aeat Histor Weal Musi Scrmowous C1ass_Latn, Engl, Goomety, Domestic An, Driving, Med. and Modémn Hlstry, Ecooti, Misi Domestic Since, Maral Training fn ath My, Commer tii si, Drawing, Manual raining, Busine Speling, Chemis. Engl Histry Ci, Dometic At, Domes Science, Woe Mie Sision CLiss—Englh, Phisics, Geometry Solid Typenriting, Vaal Misi Domestic Science, Mata American. Hinton, JByehology Trigonometry Pla, Aepng (si), Draning. Domestic Art shorthand A ass ered ot: ort in some 1 of ath Woods, a trie hero, died in 1948 at age sxythree, Mul vines, both black and white, mourned his passing. His funeral held sn Tulsa's Convention Hall, beit his expansive, substan vial ie” Tn the business entrepreneurial arena, the Greenwood District debuted around 1905 with the constriction ofa grocery store on the corner of Archer Sueet and Greenwood Avenue by businessman O. W. Grey. That, coupled with Gurley addition sfaome-story roaming house, spawned the growth of other bus hese in the are, By 1921, the house that Gutley built ad fxpanded 0 four floors and become known as the Gurley Building, (The rooming house had served as an early home 10 “Tuls’s Veron Afvican Methodist Episcopal Church») Like so say ter community Landa the Cry Bing would ‘Other business pioneers inthe Greenwood District inclu ced Thomas R. Gentry, Taha’ fist Affican-Amerigan eal estate agnate; RT. Bridgewater, Tulsa's first Atian-American physician; Dr J-Litlejobn, Tals fest African-American den fst and Rev ©. 1. Netherland, a Baptist minster who owned a14 BLACK WALL STREET barber shop on Boston Avenue. These trilblazers paved the way for sores of fare enteprenet Many of the buildings i the Greensood District were brick Tea no voineience. Acme Brick Company, located two blocks thon ‘on Greenwood Avenue, provided a readily accessble Couree of bricks, Moreover, bricks were comparable in price, if not cheaper than lumber, number of knoldgeable African American craftsmen lived in the Greenwood Distiy, further facilitating the bricks and mortar construction boom.” ‘Gradually, brick by brick, the Greenwood District blos somed. In 1007, the stme year Oklahoma became the forty th state ofthe Union, two black physicians, a newspaper (he Tua Weekly Plana), three grocers, and several eer business nd professional establishments called Tals African-American Community houwe." By 1910, Tulsa even boasted an African SXmercan trade union, the Hod Carriers Local 198." (A “hod Carriers worker who assis a bricklayer, plasterer, of mason by carving bricks or mortar on a "hod"=—a wooden trough with 1 iong hale} During this period, Affican-Americans com: prised fll ten percent of Tulea’s total population.” Businesses soon sprang up, including the landmark Williams Drearsland Theatre that premiered in 1914, she first Affcan Ameria theater in Tals. The Willams Dreamland Theatre, occupying the fist level of a ewo-sory brick building ‘on Greenwood Avete, showed. pianoaccompanied silent movies and featured occasional live entertainment. Level oo of the same building served ax the Willams’ rooming house. Th Willams also owed a confectionery a garage, and commercial renal property on Greenwood Avenue” ‘Money flawed in the Greenwood District. 1 became fash ionable for men to dangle twenty-dollar gol pieces from their ‘watch chains Joe Eaton, 2 shoeshiner atthe Palace Building ported three neeny-dolar gold pieces." arly on, Tals police loc was desegregated. Police Chet Sam Walker appointed Tals frst Aiean-American police ol er Barney Cleaver But the chance to be a “fist” came with Strings attached, Chief Walker gave Cleaver, a former deputy United States marshal in so-called "Choctaw Country.” a specific Charge: [Nour] hours of day wil begin in the evening and com The Ros Aso day Grea enn, 1917 (Ph cnt the Novh Ta tage Rodan, 1516 BLACK WALL STREET sine dong the night whe things ate most Hy 40 Papen Ge dr eS enforce the tvs nthe eked eon, thee eras ay white man” Despite is it 2 ete of Clrer mathe a sitant moment ine ray abounded, The heart of the Greenwood Din eee Greenwood,” grew ino a veritable, Monte PES Mabel. Ltle decrbes the splendor se ete inthe eral iar of 1818 when a the tender age of seve CaN seamed in Tals rom Boley, Oklbioms, on a Frisco train with $125 in her pocket black businesses Hout. remember Hu’ Cale on Ginna and ret Ia 2 song meting place he (Se atniy You coud go there ays anytime, ae jst Soon ever who a aod would be there oF on their ‘ewes pr en Ta and ce See DY Mn fd rey se Hs ew ae Sete ne tne por owed by or isco a Hide Rao See went by thee of Deep Gres sea pre nc soUgeEedhenne cenganshe nigh ht me reared an deta tee Sion Bey pits he erreur spit ofthe day Few Alfcan-Amerians owned caf, and most streets were paved, even Greenwood Avene in the early years, The only tit Serie tom enforced a "hitomi ere, pl For Alficn-Americans, rickety buggy for hire afforded the aly seailsble pale tansportaton, Then Simon Betty started Tftacy service using his topless Model:T Ford. & nickel woul ytd all up and down Greenwood Avenue, ad as many pedple could ride se dared hang on to she moving cat ery later started another in running down, Lansing Sweet, That made it possible co go all the way downtown an back on one singe tie. He added a top to the Model then pri stmey garage on Archer Street, where he trained African- [Rinevicen mechanics. Later, Berry brought in buses, and his The Roots 17 mechanics became the operators. Having secured a franchise from the City of Tals, Berry evenly ra his buses downto to accommodate those Afrcan-Americine who worked down town or in South Tulsa, rom downtown, riders could connect with privately owned buses going south, At the peak of his oper Sons: Her reported made a mich as $3403 dpa phe ‘Berry reinvested inthe community that had een so goed 10 ‘him. In 1926 he acquired land and established park en thirteen acres located on Madison Street between Virgin and Your Stress, complete with a swimming pool, a dancehall and pienc {ronnils Berry extended his bun service to protde transport ‘Hon to his park. Years late, the Cty of Tala acquired Berry Park, Berry" ran this thriving enterprise for some twenty-five years. Then, the City of Tulsa purchased the thriving, huratve business in order wo consolidate bus operations om citywide basis, He sold only on condition that-Afican-Americans be allowed to ride and that AFcan-American drivers be allowed to aviators, Simon. Berry owned his own sitplane. He and partner James Lee Northington, Sc, a suecesful African-American builing con: ‘wactor operated a popular atline charter sereice in Tulsa in -1980s. Wealthy white businessmen patronized the business.” ‘Simon Berry possessed incredible business acimen. In audition to his pioneering initiatives in the ground and airline \wansportation industries, Berry owned and operated the Royal Hotel in the Greenood District.” Unquestionably Simon Berry ranks among Tals’ blue chip entrepreneurs, Prosperity in the Greenwood District, facled by entrepre- nears like Simon Berry, drew an array of nationally prominent ‘Afican-Americans to Tusa, E:tertsines, dignitaries and not bles from threnghout the country visited frequent; Indeed, the family of James H. Goodwin hosted many of America’s foremost Alfican-American celeites. At the ime, so-called “Jim Crow” las forced strict segregation of public accommodations. While ‘on tour, even well-bnown Alrican-American personalities often Sayed in private homes rather than hotels. Among those vise ing the Goodwins were educator Mary McCloud Bethune, sen-18 BLACK WALL STREET tist George Washington Carver, opera singer Marian Anderso ‘Teddy Home (Lena Horne’ husband), blues singer Dinah Wistnagton, Yolanda Du Bois (daughter of WE. B. Du Bos) IIa noted Chicago scientist Perey Julian. James Goodin’ son ‘ind daughter-indiaw,E,L. an Jeanne Goodin, continued the host family” tration in later years." The prosperousness emerging ia Tuls’s early Affican “American community rested in parton the existence of seae~ fated economic. markets. Afrean-Americans profited. fom Flsts rapid e-driven growth As the city gre, 30 too did the ied for borers and service workers in shot, "Negro labor Im this segregated economy, Aican-Americans invested carn- Ings Hom outside the Greenwood District in busines enterpri- ‘csithin the Greenwood District.” ‘Dr ohn Sibley Bult leading scholar on Afican-American entrepreneurship, contends that Durham, North Carolina, and ‘Tua Oklahoma, are prime early ssentith-century examples of phenomenon cil the "economic deta” Simply put "econom- Feder” refers to the path particular group takes (i this ease [AiieansAmericans) when something impedes or prevents i all, find equal acces (0 economic markets. Racm, segregation, and Giucimination are. the impediments that histonially forced ‘Afean Americas to take at economic detour arly Alfcan-Anerican business leader in Tulsa patterned the derclopment of Tulsa's thriving Greenwood! District after the suceesiulAican-American enterprencurial acti in Durham.” Durham and Tulsa dif, however, im terms of the apome of the cities as a whole to the success of African- ‘American entrepreneurs and profesional. Durham represented one of the succesful economic eauetpivn if ely AfvAmericans. Operating under a eco Som detour, AfAmericane were able wo carve a mountain Srexonome sabi oot of an atmosphere of fia rca Sppremion, just av sears today tak about the “Coban SEC Atami the 1870 an 1080s scholars around the turn ofthe etary were exited about Durham, North ‘Ciclns, Jot the Japanese were abl to develop economic ‘Steen in alfa at he tar of the entry AforAmericas AES leo do the same Like other groups the Aor The Roots 19 sect en teen mtn: cae eee cor as eect ad islets aatereeranor esac tatmate nad ees Seeks vemos ‘he diemms fed by Aean-Aorcanprofniooa Shi ntsc many cies haa ane Sea ope ES patil me eee eae se tt Funael Ar Aman eepenes ted oo Ais fom competion with whites ote. hampered. her dracon hi Avera don ened opera Spree melons ong he meds cope set Soe, thon wit hop Nope es ean ‘Mitsu rw Aachen ps ae es ‘tals ln ninth ental Sicha beter ie para [see ar 4 ee ju and juries. Judges, wielding contempt power, cere in ways designed to control African-American attorneys. Juries, faced siihun Altarasere stony on one seer Rear ‘ced thre gine og le osc re ‘nen pla wth Bu in ta inter specie fl af expense abide fen prea mioctbes of ear sacra Sac enon md ee oi fa rin 8, cen ton beer ites and Arc Aneream feigned Bs enhanced competition, coupled with changes of peonage (se, 420 BLACK WALL STREET pte oe sete py indies tat ef a FE ce mes in ae per)" ute sllamed Aa nt, Stacy. Aan eat att al yep ty the spo penn 2 eee y the Arn rc of er eo ae bdr rans ce sen 2 ei ncn, Rk slr He rt wie “ruterpar ght, bled and di in the wa Upon er, hey Tt ijstee om he home om a a pea fine Aan-Amerion ar Yi nonsense ere 2 ge Nican-Amear Tass that tey ierfaly implored J ara an cmc forthe Moca bn cmc tee at ea OS sing the cme Ake, Tans ra i Mp Tere, 2 Dc fee inten a ery sac yet mb np ae ara pe Be al eared he Sr anne ior an ve hi 20 seb ct and ime eh) ha ih at Gofecr sod ay are hie nae cea sre a eo men pun he cul Soe he ata eso eee eo he cy come ines ncn whe prem) a aa one ot ht henge Anat ey he NANCY decesed warn Te ae a afin Ameen he Ka Kh Klan ys ai wi The NANCE: oe ap rmngy meet the wake me Spt ny oto 190, be men ee Acari and roe am Sr a ee om berms the desyed a aya ins ernie cha renee tone” Fee ee ft ersordng Afcantmerians Jew nator is pre brnd a pe Sa ino Klan ay Tas ng The Roos 21 ‘his era mushroomed. Indeed, Klan rosters from the era reveal a stating embrace ofthe organization at al levels of Tulsa society. Doctors, lawyers, judges, ministers, sheriffs investment advisors, city employees, mail earners, ol field worker, schoolteachers, School principals, policemen, femen, police commisioners brchlayers, barbers, plumber florists, and jantors—all were represented in the Tosa Kin.” Klan organizers, called “Kleagles,” came to. receptive Oklahoma in 1920, Some original Klansmen bad lived inthe state since as early as 1970. George Kimbro, Je and George C McCarron kicked off Klan activity n Oklahoma with 2 meeting of local fraternal orders in Oklahoma iy in 1020. They brought letters of introduction from fraternal oficial in Tense with them to this inital gathering. Kimbo calling himself the KKan's "Grand Goblin," caimel to represent territory that ‘encompassed sixteen states, incuding Oklahoma. Houston, ‘Texas, was. Kimbro's headquarters. McCarron, also from Houston, claimed th tile “King Klesgle of Oklahoma.” and set up his headquarters in voom 303 of the Balsnore Building in ‘downtown Oklahoma City. ‘Not long shereales, twelve Kleagles or ecuitrs sold mem: berships to OKshoma City residents from MeCarton's office “They toon began to recruit statewide, focusing on fraternal fonlers like the Masons and on prominent members of the wartime councils of defense in Oklahoma. County. The (Oklahoma City Klan meetings were held inthe Congregational Church, inthe old Epworth University building, inthe Huckins Hote, and inthe chamnbersof Judge George W: Clark, an early inductee into the Oklahoma Gity Klan. In a matter of mere months, Klan membership in Oklahoma City numbered more than 1,000. By Sepeember of 1921, the Klan's Oklahoma City ‘membership roster alone sirpassed 2,500." "The actives of the Klan in Oklahoma in general and in Tlsa in particular became so notorious asto pose an maminent threat socal sabiliy. Documented Klan violence in Tulsa exceeded that (of any other cy in Ollshoma during dhe 1921-1924 period.” Indeed, laviessness and mob rule spurred Governor Jack Walton to plce Tulsa County under martial win 1923.22 BLACK WALL STREET Daring the 1920 the Ka Kx Klan sed ut ath gins Daring pdm evens, Most oti lence a8 3 it wt but lack fl the sh of te a's accede once he ef many dee ie are ely the Black Dip and he eens Cie we te Ra atthe ick com Matt cn box to inimicaon by coma who paraded yee te Ran tein was retin he Tl a tt rc tun and where he a Carne ak Wan snt woop rr sere le plage stomp ot a le ad ikence 8 ae Mehl plc ny ony under sary eta ses aaa i Kan hich Hod Become 4 aa ase the te, bi exes ad heh some Fr spores we aginst fm, He ae Sa a gt wih he legate, wh Won cake conta, hm pone ns unding, Th ei Peet en. Kl tence soon decreed ad the tae er agin brane sift poll cor saan sce ctor daring he cl igh ONE aa soar ama sal ta tha ren fhe preps ana efecciet shige cooperative edn of lcs a whites ee tne dae feast wate”™ The Roots 23 The Kani sf desribed “Ob cmt jects and Purp reinforce hice supremacy the fundamental tenet ofthe Klan reed, hile simltaneousl professing mo st maiinoiyrofesing moral exempt (Onis Axo Punroses arte I Seto I-Tech Ore sab to mle eros, nave Ga izes ofthe Cel Sees ‘Tha neo sn fay epee en rnment, ation, institution, sect, ruler, = : or ‘whose morals are goorl; whose reputations aed ‘etic peters Sa ae nind and sixteen years or more of age, under a com teeth imosah ete ee ten pare td Se ea set oer psn aoa xi ‘Say oom ome Sipremacy to teach and lily inclte a ge pi ‘Bly hm ned om nd ca eis i press ripen radon an ee A took at the organic document of the Klan, the *conntivtion and Laws ofthe Krigh of the Ku Klux Klan,” vor onganiration believing self divinely inspired 10 pro- Mote white mapremacy, The "Klan Kreed,” the organization's Reston of professed philosophical bei states im pat plesall thats chvaltc in cond, noble in sentiment, Gener 1 {aleve in Ga Inefile; faite; era Creator an ‘usin manhood and pan purpose snctaiog elit ees ey sevepee ns reer sete io isthe Divine Word mage manifest iMesh and fs rom the indignities, wrongs and ue rca | Sao tenant seman ni nmndmtim omanig 2 Stet caer each papel destiny and serie, that the United States ‘dows and orphans, Second, to prot and ete he sg anh tt nem Seas Teruel Peon eh oe Tee here of fee goverment, he maitenance of paed in confrny thereto, and to rte the sates andthe Sa i a ae ot eee ee Sista reeee dltthcpone™ eee her hel eda Sey Seton 1 This Onder can ination of chia, um iy, jusie and pasos enbadhing ins gens and prin24 BLACK WALL STREET the Sate by opening anny, nay and eer form or “egreerom a ndenery aoe wove, by 2 fren SF Sach sdmiisrtin of sce tough dve proces of ime Sad wo meet prom and propery every Behest of dy ‘oot ear and wo prose” ‘lan membership is rigidly sesricted along racial, ethnic, ‘gender an religious lines. The Kl limits its membership to [A White male Genie person, a matve-bor cen of the Unted States of Aerie, who ewes no allegiance of tue or deyfee whatsoever to any feign goverment, tation. itsittion, set ue pine, potemtate people oF ow hve ane he age of seen yeas: be of ood chara of commend ep nd especie cation, 2 ele sn de ees of the Christan lpia one whos alegince yal and devotion tothe jeveromen of the Unied Sates of America i all hing is Ainguewionble”™| Given its narrow defnion of the “cose Americans, cis sot surprising thatthe Klan found fete Fed in Oklaboms, Aine, Native American and Afean-Americin pop Mls for confer, Despite ferences to chivalry, vali goali- sean ae ier aed cate a, Kan vated horrends ace of inhumanity all the. wh Fast in hooded white robes and shrouded tinder loud of Stee The historical record leves Iie room for doubt: dhe Igo of the Kuan is ectdedly uncivalus, moral, and ting Acons spe louder than words "There were waer ominous sighs for Tulsa's Altcan- Americans in 1921 that cannot be ily ttbuted to the Klan, FRomage panied the lndape Mey unigned Ccamings began to appear on the doors of homes and in an he one comma jot sie fe) neve Ties warings prophetcally announced the de conse Fecnces tha would befall Afic-Armericans who remaied in Stabe ater one 1, 1921 Some heeded the warnings. By 8 dling they essed the hortors ofthe Rint o come “ithe le spring. of 1921, group of eight AfFican- The Roots 25 American reigees elt Oklahoma ad healed for New York City ‘with Tile more than the shite on their back. our of ther, ise johtson, Sella Haris, Jone Gatlin, and Clade Hare Ail on Okmulgee, arrived athe nation lice the NAACP fn June 2 102 They inaly sought sistance fom a group to which they belonged, the Universal Negro Improvement ‘Asociaton, led by beckto-Aica, proponent. Marcus Gare. Denied lp there, ther tuned tothe NACI There they found solace and were provided with fod, shel, clothing, tn oan Cals. The NAACP even acted elie Ta or vicns othe Riot” Taw ‘enforcement became conspicuous by ire of absence frm the day-to-day Hives of Tulsa, white an Aa “American alike, Avice ring tightened is aveady considera tip on virally every aspect ofthe city By design or defaul the community seemed to earn a bind eye on compton and lasses. Ts gained reputation, lage earned a a wld and wanton Midwest town. When the Oklahoma legislate Add eww dtc ges the two exiting dit judges iT Conmty in 192, some 6,00 crm cnes sate a. Stated somewtatdifercatly, about ix ot af every 100 Tesans fellunder some sort of eriminal indictment, hopelesly clogging the justice system." Despite these conditions Tub Alice ‘Atatcas community continued o pronpe. By 1921, Tuls's Alfcan-Amencan almost 1,000, The Atcan-Amercan com tw schon Pal Lawrence Dunbar and Booker: Washington, ‘one hospital two newspapers, two theaters, public Hay, twentsthree churches, an thnee rater ges.” Bung from its meager beginnings, the vaxly expanded Grcetwood Disc of 1981 exuded energy and exchement “Deep Greenwood," the fir two blocks of Greenwood Avene, ost north of Aicher Stee, became the hub of Tuba’ ‘Aca American business community To- nd theestony ‘commercial buildings dosted the thoroughfare, hosing Tass tnusualy ge numberof Afian-Amerien entrepreneurs and professional “The thing ores, nightchbs, cafes, rooming houses, and ‘other busineses lining the streets and avenues of the26° BLACK WALL STREET Greenwood Dist provided ample opporeniy for eas Sasi opping, sprees, sod emcrainment excursions renee aE ech a pinch of hata ie Bio senting "the Greenwood District came especially alive on Thursday event thera ai day of for domestic servants ‘time dnc wite commun, (Ding this strc pera el EE fa aesns American women i expect employment Sppomuniies bound domesteservide) The nf of these EEKing women provided ah of siness and added laser already giteng commit ie Cicenwas Disc m is prime rivaled the finest Avian American busines strict in Ameren, Beal ‘eeig nd bad eld is own ith Chicago State Sect, Shu Mrs Beale See But ew of ts business emploned ane ak ani of workers. Eromomial. Tass Aan a cmt lepended lege upon the wages pao Aifchachnericn workchs by white empiners Despre fore Mae Bette the Greeneead Dist ested upon key enolic fauaon. elec the omits Soca eles of tune Tredion ots legendary eptation asthe nerve center of AhiamAmercan Socal si economie’ acti, the coo Dist ter became ene of he crate of salle ‘Son Cy jer" Nowhere were the hypaoie ychs of AeAmeaan fe in Ollshom expres more pga ‘Mtninares om the jae pantheon graced Tulsa often earh-on ni arer Gata eke and ssxophone was il the shee Pusng nts wad hg he i rom open wn san dooaye The Greco Distt eeame syn thos th jo ‘ns ke Clarence Line's Longe gave bir to new forma ce Many ofthe ove members the egendary Count Base haa inca ks Bone and singer J Rushing feted her arin the Greenwood Dish Innovars fm Perf whose band cade! Char Parker to jue reat Ghurte Chan and lesen creatine talents performed repay tle mighspts Heese and electic= that as Gremood THE RIOT Riot Wild or ven does. confason, dtr one ole opar The intersection of Greenwood Avenue and Archer Steet soon became the niles of AlicanArerican He in Tals This seograp SSmbolic hfe ofits own for much of the tentieth century. Ie Became an imaginary ine of demarcation betseen the chy’: black and white words, Consrsined by lay racism, nd soca csiom, Tulsa's Afici- American commanity survived and Aired for decades a. separate iy serving sos exhisney shee oi en Ta ay va they he Sreenwood District parallels the taimphe and tagedies ‘AficamAmericans inthe United States. a or one remarkable moment i ime, the music ane meer ment so characteristic af the Greenwood Distt gave ay tthe Aeafening silence of devmuction aed despa In Tus, in ‘Oklahoma, and sm America, ace mattered. And i mattered set dea “The evens tha ranspited in Tlsa in the spring of 1921 are inextricably bound up nthe lok and fel of the America of itera. For Alcan Artericans, bier ones defined the per fd: opportunity inthe face of oppression, race pride inthe face Grace, pact in the face of patealsm, The years lend {ng upto 1921 are noteworthy for their unprecedented violence. Tn 1919 America witnessed sist}-one recorded ynchings of 228 BLACK WALL STREET Afvican-Americans The same year, dubbed “Red Summer” by James Weldon Johnson of the NAACR, marked a watershed ‘Moment forthe county's Afican-Americans. Mote than wey five major race riots erupted thoughout the country. ‘One of the worst of the Red Summer riots occured in ‘Chicago, Four young Arcan-American boys attempted £0 708 the tational dividing line between the segregated “white” and ack: aches on Lake Michigan. An Affican-American win ner was killed, touching off almost a week of nightmarish si Tence. By the time the ulitia quelled the chaos, thiry-cight ‘Atiean-Amerians and whites lay dead andl 387 individuals us ted injuries” Tn 1220 there were sixty-ote reported Iynchings of Aftican Americans By then, the Ks Klis Klan operated in twenty-seven States and its membership volls had inflated to more than 100.000-—and growing” T1021 there, were fifty-seven recorded Iynchings of Afican-Americans. Americans were well aware of the mounting ‘Gamage, Congressman LC. Dyer of Missour introduced bill, fi the United States House of Representatives that would have made Iynehing a federal crime, Pased by the House, the bill hanged federal olicers whose responsibility twas to protect the Tes of eizens attacked by mobs with the duty to make “rason- tle efforts to prevent te killin” ‘The dereliction ofthat duty iysstederal officer could result ina fine ot imprisonment for the fliendling olficer under the proposed legislation. The bill also provided that a person who partirpated ina mol murder woul Jee guity ofa felous. The connty in which the mutder occurred wont be obliged to pay the victim's family $10,000. The ill Tied in the United Sexes Senate, despite Is introduction on three separate occasions The Iynchingy continued Thee have been frg-one recorded Iynchings in the entre history ofthe sate of ORlahoma. The number of "near mis tnd nveported indents yemains a mater for pure speclatio Tynchings and el unrest noneistanding, other signif cant events in. African-American history transpited in. and ‘Sound 1921, Harvand-educated Dr WE. B. Du Bois organized the Pan-African Congress in Paris France, Sitcen counties and Calonies participated ina threesday meeting designed to clevate The Ria 29 American cil rights Inder Willan Monroe Titer unceese fay argued ae Pars Race Conference thatthe treaty ending World War I should outlaw racial discrimination, * ‘Within the natonwie contest of ynchinge and il unrest and inthe face ofa interatona push foie for persons of ‘ican descent, the Tae Rave Rot of 1027 ocr A hat time the worst race Hot in American history, he Rot abroply tale the steady growth and momentum of the Creer Dace in steer ry ignorance, ex and fe dimmed the bright lights of hope tat had shone for years: Daylight ‘med nk kt darkens Under over af thai darkess Ail emanner of omspeaable, unimaginable atocies came to i ies raged. Doren scores, perhaps hundreds of es were lst inthe lami The uncheced, mobdrven hese ts ed ess than genous les han fully. a hat ference a day maex moe than 1,000 homes ares acres af Dadcowned business rancid and lots AfficaAmericn Ghcher tne en ly aed od ‘St open sr eed he al oe Tika Race Rite bu er RPh bing Gee Dis the bc (Photo courtesy ofthe North Tubes Heritage Foundation, Ju.) —30. BLACK WALL STREET In the toss of ener 700 fomes and 200 busines houses she eqns of Tala have ssid sso ve for lion dk Nee Re ache est hoes that the Neyeoes own in America a laneke, The Wleome Grocery Sore cari sage we ot green a dil ay cal nite tre in Taba, MP Nill sho owned the Dreamland. Theates in Tubs Mistogee ae Okage, was perhaps ane ofthe foemon Nog esis womens the United States She his one tte NES LRU on Greenmood which hosed her big confectionery St the ber ors were used for oles fr the profesional we de tae, Faker dwn the tetas er theate the Me af the Nepoes of the cy. The tect ha located om i Tce dr eres a ovo newspaper plants The Ta Sta ha {2S fal 15,00. Fly 150 buses hoses ined his ‘Ret ale that ree Negro alc fic eo stand ia the Sets dy log eting de sy ais! Some African-Americans experienced double-bareled dev station the loss of home and a busines in the Riot. Among this number were O. W. Grey and his wife, Emma, Theis was the frat busines to locate on Greenwood Avenue, Dsheartened by the lowe ofthe home wad busines they had worked so hard fox the Greys did not rebuild. yond 22 monumental physical devastation in terms of person and property lst, the Riot also took a psychological oll oo heavy to measure even wit the grandest of sales, So much stan Tost3o quickly, so senseless, the pride of a tightAnit com tunity savagely wrenched za. A dhe te of the Riot, Tulsa was America’s il boomtown. In the preceding twenty years, its population ballooned from 113090 to 92.000 Crowded and busting, the cy seme om the serge of bursting atthe seas, Bu all was not well in Tulsa All The ingredients for a major conflagration were already in the tix Tusans lacked confidence in the local police and che city adoninistation. Just afew years prior, in 1913, Mayor rank M Wooden, Police Commissioner Thomas J- Quinn, and Police ‘Chief Foster Nathaniel Burns had been ousted.” ‘Scant law enforcement, a police sik in 1919, and the res ‘gations of several police officers in 1920 contributed toa gen ‘Bist oflaslessness and laity” Common vices poisoned the The Riot 31 4 sri ng nse ds We North Tat Herts Foundation, Ine ng he Ri. (Phat ote of (Ct ey ofthe ith Ta Hetge oda32 BLACK WALL STREET The Rit 33 Phat courtesy of Gag E. Schafer) Tie Rae Rist (Pl Me Zon Bat Church om fe da Ties Race Rt of 192, Mt Zion Baptist Ch ote Noh Ta He Pa our of Gage F. Scan)34 BLACK WALL STREET character of he community: obo, gambling, and prostaton tere widespread, open, and notorioas.” ee espe perpetrated despicable ac of ob knee du ing Tech years In 17 snobs ley matey crew of men (en au the Rights f Liber” assaulted unionists aiia eshte tnernaonal Workers ofthe Wer} (WW)," The 1WW Sete mein port because of Soc Party Teanings 2 aa arr posepial mesage of racal equality thd not {yBiewih the Kt of bert ros ieolgy Tu meer allt, sot a Ths on ump uprauraney changes The pesianetory al completed, aba of HRSEEOSS, black hooded las from die Knights of Liberty vepnahe an seized te conic unionists en oute © the ane Helps, and with astance from their armed ce carts the TW men were then Hed to cee, whipped ro Sayeed and lenhered Tulsa's establishment inte Meno leading ciizns (the chief of police among ther) he vamigpated im encourage, oF condoned hi epusive Tae Bone gro signe. faded, John Nora, deputy Cala Stues snarl, ule office, remarked You would be aca te prominent men in own who were nti mob, wae rt daplay of ru, sig sprang up acoss Tals ee NOTICE TO LWW'S. DONT LET THE SUN GO DOWNON YOU IN TULSA” The message was clea Shc Raights Liberty wasnt on secret oxity OP ating inand snd Tol The Ku Kix Klan foment ear and eae TRhatae i dd in so mich of America” Indeed, Taba Psome a otic of Klan activity ad, aterm te 192, dis eee el with brant female and adolescent aires.” Fea tine Klan elsceher, the Taka Klan counted among ‘peters oth the poor andthe peg. che how and the Unknow the powerfal and the powerless “The story of Tales yaierbelly does not end with the Knights of Liberty or the Klan, Other events signaled a venge- Fal ug side to Tass community personality profile An cigh= Recnearold white boy, Roy Belton, was hanged just mine ‘ees priors the Riot for the king of a weny-five-year-old ‘Mint eal driver, Homer Nida” As f were just another party, TMouss of ordinary Talsane tamed out forthe public Wneh- The Ri 35 fae tie the et Oc the diy deed vas don, te Seca acanlaeeitee lt arias il grabbing fr bits eahing onthe now almost ee cesemey rennin Ihe “Nop” had no hope a pein hope wharves ei uciateaes ae ie ered cimia oe craraeets sic anipacan epenp lira seedy i tcershin Sa ihe cece ia tion, There would be no. UT36 BLACK WALL STREET ‘un ef an arrangement ad y his bss. Rowland. ns Me “bootbacks (ues shoeshine's) sed the Drexel Building wien Meera kg tenet Laer neon seo na See ee con msn ue oa ie rir Sraetualee tate Sarasin ibe yaa, Lane Sram tence ier fs naa Sc aes iereeecieeome " en Page initially accused young Rowland of assault, but So ae maser “the Tua it sates the ase rnin asa ich eS Ge dts poy bmchings and als upon ‘ijn eS and he Meh ke Bos Ne lear of tng meer the NACE vate I acti cont to came tern. She found hat re areal yng wares ven mento ns Sipe wa ny peo sal cep ah, chet or ttc at esa ced or se nt set eeu, busch Sci 5 Ps Snags dee oreo” ‘ick Rowland was piched wp by the police on Tuesday, May The Riot 37 51, 1921, booked into the city ji and questioned, Summoned to the jal, Sarah Page provided a satement corroborating, in all material respects, Dick Rowlands account of the events ofthat fateful day. She admitted that her encounter with Dick Rowland had been inadvertent and innocent. She told officers that Roland had come lose to her on the elevator and that he bad stepped on her foot. OF her own admission, she had packed and overreacted. Page told officers that she slapped Roland at which time he grabbed her arm to prevent her from slapping him again. She screamed. He fled” Despite this lesthan-snister,suaightabead “reinterpret sion” of the Page-Rowland incident by Sarah Page herself the ‘original sory meandered its way through Tulsa, gathering steam at every turn. The chance encounter between Sarah age and Dick Rowland touched off an alltooamiliar pattern of race tinged events, culminating in an unprecedented catastrophe “The match had been struck. The fase had been lit. The inferno awaited Inthe immediate wake ofthe Rowland-Page elevator inc dent, Sara Page and Dick Rowland became ce alk ofthe town News of the altempted rape of young Sarah Page spread like Wildfie. But the "news" ws mere Bton, even by Sarl’ Own account The Tia Tadune hit the sets at abot 3:15 #3. on “Tuesday, May 31, 1921, with word ofthe incident. An unknown ian ciled the police at about 4:00 #3. The word on the street, according tothe caller was that a white Iynch mob planned to lake the matter into ts own hands, J. M. Adkison, Tulse police and fire commissioner, called Sherif Willaed McCullough and told him ofthe Ineh talk Indeed, so concerned vas Sheri McCullough that he reportedly telephoned the offices of the Tulsa. Star, Tulsa's \Atican-American newspaper. Sheriff McCullough warned that he expected an attack tobe made on the jail hat night, Tuesday May 31, 1921, McCullough intima fed that he might need the help of local Afian-American men to protect Dick Rowland from certain death at the hand of Iyach mob. Later, white men began to gather a the courthouse. By 9:00, ‘ats some 400 white men had assembled.” Sherif McCullough ‘ook pains protect Rowland, rendering the jail elevator inop-38 LACK WALL STREET Naw Necao FoR ACRING GIRLY ELESATOR Aner dle boy wh gave is name we pbc 2 oer eC afaeboen ented s Dik Ronn reset on sua] Crem nee aman ee ethan ck charged taping sn TFyeroll whi ster itm he Dee sa acy te il bese sp mnie con ia wee hag, The gilt she nt he sen mates bet he acted asl eg aoe cyan eit ofthe Des ting seen fare ra anyone igh ba thus nth Sr tne or seb ee he eter See et a aching ans ae stem ft dns Her creme og de FTE ier atance and the nego ed He rere nnd ihn morning bythe gan te Sere te Tenant te Drei od he gi pose other than thet, desuction, and, too often, death An Atvican-American woman who lst er home in the Rive vce Aer they hl the homes vacated ane ch of whites would one in and ot Even women wth shopping hg woud cn Sv open drawers tle every Kind of Fn om clang o ‘erware at jovi. Men were carrying the frau ca Ingas they did o,sang "These (damn) Negroes have beter things than os of te penple” 1 sayed un mye aught on fire then Tanto the hl side whore there were Uhronge of White people: worsen, ten ad ciken, even babe watching ang nap sot ofthe proceeding of he sb. Some rele tht "The yong tobe sel fo ling [dan) niggers propery so close to the i” One woman Ded the Fe Best Choc fr Bp Church of wth Tulsi} which iva eau suctre leeted eats White res: dence date She mid, "endr i nigger church, wy they burning The reply as, Resins Wate tc.” And then there were the horrific Blazes, deliberately se and the billowing, suffocating smoke they produced. TheEE)” & 48 BLACK WALL STREET red “Eye witneses say tat the meth ie bedding farnite ad other Dur aaa togeibes, ther {© apply matches. Bye witneses ae at anany houses were setae from aeroplanes ‘Ai tclegea rues from Sherif Wild MeCulloah judge Majean Bison, and Police Chit John Gustion to Pa aaatcvernor James B.A. Roberson requested that mi pa troupe be sen quel the Rie, By : 00.4 on June 1 che reeset the, National Guard in Oklahoma City wae rote dusk of Tuesday, May 1, 192, bled into the dawn ‘Of Werinesday, June 1, 1921 MTeuope rrved in Tubs. at about 15 Av on June Gone oberon declared martial win Tlsa at 1:29 4M. Senet” Shorly thereafter, most of the violence ceased, The snattal lw delaation provided: American Reel Cros repo ‘da used were, fst, co pi Noga Lay Dro Headquarters Ollahoma Natomal Guard, Cay ta Ta, Oa. Jone Is, 12 Folloning telegram from Governor J.B. A, Roberson ee se qurtrs 1120 0 places Tosa and “Tala county under Marl Lae Hog, CHAS. Fo BARRETT Aja General Con ie Ha als, Olas 1 have deced Martal Lav shrougut Tass Couey and aS Stee nou response for mantensice of ord ae am pel otetn a proper. You wil all hing ‘pecesry eo aa hese bjt T'S. A. ROBERTSON, Governor “rieREFORE, by aust of tis odes, 1 hereby decane 1 Ra nd Tas Count rom and fer the Hous tc hrm to einer Marl Law hich wil be a a sie Fgor necessary to accomplish dhe Po tore Sewing peace and eer within the boundries of [is ey nd Coma Ce te ola and Taha County wil ei immed The Riot thor odd ea. aaa Bi paps rachel naar bly aard All business houses in the city will close : Serena ge glare eee peel ae eae ae th Cos Nahe Gea somes See Dairies, Meat Marts sd ther agencies tat onatbnte 16 Poe ri epee mie pelademrna Bae SE ee ata cetera og er ins eae a bli peace, ‘and that the order ean be 90 modibed that _chere will be no interference with the ordins : “ness and commercial life in Tulsa oF eee is i ang hg het i sed by Doctors, Officers of the Lave members of the Ret (Gis dad caer intvts or opetion cru to a ae the hours of 7:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m. “ smd cea Atte ein oh virtue of proper comfalsion under the cil ax wil be Gon Maer FOE enema and weal cod “rea em es ne ogi ate nnn ne By oxde ofthe Governor ius. Ruaers, [Brigadier General Commanding Oklchoma Nantonal Gu” ”50 BLACK WALL STREET by the time the troops got see and were deployed om the aftermon of Wednesday, June Ty 1921, precio litle im the Geertwond Distt remained to be slaged. Tulsa's thriving GrcSforous Afcanumercan community ty in ruins leveled sumed beyond recognition. Time stood stil, Beneath the an ring ashe lay the Hopes and dreams—the lives and Fife fimes_of an entire comma. “oes “The tsa Tune tumpeted the detction: “Aces, of ashes he smoldering in what bat yesterday was Nigger Sisequent use Tohne headlines, not unpredictably, were SAU iting nflarmatoy, and sensational: “PROPGAND. OP Rebnors Is BLAMED" "BLACK AcrraTORS BLaMrD FOR RIOT"; uot By Neca Society"; "Blacks Han Lzabus"; “BLOOD Shab tw Race Wax Wi CL2a%se TULsi"; “Necro. Section ‘Rnousten fy Crys ORDER™ \ “The Tals Ministerial Aliance boldly decreed that Aftica “Americans were at the root oftheir wn misfortune ‘efi ane of he cy of aa as en ie a Fe Jams Satan wb dary ded he ae he Geta, ened by the a lect Sear i em a mig gh he se lh arb fry ha bee ne ETEESpply th ante and a hemo May oo 2 shan a tone, pe eM ivr ane moto ben pened omc ed and dened of a th a eeprom a 6 a liye condemned bere te = ne prominent Yc white mister ple implied dat case AEE agnor ere at the rot of the Riou" The Tales Day World reported ine fo “thatthe visit of Dacor Dubois editor of ma Tegrcn “Tne io Tulua some ine ago may ave had 2 [eee apn the wouble ofthe pst week vas ima Py he. Moro in his Serum se nigh tthe Bow ‘Ribot Sieh church on he subject, “he Tosa Race Riot The Riot 51 and the Teachings of Jus Chris." The magne was termed bythe Bishop “dangers” and Dis hinelf haratereed 3 the mos ious egret nthe country” ‘The label “vicious Negro” hardly befits a man of Dr. Du ‘Bois’ statue. This “vicious Negio,” De WE. B. Du Bois, was the fist Affican-American to recite a Ph.D. from Harvard Uni ‘versity, helped found the NAACR and was known worldwide ss an intellectual, scholar, writer, and African-American activist. De Du Bois, who edited The Criss (Ihe NAACP magarine) Som 1910 unl 1994, became what must have seemed at he tie lik alone voice in avast waldernes against ynchings, Jim Crow laws, and the politcal disenfranchiemen of African-American In the 1920s, Dr: Du Bois helped oxanize several itertational ‘conferences on Pur-Aficanisa. He later championed the stug- fle for independence by African nations in the post World War Il era and resisted “Cold War” foreign policy and MeCarthyism. He tied in eal in Ghana, Ac, at age ninety-five in 1965 Dr Du Bois himself cited black white economic competition asthe underlying case ofthe Riot have never seen soloed communi 0 highly opie ae thnot Tila. Thee complete parson ft ate ht 2 coord town within the white town ted Hck ot Sore built by white men for nego bis. They ad fog been emp boycotted ty the negroes. The calor people of ‘uss hate scum propery have exablshed ore and ‘une organizations and have ao made money no. They fel ther ndependent positon and have boned hat thie comment thee have been io cae of iyaching- Wh recht State of alas, too onyx spark to ata dangerous Bre These are the observations of an ineligentsudent of the ‘human condition, not the ravings of "vicious Ne ‘While some blamed outside “Neyro agitator” like Dr: Du ‘Bois For the Riot, more objective voices laid blame squarely atthe feet ofthe locals. Maurice Willows an his American Red Cross contingent having come to Tulsa ftom St. Louis, conehided afer 2 thorough consideration that lack of law enforcement was the ‘ausesn-hiel of “the short-lived el war Which turned Tals,52. LACK WALL STREET Oxiahoma, into a bela on dhe morning of June 1, 1ORL™ SK shorened cl wa etre, The te rampant pli! destrction, dhe human dest: sion Hee atpabes May Elzabeth Jones Parish, yout yom ican Asoctation (YMCA) typing instructor at Hoang mend the Rita Ms. Pari ecorde her ao mcnaon and those of er contemporaries it a se pub ed same ene eno he Ta Dias. Pri pants 2 Tig acing pcre of te wounded and suring?" can He te eight of my Fine viet othe hosp. There were re ase intevery conte way ike cers fet a Big ire Que with amputated nbs, ured faces, oes minus ear heads bandaged There were women who were 2 ere andl some confinement eases Wis 1.3 hospital inFrance? No, in Tals tasks vee on the Riot became a “rae book” shorty ater nial pining. Smeal nites bgt wp copie of Are edna spate tempt vo squeeh the tre story—inal eet ke Rit According to some sources, fener dhan 2 int opie of Paris's onginal work are known fo exist ody ti amekmerca ed Tuba ined, neve 19 reas No ome knows precy how many. Orbe the asa Te netics ofthe battled no choi. Too fal ee, vs aac be buried, the Riot virally insured that Tus atl be teir final resting place Sill thers largely escaped wpenaharm and howe to say put—to fins what they had aed inthe Greenneod Distt. . «dense gray pall loomed ence the once pictnesquenorth= con hort, Forde of exhausted, prspraionseaked, ase Senet Alcamesean men, women, and chen tug seat tina the opprenive June Heat down Tuba's Senet ney wee th msn triton ina tise sie 3h pn, Cau pete Feed News ‘onal gadmen stood sent rea te eae victors atl watched smygy a the samputed paraded by, Sad, oni, and bizarre—i was all of Tee Repel te poi of exer ay rin and ub, By June roar Tatars rad warfare had come eerily to an end Tea sory sight indeed: Black Tabsns, young ad old, The Rin 53 "ih and poor, educated and edt. seaming out of the Tun of cher comminiy—a community Kao nationwide as a Iodel of and center for Atican-American instr, commerce, nd cllboraton. The marched imohintary, hea wed lew ‘oc in hurnlty but in hunslition. ‘They marched involuntary hhands field high, no in salatation but i surender- Among the ‘Negro” masses, class no longer existe. Black ws black-—docto, lawyer laborer, or thiel—at simply no longer mattered Some of our group who hve been Blt (with educational or finan advantage ae fines inti ofrge arses tothe exten that they fete supesiony ove us les fo tunate, but when a supreme et He che Tle distr comes, [eserves o remind wt that we areal one ace; that bums Tend tke those who had fll sym June Lt have rapt of perm. very Negro wan sccrded the tame Wea ment reales of hs edicaon or other advange, A Negro wat a Negron th dy and fred nme i +s hands up for blocks." “ mein Th special” here were no “special” blacks. Indeed roters often ta seted “ele” Afican-Americans. Mobs took patil pleasure ‘in meting out "jutice"—through looting, ransacking, and bur ing-—to “uppity” Negroes. Like thieves sta fie, these invaders new no shame, Dr idgewater, ais Kn aie, Dro i sistant county phys (On reaching the home 1 i the hose san my plan and al of wy elegant furnte pled inthe sre My safe had been broken open ll, ‘ofthe money snlen also my sivervae, ct glass. all of the Family clthing and everything of val had een removed, ‘jenny fay Ble My elec igh fixes were oe al the window ightsand lass inthe dors were oe, the dish {that were ot stlen were broken the foo were covered {eral speaking with gas even the phone was torn fom thevall Inthe basement we gathered to tabs of bohen gs From of theft My ear was tle and most of my are mgs vere alent seventeen hoes that pad me a average a ‘over $425.0 per moth” De: Arthur ©. Jacko, «nationally renowned surgeon and54 BLACK WALL STREET former president ofthe State Medical Awocation, was prom: ore Eitreaperted.Afican-American phosician in Tulsa The Miao bracts (of Mayo Clinic fame) called Dr. Jackson “the wae de Negro surgeon in America." He counted among bis saeats seetal white Tosans~rerarkable ip the Ts of 1921 Fare his renown, i dhe context of he Rit, Dx: Jackson 38 Sha anather Negro” He was, in a word, expendable Aechage white boy mardered Dr. Jackson in cold blood as the rahedl nsarmed from the fanning inferno he once called te sesh held high inthe ait, during the peak ofthe Riot Tpatfuckaon grievous wounded by to bullets fred from the fuss te young Hoodhm, was loaded into a ruck sd deposit ean i vent Fal Suffering and given no medical ate fiom, Dr, Jackson bled to death.” ice Chet John Gustafion, in a poseRiot report 10 Govetaor Roberton, listed the oficial death tll as nine white sancti boys and’ sixty-eight. Affcan-Americans, including ee men” ana chikdren.» Other accounts of Riot fatalities ‘some being as high as 300°” For at leas two reason tere Yount ofthe dead coud not cay be taken. ist, wi ares ported seeing black corpses hauled the Danks of the ekanead River and dumped like s0 much waste in a publi Aare pene accounts can neither be confirmed nor denice see, Chict Cumatson’s report to the governor did. ot— Saree could nov account for the morally wounded who may rane. laa and died elsewhere. Cities as far north as Kans {GAS provided reluge for Tola’s walking wounded.” Records of ey Pasuates, unlike fatality figures, re somewhat more define tne. The American Red Crosslisted 2,480 families or 8.624 itso in nec of esitance n excess of 1,00 homes and Dus rere royed, and the delivery of several tilborn infants Tia Red Crons began ts humanitarian elie efforts Tulsa fon June I aly Toeted downto, the Red Cross soon rel~ fated its ofces ane an hospital, central fire abd sae Fee dispensary to Booker Washington High Schoo” By aoe aetnte the Red Cross performed superbly, providing all ae accent aiatance to Riot victims. The Red Cros alo served BE de fet Taion between black and white Ts. foncaly, the seniors at "Booker 7.”—this high school: The Riot 55 eas supposed to have been the night oi oe nl ein de te ber te oer EESstngon Hh Sl Cl of 1 bd de ‘on ly much ofthe pres commaniy ra "Elan his sister aoe romineat Tas socal wore, sere taken with th rc and ser tote new IE ans fen a Ce Conn ere ding for thet fay on Breyard il for aly and Fe Pet ne eld elie ne ah Shot chug he hoe, they probly wou it oe in the ead hn yea nine hs secre he would cen eli he hdr ter ay end od hin, pl him fromthe sb, and claimed the place of safety for hersell”™ Wile he kr ei dees Jo we eed ee om eat ares ies eae eae ‘gan ena ho ate at 2 Set at Mi ra i ec Aeatatas ace ios So neat aaa eter ee of Commerce. Green cards, to be valic signature of ee teed icfsse ec sia amen acy eee Doncaster ca eh were available for twenty cents each.” : fe veg a i tan ar eS inert ov ans HarVV S.S:: °° 56 BLACK WALL STREET abr ground oa hal To wc ceri economic paras white te iy cuntesiged the ren cars he Aa aera aege recng them up vo return ork Tap ekee tuvenship, notwithstanding, Alcan mente gees feed ceva ares Hf dscveed on the det Fee oper documentation. Feedom and bert sree Edd atte wham of thoes or by he absence a at afte employer ovate the Wen of Fe sce alee JW, Haghes told the American Tea cae ‘We wee cased 1 the City Jae men were place in the EIS Gm a thew weve arsed up in. Aer soe ee roe no the orion we were cated fo “attign Hall Many peopie sheeted and capped thet seer ee mae for atest ith or hud bone ands "un was sot at he dor ofthe Comenton Hal cart fhands wee above bs head Many men whe were srs i ety were omg in heal ad we eat hr sa gran Namely Be jcson, Johnson ad Sra Seether fhe windows, acres go up ek Ne ered sandvices an cafe he te Sette see showed ave he Cm Hal oy sree pesom neha worked for woul ome see te Obeotet City Superintendent of Public Smead cel ile acer awe nee Sete Gad Cay igh School, mere Tmt ay il aga ay eacher were abn othe bore fhe cy pi AIS red for cy, We mere alowed oy the old igh Soka he The sc mening amy Hl aera oer den, Mis Kimble ofthe Domest Science Ins tie wie High Sel gave sor aks fled until July 7, a ide” Tus seen one al of Tle’ Alrcan American cizens found Tera lt A ee sees es et eigen srit eval uaen en The Riot 57 the principal topic of conversation a the White House, in ene ‘Xe ‘and house cloak rooms and. executive. departments today. President Harling received ballets on itt the White Howse. .The fat thatthe uppermost echelon of American ‘government took notice of the Rice atest fo is portance Beyond the geographic buds of Tus wis An Ti, te smglen eon on many sind a What done do sbont our Negro problem?” Thane ‘ho wauld blame Tiss Atkasmercans fr the Re alm “ertsinl i the anertvenes ofthe men who arched tothe ‘lowntonn courthouse forthe prpowe of shielding Dick Rowland from reported Iynch aya eidence of the "opty Negro” syndrome These men acted upon Frederick Dogs ober thn: “Tove concedes nothing without demand Standing up forthemsches and their community would not guarantee. Not dong would guarantee injesice. AffatAmericais were spposedl to kno and maintain ther place rather tha Know find defend their ights according othe prevaling power sr ture The Kio simply reinforced tha pom “The Klan in Tle eptlized on the fear and anger among some white Tuhans i the wake ofthe Riot. Though the Klsn Cnnot alone be credited with inaigating the Ritts presence Athdoubtedly sowed the seeds of discord that ade the Riot pos ‘ible Some local law enforcement fiers were know #0 be Klansmen" Others were key Klan sympathizers, Law enforce tment oficers ere among those who, by design or def aa tated ast onthe Greenwood Dist.” seRiot Klan propaganda in Tals eed in astounding recriting acces. Soom the Thlba Klan was 2.000 meine Strong, king fll advantage of the “goodwil” generated for bythe Rit, the Klan purchased the Centenary. Method Church bing for $00,000 and us one of ts largest meeting Halls the Southwest on tat site Wiliam Shelley Rogers = the Tass Khins “Chief Cydops and his membership roster ‘ead ikea Who's Who” of prominent Tala leas sad a the time that in Tals all dist judges, the cours clerk the ety ‘Sherif, and all jury commissioners were members of the Kn ists the Kans role im the Rit cannot be accrately nuged, mere words cannot auficently capture the maguitude58 BLACK WALL STREET of the Rio's physical and emotional devastation. Despite the inherent inadequacy of words, two Riot survivors, LaVerne Cloksey Davis and Mice Andrews, deseribed what chey expet ‘hed curing those afl days in the spring of 1921, Liner Cooksey Davis recalled dhe horrors ofthe Rit with ing laity tn Tol, the ony jb hat 1 col find was being mai ora Ueto on South, er the Tusa Race Rs of 1921 Tien [jusecouldt ce the prospec of spending my Tie bing mal Oh, tht twas sch a tebe hin 1 Means I js cat ever forget it When the ri vets was inthe wee hours of the morning, Tad gone Tara ater midnight goa clepone call ow he doctor vio wa ail down wondered why he was cag meat TRIE Hite etl ie nc to go no Lal ica Thats Sm eSpe ald Nev T i hose days. [hough that wea Peete hm wore me at woul have een going {Eis Nor Tote achat ate our anyway Well Ler 8 the eid me asin and chi ine he mas mre urge Sri tn to grim Lae Mic. He sai, "Hel os bo seth Ede Affe Dont go down der. Twa safe Stats qnrers tn Se Tao, but many omy ens Fey Gita aca ad ther homes bured othe ron Hele thir es nee burn ome of the people were ieoutot the beds They went detention centers in their terns hosenats bese the police would ge het Pa dre T mas so dred. [did know where 1 {Wed een tae, Late, oud out ha at f ther Teen ahento the Cormenion Gener Pre ois days ae Tees coll ger pases om te min tog elthe Greemwee aes oy #0 Gd rend and relatives Tacs wage thing thy stayed oy i al oe gear Aug twa safe fn South Tas 9 INSShy quar, el se ha ed ae, and ine my boss FOUR mc, thew tha lasing fre wae destroying the Maa Grecmvood communi, When T did get dwn to Pea eit Lasso Burt by what Ia To wake Geese nerhing I nhes and aang Barn 0 the (Bou, Fecal ep the vas fom ing” The Ria 59 Foreter seared into the consciousness of Alice An Riot was the worst of times: Hee Archos he The wor hing hat happened lack people Tals i ta wa hat se ace 1, ne Dike Ron wel T had known his dad, who everyone eile “Dad Rowland tore Dick was born, Dick was the boy who aiden tly bpd into or wept on heh i ate gel in an ‘levator was alee the igh of ay bt yma ined he a the ot ach, Sh a sea a cling Yom window allright watching those people ing down the Smt Raia ack, sing on nga et enh heath vere paved roads in North Tubs then. That wt the ‘omen and children were ning down the rad acto {hey cul Keep ot ofthe ms Te women were sl in thet ‘ighigoons si hey were holding the hikes hans ad 4 raging them slong. The alien were cing We ltr Feared that the mc had Been rounded up an taken othe meno Ci the Rana the Th Set an iy Drive aren (nom The Univer of Tala stad ae) Seok Wan gh Sho has an he ps for “sfeecping” What that acl id was to leave the Greed et deme What ade i een werse wes thatthe mili that asst nie wih he hc Tat ina allowed things to gee ou of hand so qk: Mobs at ‘enone mpage es pt on ten hte Ithorties They looted“ urnedsenght” dows ‘recon al i ay oP Bate id ot es nes sheng ie ke hey a up cae (he Okldhoma National aard sent by the tno of Okshorsay. That group took conte ofthe cc ‘nt not Before mobs had completely destroyed Greece Tle next mening ben Iwo up 0 0 work ty other {old me abut thet ooked nt she window sd a a {ed eloked Bethe wold was on fire ™ “The wer decimation of the Greenvood Disc bought she governor of Ouahona os fora Brahand seent ‘he damage. Governor James Br A. Robertson, on n Tune 2 1, it Ts ended» formal inven ote Ra Ach urging ran jury was impale chad by Disthe Gres Dis js fr the 1921 Tae Rae Rit (Pot cures of Tus Rae Rit of 1921 (Phat coe of Gage. Shafer) The Rise ot Judge W.Vljean Bidlison, and assisted in is investigative fane tions by Attorney General 8. P Feeling The grand jury com: rmenced its work almost immer Is twelveday session resulted in the Bling of twenty-seven cases anda total of mote ‘han eighty-five individual inden The grand jury indicted the central figure in the Riot saga, Dick Rowland, on June 6 1921. In State af Oklahoma es, Dek Fowlond, the indiciment forthe assalt and attempted rape of Sarah Page, the grand jury conch [end that in si Tua Coun ad Seat of Obahoma, "he 3s day of My in the year of et Lo One Thane [Nine Hunted and Teeny and prior o che finding of dis indiament one Dik Rowland did the sd tee, fly sal wrongly ey len an felony ake {saul upon one Sarah Rage Teale person er the age of fahteen yeu [the Tab Trine reported Ms Pages age seventeen ani of previous chute ad viru cua and ot the wile af i the sat Dick Rowland and dd, the and there, and thereby nlf, weenth foe and Flo- ish, and aint her wal attempt to rv spe, at ‘uly Row he he aid Sarah Page, bt wan interceped d fed in the perpesration ther “The witnesses whose testimony supported the indice were Sarah Page (the alleged "victim", CA. Poulton, EE Voohies, and Henry Carmichael, a alsa police officer” A le prosecutor, WF Seaver, county attorney, filed the information Inthe ease (ie, the prosecutors charges against Dick Rowland) ‘on September 15, 1921, three months after the grand jury fy Sued it indictment, Rowlands attomeys, Edvard Crosland, who had been Tusa County disteiet attorney in 1914, and ‘Washington Elis Hudson, whose name iuically appears on the roster ofthe Ku Klux Klan,” moved to dismiss the informa tion, but Judge Redmond §. Cole overruled their motion on September 16, 1921." Te grand jury isued its final report on Jane 25, 1921. Not surprisingly the allahite grand jury blamed “colored me for the Riot62 BLACK WALL STREET itofan on Wend i he een rac so the et es Mees conan gop fore men ho apes st Fait the ng oMoy3192-for the pe soto Dk ue nth cs ot gral Tn con forsee soul ong sae ean mu ben end ay nde ‘eae acs ats age temp made i oa om te sce any roe, Che erased stu conse beng pre ars oo ching umes crete aot ee Thee as prsnong thie ae Wa Sra rnc mem itl de srl the 1 a aga wich prepa an was the direct ase of the ene aa” ee owe he ruins of pein wo ina nerd and tolerance, recommended jo the opposite seeming sh py gene te ge Ament tes sg te Sealy ered ete ae ep tenen theres” A) Scattde otemnce he et bee Gener Fi ey eed heb edtetteaed bythe ran jaya contained repre Se edb he an jay in sa ean gem. a Bact i ten tly pom Ps a Rotem Some st i oe hore aa le Seer Fanci ver mised or Sn eee once Dae ewe de neh ge nd geperyihe Caen De ater be anette Ft Dmg ie en, tes a ie a let in -dong ne ine - 1 ple cliae and he make cro ence nose ee 2 ram soe aye ha see The tery won care ing. Se of Mahomet tn be i ea pine Aca nena ina aa it Siac pales of The Rin 63 the Tula Stor and J. B. Suadford, attorney, businessman, and proprietor ofthe sityivesoom Straord Hotel at 301 North Greenwood, ‘A.J. Smitherman founded his newspaper in Muskogee, OWlaoina, asthe Musogee Sar. Smitherman came to Tass in the spring of 1913. The Taluz Star was. primed weekly by Smithermanis Tals Star Publishing Coy Tovated at 118 North Greenwood Avenve. A onexear subscription t the newspaper sold for $1.50. Astaunch and vocal advocate for Aftican-Amerian voting rights, Smitherman, a Democrat, convinced local authorities 0 ‘eate a precinct election bard consisting exclusively of African American men, He had wed unsuecessil to get blacks placed fon election boards alongside whites, Though that attempt failed, Tlsa was rediscted and Smitherman became the fist Aliean-American inspector of elections under the new regime, Equally concerned about the civil rights of Atican- Americans, in 1917 Smitherman personally investigated and reported to Oklahoma Governor R-L. Willams on mob activity im Devey, Oklahoma. A mob there torched the homes of sone twenty Altcan- American families, Smithermats dogged invest gation resulted in the arrests of thiry-sie men, incuding the mayor ofthe city of Dewey. Tn 1918. Smitherman was summoned by telegram to Bristow, Oklahoma, Then josie ofthe peace in Tulsa County, Smitherman, accompanied by chice other African-American men, went to Bristow to protet a young African-American mat fiom a lynch mob. The man, Edgar Bohan, had been ares ced and charged with robbing and shooting white man. Smitherman sent a simply worded telegram tothe governor ung ng his assistance prior to embarking on the journey: “Han. R Willams, Governor. Oklahoma City, Oils. Tam rellably informed that a race riots imminent at Bristow. Kindly act 3t ‘once—A. J. Smitherman.” “Two hundred armed African-American farmers assembled in Bristow to prevent an even lager white mob from Iyching Edgar Bohanan. The Bristow chiel of police warned the lynch mob that he andl his deputies would shot to kill any man who dared to molest Bohanan. By the time the couragensLL STREET 6s BLACK WA Ty, way ten inal ered for by Smitherman. Reaves of a Oltoma ox. Hi Rabin, ae case dat in sepia it amr ae tie Seaton The Sard can sgh sucefly to clear the his sion ta temp to eal terion dente Tubs on May ee i ese The Ren 65 heaving talk of Inching. There men simply reise to al the angry white mab aserbled atthe course to srng Up Dick Howland, who stood accsed of gesting young Sarah Page Thy pes hm Ths ala raed them an indent for “ineting iow” Ulta, Dak Rela would be protected, bit to sal cot to Svan anu to 30 many other Afca- Ameria in Tl, For hisrolein the whole ali Stradord yas charged in a wien He Med Tass wat pendence, Kans. That te o father public exwaditon controversy. The Okmulgee inet Feported: “If Governor Allen of Kans wants to help. the futortis fx the ble fr the iting a Tle ast week, he vill noc tefuse to grant extradition papers fo. B.Stradod the negro who is held Tndependnce. Stand, general Undesirable cizen, can probably tells much ss aoe about the fal eae of the reble Tua "J.B. Suadod's son, C: rai Sadr Chicago lawyer, secured bis father's freedom ron incarceration, Fearful of his fate atthe hands of Tass sti sytem in the wake a the Ri Saford velsed to siti by and swat te He fed Tal, ‘never to return, leaving behind considerable wealth, estimated 3 $125 000. This heretofore upstanding, wellsepeced pat dich became fugitive. Stadford eventually urlaed tn Chicago. Starting once agin from scratch he emerged ay as ces lawyer an ocprene So wide were the sats a deep was the pai fo J.B Seradfor's ordeal that no member of the Sard ly onl gin set fo in Tala unl October 18, 1996 (Sado ‘ies 135) ‘Remarkably Ts and the Stat of Oushoma removed a sub- sana ton the sate’ ori edger on Outer 18,1986 “Teentyone descendants of J.B. Sradiond assembled in Tal Haring seen and eal nto moda accounts of the Rit andthe keaton of memorial to tow loa nthe Hat, the Sado lan decided oa Judge Cornelis. Toe of the Cet Curt of Cook County i Chicago (Sans peat grandson) and Ambasador Joel Lafontant-Mankarious, «former ofl nthe ‘aiminarainof President Richa! ME. Non and Suadons66 BLACK WALL STREET randaghte) contacted Otlahoma State Representative Don Fe for ataence in daring Suadfors name, Judge Toole and ‘Anfbscaer Lafontant-Mankarious succeeded, “Ser motion of Tulsa County District Atorney William D. Lafortune, the charges agains B. Stradford (and, by implice {ions against A. Smitherman and the other defendants in Sate Pokdchoma oe PW Rotinon, oe) were dropped by order of 7 a County Distriet Court Judge Jesse A. Harts, representing the City of Tals: MOTION 70 DISMISS, CoMES NOW William D, Laon, the dy appointed and qualified Distet torn, Distt No. Taba County, ser Oktshoma sl more the Couto dismiss the aber See cae forthe falasing wean, toasts THE BEST INTERESTS OF JUSTICE, DEFENDANT IS NOW DE UyaseD Costs TO STATE, WARRANT RECALLED, nner ‘Now om this ith diy of Octobe 1906, the above ened ‘ause Ching mt be beard pon min to dss sud Se cour being ly aie in the premise ids CREA incon shout be watineds and, He therefore ‘ORDERED: ADJUDGED and DECREED that sid cause be Sree hereby sed for he reavons as ae forth i 25 Ron and that de rant of aret be rece" ‘Ovlahoma Governor Frank Keating ised an executive pardon for], B. Straord, and proclaimed October 18, 1996, Bip Seratged Day Ring Stalord prominent and sil fli myer when he left Tus, has been posthumously admit tains bur of the Sate of Oklahoma, A seveny-fivevear-old rong had been righted—too late, unfortunately for J.B ‘Stradford an his cohorts co bear witnes. ‘Suadford's descendants, who perhaps wkd have been great Tusans ad it ot been for the wrong visited upon J B arsntdilen went on to become outstanding Americans, Among rene rcibers are profesional i all fields of endeavor, many UrStjon ell Chicago home, The Stradfords attending the his- wine Cesctiony included Ambassador Jewel Lafontant The Riot 67 Manian, grndnghur; John W. Roger J anion Emma Toole Sone, granceughir: Joe Thole, grandson Jig Corcis E Tod grated and be Hees ARSE penance noni cay hep of as Can sh of eo, peed wih the eaurrion o a fod am ened dared on une 1 ah ‘Sarah Page ultimately refused to assist in the prosecution of sere alan Dik a the tea ny fea nin wa eometcd A hee Dk a Uk ted Ta Aco o Roland mae Dame ima Fr Sah ge lied hts Kae Ca ‘Rumors still persist that Rowland and Page had a relationship. Toc Cie Jon Casson ws sdbemsent es r llig io ln lope ema eae ea 154 they dln ie Ran for copie beets fmble ess a ales sera Cabiaeh a as {22nd om tan Jae eh? tant nian cet Geoge B Ble Sete dh July 24, 1921, Se mai heron Aine Clee Taa's fst Aea-Ame ex remeron hepa Sa ‘AficanAmercan forthe Rit Having los proper talued st $20,000 in the Riot, Clewver is reported to" have said: “I {going wo do everything lean to bring the negroes responsible or inorganic. Thy cn 1S bee evry tag {ies coy cet ae se gh then Cnr er eption a oh ets othr Aer nU cme ahmed he aden ard ope sary Tans, white and back." saad tne fetter exhib empathy and compsion forced atc mean ey anda The were. of course, notable exceptions. A Jewish family the Tarown ran sore at 1427 Eau Gh Suelo the tne a he fio, Thc non son Henry Tse panera one Before in heal eoipnen Ey see ian dag ee bere hd pepe incur basen tah Titik ett68 BLACK WALL STREET Several organizations including the National Guard, the “America Legion, the Ameriean Red. Cros," the Salvation ented setts churches and individuals sisted with pos a ane a The Rio precipitated the American Red Cross Sis ts signiftant resources to. a humanitarian effort in: ating a smanemade” disaster for the fist cme. Rio wcims Ton referred to. Red Cross workers as “Angels of Mercy” rr ges of Merey” are estimated to have expended some {$100,000 on the Greenwood District rele effort. ‘Remarkably, wo commissions on interraal relations were formed Tale within thirty days ofthe Riot—ane black the ere white The “separate but equal” mold would not be bro- Paar ceichen the nated purpose of convening was € foster interracial cooperation, “Acaring wane of is members, H. TS, Johnson, Judge Mather Eales who chaited the Tulsa County Commission on sean otial Conperation (ehe white group), proved critical WRctanee at a crucial time in the history of Tubs Alcan Seats community. The Tulsa City Commission. just das afer ihe Ror, raged to extend the ire Tits of the ity of Tulsa to {he mori aed wes. The ae was made part ofthe offic re Treinen cy, with the result that structares rebuilt in he (Creernvod Distt had tobe fieprook—constrcted of concrete Hae er steetand had to be two stories high. Consequent Bah Gashepoor Atican-Americans who bad been burned out ea nat beable to secure the financing necessary 1 rebuild in rae nce ith the expensive, new-applcale specifications of ane fine cade White speculators would then be fee to buy wp the ovenca cath at ite teal, “resale” prices.” ‘Baced on a Tegal challenge to the ordinance by African “Amer businessman Jor Locka represented ably by ers Pee Chappelle: LH Spears, and B.C. Franklin, judges Teclared the ordinance passed by the Tulsa City Commission cational. tn so doing, the judiciary helped save Tubs ‘Mian-American communi crest cate speculators pitched tent on the grounds of Booker T-Washington High School and offered to buy land i ihe Greetnood District for $73 a square foot Ou June 15,1921 the flowing ae appeared inthe Ter Diy Wold The Riot 69 Mayorund he Gy Conminiones ae fy Tamron rion band to wiles wea inte plans which are tobe lcated on the ackage property in tle Aiea cpt fie andi ow witht ye in rec he tn hes ig 1 Commie ao expresed sentiment in aor of ung 4 pat of the bred are ort unon sation enever sh prj ie ready Tor eomideraton bythe ral pre ideratom by the aloe coring ceri appar in the TDi othe lore Citizen Rell Commits group wet up to coon tpt ney nner ae im emergency meting w Ft Bot Church. 0. W. Ger chaired the group, which included J. H, Goodwin ora, Sade fn We Bh 6, Hooker Spear, At lip, W- He Smith, and RA. Whitalc: Di Scat john W. fh ened asco “THE Cote Czens Rel Commie se a sti iy fleas and demand pron for vera Aca American property owners. The delegation persuaded th Tal iy Comino Sem vals deeds ore ring he ‘mete pon Res pea Simultmecn,he Cael isn Relief Commitee held mass meetings to tnge Afcan-American propery mem attain say the cnn Ui Bee's pri on lo apy noma hia een oss he pe and larg, the prevaing socal ctr peempted the oss ofgetire of mp man kindness conte Facial divide. Some 1,000 African-American Tulsins spent the sinter of 1921-192 ining in tons Taso eoponse, ‘sed prominent the anal of thes i aio ety inte jon afer the Riu ‘blame on and withheld bot ae Manon al te ats pty and npn foe In i Jane 1,192, adres othe Ts City | 192, adres othe Ts Cty Commision, then Tse Mayor Das eid lane gear o a shoul. deo the ustal specs "members of Tis sal tl “Negro” community. Said Mayor Evans: Hhscebane70 BLACK WALL STREET The Rit 71 et the blame for this ego prising le wight where i as able to “pass fora white man. His color affoed him entree Telnet the armed megraes and their Followers who imo spheres in Tulsa that would not be accesible to darker et ais woubeand who instigated i and any persons ho skinned! Afican-Americans. White penned an article about the SAIS) pt al the Hae on the white people te wrong and Riot for the Wall Sweet edition of the New Hirk Evening Pat on Feat Belson wo uncertain rms. are wold ha ice Je II, NBL, Ho eced nop ie ar conser nr et eed power ct fils that ried bs of toe athe tite secon of the iy and made certain meee ner teats of ce They Hane come only Once fever sina, We are rot Propet a], bu we tee da ip umber mo wil ot take place 0m, Incredibly, Mayor vans went even further He indicated early hin sera fr the sucessful, bustling, afhuent Greenwood sna he al adh dering beeen Eee hit ad colored etens, and the goth of ace prude, fostered and nurtured for economic ginal these cx ei the jcgement (eof many wise ead in Ta, seater or les degre in many Ameria ees. Besse Tol ‘pased po alachstion ofa tuber f years that tis uri Feet ela how serious situation ws icing bed these ane elec Itt be te and his jdgerent (a) bad ‘uses she has had to py the penal ae ease {ay H wae god generals let he sant hteme to ha scion wbete de woube was hatched The NAACP expended upwards of $3,500 tothe relief and atfurin motion and where had ts nce legal needs ofthe Recess = Patter the wrongs dat el upon the innocent negroes an ey ald recive sch hep as we can ie therm wih wee orc te however tre of any wartare that the aa eal ypom the innocent slog wi the ui. This Editorial writer hom acon the country took spec note ofthe Rot, providing national context for an otherwise oes tse. There had been fa to many other cl iurbances, neha wl though none a cst or ss dea A rit in East S sa sn einen or pring. Tink wat wold i i imc se Sppenad ad the Aes area 0 Bei Jy, 1917 eae in 125 des. bra July 18, 119, Fox in sie i ei See pepe hare nally eng are the comments fa white woman who wit injured A Jul 26, 1919, tt Chicago reated in thiroeight acs i Sad woe of her meetons. Tondering the dnp and some 300 injures" On Gkictcr 21510 sts mee he Root and ether i ould re she noted" ever alse] Ahan ested needa oe } new positively whether the revolt had bee seething & Jong ‘injuries, A riot in Omaha, Nebraska, on October 5 of tae Perth he clevator was the spark that caused rotledin three death ad several causes, Omats mayor } aad Ment think anyone ever wil know.» «Could Dap ‘as hanged by the oter but close tne Wo save hs He the fin Tusa? We never now what sgh ae 2 National editoiiss by a Tage agreed ha the cases of Rega mind. Long years of servitude has ie] caused the negro du Hows were several ch lms, peutage, al prcudie AES teal thoughts rom the white man. blakonhite economic ral, radial propaganda unempoy- rerun ericans around de nation Sie things diferent ment. corruption in polities community leadership. vacua se a aia with She NAACP who later Beate i fd anew sme of can-Ameican selCasserton They pon Te fe eco vite Tus and intericned Tain immed dered aloud about how the United Stes could credibly Con ‘SS lelloming the Rot. White aligheskinned Afiear-American, ddemn so-alled “uncivilized acts abroad ishen the very sames|---~~~—~—~S 72 BLACK WALL STREET acts were being raily and veguany perpetrated within the eee Shur American demoeray. The conclusion to be ty uc comments of te etal writers of the da Was ara come: America filed to addres dhe troublesome, eee ere te pscnenesthbesunace sue of ace." Fae we begin to hea the open festering wounds sor ab bigots al racism ad bared int ovr coletive aor ei vn of tragedies he the Rio? One anseer TaEHeY Shor vith eoseralefequeney and worthy of Sr Sa ion i the provision of teparations To victims of ‘Mri ewes racial nyse. Se ey aficamercan Tenders i he Tuba come! notably Oahoma Sate Representative Don Kons st rparons to be pat by the city of Tals ad he wae Oklhoma tothe sing Riot victims and hei Bahan eal fo righting” dhe hsorcal wrong ofthe Rok a naman ress pripall on tee grown: (1) hat speat ulaand te Sate of Olaoma bear at eas some 2 ig fa the Rit (2) at he City of Tals breached is rege promise to rebuild the Greenwood Dini and (3) ome Ble ofa Rt hinges t this day, and ave soba a shed Afican-Amersan’ opporenities fr the 30- se an ofc generate by dct Riera ancestors “He Gulanomes House f Representatives a the arging of Onarne Sine Repreenaive Rose and with the support of east Strator Hine Homer, passed a resolution 1007 oa econ ofa commision to study the Rick and Fag er fi and accurate Hsia record The eon se ely endore tne concept of reparaions for Riot oe ti ben Tending the nine-member co sr a could cade a specific recommendation ot io re toe presen the form ofa rien seach qoremor menfers ofthe Oxakowa lgsaue, eee ets and the Tubs City Cound ow or before January 5 1099." SCicior Maxine Homer weged that the, commission har sdyng the Riot not be mandated to conchae Games ions ae fac due TO sed ths commision © Tea pedetermined concision would bea tlle The Riot 73 See een eee ore judgment on the iswe of whether Riot survivors are tye nan 2 Tu Race Rice the ag ng oh hort day inh stay Bar iced paren Stree gata mng nas csr wi ote eel Sneek ck? Wi hey he tel a do thy De John Hope Fonkn, nocd sora, schol, an sive rite opt eps Si Acoring to Dy any the iy Tn and he Site of Okiahons soo maser te come od something ihe ny of reperaton: Bt rperton tet bing alle Streto he Rta, What ny exon ge rnin, shure cy of fn anche Sve of Olona, indeed74 BLACK WALL STREET the United aes of Amer oe pt the promi of alg equal opporeunity forall, now and inthe Satire: = “Tne ual For reparations isn part a plea for aconntabili Evidence suggests that the Riot could have been controled: i fot prevented outright, had the Cty of Tuba taken 3 proactive Tawrfenforeement. posture. ‘The culpability of the State of ‘Oklahoma i presumably in lange measure derivative ofthe cul abil of the City of Tals. Representative Ros’ second rationale for reparations—that “Taka led to Honor its commitment to rebuild the ravaged Greenmood Distr following the Riot—is supported bythe his- tonal record, Following the Riot, on Jane 14, 1921, Tubs Mayor TD. Evans appointed an allvhite “Reconstruction Commitee” to address the property claims of both African: Smericans and whites)” The’ Reconstruction. Committee replaced the Publi Welfare Board, «ody that had aad Trdg working withthe Rel Cross and was to have enginere wxhabilaton and housing program. Indeed, the Red Cros reported: ‘When everthing was runing smo, Hhe a dunes clap ut of a cea ky the Mayor ofthe City. [D] Evans ‘ele the Welln Boa cat of eommison and pace Sppowed shew commice of seven wh he called The fan he backeone of nancial support had been broke smo arp The oil Public Welire Board reigned Tie stds mecting se the dine of tei sition ‘tomate elf cole and individually v0 ward by the Fad Cm ele Commie if their eves should be neces = Fhe Red Cie therefore was placed in poston of hi ing 10 deal with a new Reconsction Commie, Kas Utero tis ha the new oie was to union 3 these dey nthe same manner she comes Th mcver hay proven that she noe comme was poi ‘ally censtoted and ws hel tree in mane fe iheanaer of neg property and the exablishment of = Be seg divi The Ria 75 As the Red Gross pointed out, the Reconsruction Connie attempted ola th nae of property inthe ‘devastated Greenwood District fom Hack to white ownership nd displace the lack community farther-north. The “Reconsction” in "Recosaction Commitee was ami omer Reconstruction was never real intended. The weigh of the evidence mpgs song tht Tul’ der ace de Couraged ihe Tehabilaion and. redevelopment ofthe Greenwond Disit Set Ellovort ator athe serial book fn the Ro, Drath «Ped Lads nes “One myth a pers thatthe white community crested a genes reel Son and rebut back Tus The Cy father wed fo beep Sac Than Bom rbd They red to swindle he out oF {hei and. They reused donations fom charitable organiza hone aroun the coun, he eling people they weve ings ‘rebuild the black community." cane Indeed, Ebworth contends that, while somewhat 5 thetic tothe Afican-American plight falloring the Rs, wes ‘ontribed eo there ad ebuling eft oly magia "Te fac isha, contrary t these announced enon in the [Tulsa] World and elcwhete, white Tabs dd ot seb Bach ls deed a hs Been shown, the city government and ether white groups ied to preven it Ary role which a thes tad in the mba came through twee indie, venues, Fist there wee some Toe donation 19 the Red Gros Second, some white were propery owes ck “Tulsa and these people rebut destroyed sractreso he lind which dey owmed—in order to once tg cole ren fiom Black tenant Ally some wttes ae mney ‘lack employes for rebuling purposes ™ ‘The “accumulation of wealth” rationale for reparations, chile compeling, poses its on set of dilutes. es imposs ble to predic with certainty how Tulsa's Afican-American com ‘muni would Took ad the Riot not occurred. But ia histor fea fae that the Riot caused millions of dollars in physieal dam age (not to mention unquantifable psychological pain) and impelled many prominent African-Americans to flee, never return. The economic impact of the Riots, cempled with76 BLACK WALL STREET the loses atsbutable to those individuals who fled ungues: ‘Rtaubly shaped Tulsa's present AficaneAmerican commit oi dedined much of the existing welth in Tuba's black camonisy and dimmed prospects for the accumulation of Saul over generations. Inagine what might have been. Reparngon reqess wie not common in ase of dames. sic chif unrest, are not without parallel. Reparations paid to Wo War Thera Japanese internees, authorized by Congress Fpuratant toa 1988 ch Hberties ac, provide precedent for Riot Perens Likewise, 1954 legislation passed in Florida pro Tikes for repataions inthe frm of scholarships to the descen= Waki of tie vies of the notorious January 1923 Rosewood, Florida, vce riot" ‘Wiice Congress passed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, chat act provided $20,000 in restitution to each eligible person of Jpdmexe ancestry who was interned during World War It. (Ce (eft Pei Islanders who suffered injustices while under United Sites contel during Werld War IL ae aso eligible for resi athe the Act) The only jstiieation for the internment of oe rea of Japanese anceaty was a perceived, but wholly ‘MTG, lvalty on the part ofthese individuals to the enn the Japameve government, The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 has 28 edt purposes ts (1) acknowledge injustices @) apologize ES baal rte people of the United States (8) provide pablic cape so as a prevent the recurrence of sila injustices: CDoduke resttotion, (3) discourage similar injustices in he esreestnd (0) Tend cavity and evedibilty to declarations of {United Seatey concern for violations of human rights commited by offer nations" T1004 the Florida legislature created the “Rosewood amily Scholarship Program” forthe descendants of the 1928 Reetood! race ret victims. Higibe descendants are ented to Nolaahip asistance of up to $4,000. Then Florida enacted & setae tha seeks offi an equitable obligation to redress the Jijuis aaned a a vest of the desrction of Rosewood Tea Rosewood was an African-American community Teal asvailated by neighboring whites uring the week of Jeary 1, 1929. The Florida legislature conde that the Tene Florida and the local goverament knew of the impend- The Riot 77 ing gey burned doe. Morne he ci leet eg epee fin he ng eh eae Raha The rele sarap res he Me ep ‘Gi welt he viins ete Tas Ra Chat eR ‘Sash samen cs oneal py tear emia a grap nt se Ba Sore a nst ere Physical or coercive force. ° Chanter ot Coker aay he Hee eee tet niin mena teal dns nl stu The el rp titled” to recompense for historical wrongs?! (2) im Prt pol to thei fe ae oes Sino mae ern eon "ape ir en whe hy or nt nay open BE Poneto ey cay hse oh ep Sehr epee ac) pone come up th eran an iyo calculating reparations if they are provided?; anc i ror Sten ocr or deat ot ate tims or the establishment of a business development fun for ‘community asa whole than would cash outlays to inc vid tit sinha go he ge ees mise etebo pasa ihe iy fa eS ls Tew ney on) el el een ody eerEee ~—S—OSO 78 BLACK WALL STREET alors an opportunity for sober reflection, introspection, and a ayoet May 2, 1990, Tusa orld editerial puts the Riot ee recive interme ots sigafcance othe Tal om into fled, quite appropriately, "Tulsa's Rit, Tul’ Shame,” the editorial ads, in par: May 31, 1921, an the dns flowing ae a samelu hn a ny day when open ace war raged. The mnber Fs ad hte, ill spore. The Tots Daily aan age ofthe racial war flied with deta of « each ighring ing and rng, A neesPapeT aa a cea in acy of about 75,000 a the oa es ators pu thes falta cs what od dy FE stny ina ory «8 June 2, THe Fanaa aed: ale comes before the bar of Chri Fe eat, and th ea bowed, the mane of seater chek, and, we sincerely hope with Op rere ae oe hs that she be pardoned of dhe great fee I ee a ces comnnied. The ene Tce ar 8 thats gay way anne” The World publisher, Basten ted ad fo lack ee The it ag ela a enti leaders The cule of the dy wa ae te mam white pple Held narom and ignorat Free ee aperon, mon did mat condone ling Macs ser er homes as posessons. The collective com Sence ws ole: ‘What igh we lear from the Riot? How could tings have gone so horbly wrong? The lesons ave several Se timula for hate is 4 mixture of ignorance and fe. Hare het unchecked leads inexorably 10 diastrous conse Feces uny spark of misinderstanding, Sng upon the se esing embers of hate, ted by the hand of a sensational wreak ignored by responsible Law enforcement ig sat Miclof cif unrest paralleled in American history tes ble and fuin, ne ile may spring. “The Negro atl Quer” ove like @ phoenix from the ashes of i en Yeah anon, Tulsa's Greenwood District would not be denied. TMatory teaches ony tothe extent that is known. The Riot has Lipitance for all Americans. Beneath the surface cal, The Rist 79 cand rac tine come sre Een an se thao a dew, sing the de save ore ting wath By remernbeing the Ri and ining er wey hea son ie rion. shaved history Tennot be une bu faced wh courage, need not be lived again." “ salon 6 Tiss, kd hit commented ca Riot with a series of special ceremonies, most noabiy th ‘edicion of he "1921 Black Wal See Meiorial tothe Rint ‘nd busincies MI Zion Dept ral to the history of African-American Tulsa and issih i, hed he sermon ‘among the ini hn isp pei of le tame ee Ren ots hn dcr he NAA Bea bor, Une Osan psn or ied Shan Saver Sat Ellowort author of Dea ra Ped Ms ! Sct Elwort, stor of Dea na Tents and Ra suvbors LaNerne, Cooksey, ati, Robert Fairchild, George Monroe, and Julivs Wi Fach Gorge Monroe andj Wan The hengeTHE REGENERATION Regeneration A being rnc, nformd, oF eons eccnl t eyTg = ‘peauty salon, a comfortable home, with five rooms rand "We thought we were siting pretty: and ce rage ica soe of 2a $10 a mesg dere wasn ner ce ae yi operate get, there 0 The Regeneration 81 we but on busines hack yp—beauty shops, a oe dg, Sores grocery stores, our wa barbershop lor shop, Yu Tubs Aftican- American community knew what i meant to take cave of business, erally and Biguratvely. Like Mabel an Presley Lite, others in the community banded together to regain a portion ofthe economic prosperity they lost in the Rio, Despite all the forces working against them, inching the lability of loans and the lackof insurances they reused to Among the other fores working against the crushed Alvican-American commminity was the local press, The Tor Tribune, the local daily that had so inflamed the community by sensitonalzing the Rosland/Page incident, once again shaved its true colors. On Sarurday, June 4, 1921, the Tat Tribune ran an editorial disparaging the Greenwood District and beseech ‘the community not to let it be rebles Such a dit ache old "Niggetown” mn never be allowed inal gain. Tv cesspool of inigty and co ruption. It was the cept which bad been pointed it ‘pectcaly tthe Tusa police and to Fulice Comminoner Aikson, and the cul sce nahn Set any could 0 down there and buy al the asose they wed. ey {Suldgo oo the most unspeakable dance halls and bax ons ‘af possaton. Al this been called othe tent a the Police deparaven and all he polee department could do ter the Mayor ofthis wast whitest ell. The Mayor af Tt a perfectly mie, honest man, we do no ou, but he fil He could hive fund vat Rinne ny tne tn tne night what stone preacher fou ut Inthis old "Niggertow” were tof bad siggers and 4 bad nigger f about ne ewer thing tat walks om to fee. Give abd nigger his bore and is dope and gn a he thinks be can shot wp the work. And all these our things ‘ete fn in "Niggeriomn”—boore dope. hal gges ad “The Tuts Tibune makes no apology to the Paice Com| 82° BLACK WALL STREET oa einen af ene de oir ma eta po oe seat ded en tae fe me wr ea tet eee tiene sete Ce se ede i rep ees ee aes “ sre an a a ig ei to Mi Adkison tnt espn hy cenit Ta Tie Son cna pe ipremacy and. preached social equality and socal jae, tere eee te befell eer aoe i the epeneratin of Tass tne The Regeneration 83 Greenwood District thereafes Inthe Greenwood Distt, the sacred and the secular somehow managed peaceably to coexist “The hallowed halls of Tulu's AtticatyAmerican churches proved to be no sanctuary fom the riotous mobs, Among the ‘damaged or destroyed Aiean-American houses of worship were the Methodist Episcopal Chutch, the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church, the Seventh Day Adventist Church, Paradise Baptist Chureh, Metropolitan Buprist Church, Union Baptist ‘Ghurch, Me. Zion Baptist Church, and the African Methodist Episcopal Church (now Vernon Chapel A. M.E.). Notabhy Fist Baptist Church of North Tulsa was sparedspared because it was mistaken fora white church. Each church has its sory. But the stories ofthe Inter thee churches, Mt. Zion Baptist Church, Vernon Chapel A. ME. and Fit Baptist Church of North ‘Tular—the “mother churches” of the Aftcan-American commu nig—finly encapsulate the sprit of Tuls’s pioneer Alrican- ‘American in the face of montimeatal challenges. ‘Me. Zion Baptist Church, Tubs's largest Afican-American church in 1921 with some 1,000 members was torched during ‘the Riot But the rioters could no sul out the faith ofits mem bers. The saga ofthe church before, diring, and alter the Riot if no inspirational in 1009 Mt. Zion Baptist Church was organized a8 “Second ‘Baptist Chueh’ ina one-room wood fame school building Under the leadership of Re: Sandy Lyons services were held on the S00 block of North Harford, The foundery—Reverend Lyons, Aaron Elis, Kate Bell Baldridge, Res. Alexander Brown, Georgia Brown, Comelia Dallas, Mary A. Grayson, Hannah ale, Jim Hal, Ella ell Johnson, Caroline Lolli, Ella Sugg, Ida Recto, Jeanette E. Webb, Nelie Brown Wharton—were, for the most par, largely former members of Fst Baptist Church ‘who, afte internal squabbling, broke off rom that congregation, “The founders quickly conchae that the “Second” inthe name Second Baptist Church conveyed a sense of inferiority tht way, at best inappropriate. Second Baptist Church became Mt. Zion Baptist Church "ML. Zion” symbolizes the beau ity of God in Christian lore? One stanza of gospel singer Mahalia Jacksons cassie84 BLACK WALL STREET recording oft Will More On Up A Little Higher” captures the Treany and majesty chat Zio: Soon a4 my fee strike Zon Goma ay doen heavy burden. Tm gona pat on my robe in lo tm go home ene day or Te been climbing oer ills and mountains [osigana dn fom he Chvisian fot Nef ao Gas son ane daughters that mors’ (ilo that ol eal wate ect me there elone or ect there somewhere round the att ‘Meet me there— ‘en the angels shall all Gots Despite the grandeur ofits pamesaie, Mt. Zion Baptist Chueh began modesty The first $20 for operating the church carat Deacon Aaron Ellis, Reverend Lyons soon resigned, sag eff a succession of leadership changes: Reverend Lyons SEU fhe baton to Rex TL. Leonard, who incur passed Pos nent pastor, Rey. C. Le Netherland, In 1913 Rey Frank ounce the reins Sil rowing, the church desperately need seeesdintonal space, and prchased property at 419 North Eig dn ll heath, Reverend White resigned in L914 and was replaced by Rev. RA, Whitaker Teeserdad Whiaicr faced an immediate axis. On three ays notice, Me. Ziom Baptist Church was foreed to vacate the soli which ic held services. The church moved into dance Marek Non Greenwood Avenue. C: Henry, a builder in the a cen ated the church in the construction ofa ame Soeur Saply known asthe “Tabernacle,” while construction aoe ctaa urch began on the adjacent lot on North Elgin. Mas at planning had gone into the new church. The con- greg ha accumulated some $42,00, but dhe cot of the Ser ting. approached @ whopping $92,000. The churel Net ped the offer of an unsecured $50,000 Ioan from a Jewish ra) 16, wth a inital investment of $750.15, builders lid the foundation fr the new chute. Five years later and $50,000 The Regeneration 83 inn, te 3,00 eo ce ys camped not SEs nga seve on pH a femme me ey he mag Zo Bap Crh hosed» ache of weapots and wed ts tang etuane o tebelagted and eso Anta On he seh of an eee ee ths hou worship) wen "Un selshoked, and shakey M2 oN Zion member gah- ced wi te tae pert oad stage mr tes Ec ul bs fe ws rnc bt ee eee Srriek" A few members let te tk bat nant took a tow af le Stl Gch menbon se onion nt re py poco om ca The aig eo Shh Bung tar no Toner exaed wall nets be mC rr evenings and week of clearing the debris an¢ mg the site for rebuilding. CaaS Ee hare Page, wealthy oman fom Sa ‘tsa he su the plight of Mt Zam, Page led a ot sor heeuing bt heidi ‘was made, No written record of his commitment 5 bricks were never delivered. on at Torte pens, Reve While fe along the pa toward the liquidation ofthe deb. Before new church cate tended a be scented or Sick emoxoaly drained nd rene by within, Reverend Whitaker resigned ineluntary Mose teas ‘iva Me Zon sipped-ayThe ovis feta ee SS pcr ate ng as oe peg faci cs nsed ye sil ond mongge ee ary peri oe ‘Lion. aa nets Tap vcs fms flawed: Reverend Randal fon tes Wie Drew and Te Cram eed we ‘time eon spy mane! wit as ag forme ecbaus,Penroe ences red ZoeRe "|" & 86 LACK WALL STREET from the throes of ruin. Meal Mrs James H. Goodin ited the contested mort conte pn avined at Mt Zion in 1926 Like dark Wet lorned i the minds of 3 to Me constant contovery. Reverend Hain ek sme ihe could be elated ar all there ws ne an ae eaiaion-the money owed came he reul of formal Je erasacon The deacon and rotecsiaret ae pane repay ted The chsh pi 2 Reverend Hanon resigned i 1828 twas den i Nest Hope Baptist Chic, He took droves of loud Mt. Zion's subst ‘Me: Zion members with hi ri oe ned congregation and the ever-present debt led tothe padockingof the chur, Fora period ME Zion member nepali the home of Mabel B, Ltle. Finally the legal seeeeeeye ated in court and dhe church reopened Row W. E. Bradford jed the church fi SBaptst Church, Mt. Zion te ehs debe. Mt, Zion pressed on, though the 0" Caged artner ad urer in arzears Architects WS 3 ete brothers, graduates of Tuskegee Inte, Je tater Zion, drafted plans forthe Hes, more expan ‘he and more expensive, Mt Zion. gat six tts after Res. J. H. Dotson was installed 5 toe ea tion pastor, sixty new roembers joined the church th ero wat raed, Reverend Dotson instiaced a new fund a natives he "White Elephants Drive” The whites of "alin ie clephants represented 2 debt of $1,500. Brown ‘tes ase to cover the white cephanss com $5.25 ca Pat puicis to cover each elephant. When all ofthe white Cothuntsere covered in brown the debt woul be rtited, rt was athe White Elephanis Drive led to yet nother n 1920 through 1934" Tonger than any of his predecessors. He ited the chur, as eterded ie congregation ough the depths ofthe ere pression, then, because of fang heath, resigned, Se Grea pePeged by Rex, HE. Owens, who served from 125 Tos 1057. lronicaly, Reverend Owens cxme fom Few pireh mother” Reverend Over Batt ced the roofing of dir lor basement the assem: Renee pews, and 2 substantial reduction in the The Regeneration 87 tng ee Th fh Ces il cn 0, ‘rough box trimmed in tin bands. Memt as ian deat In on mh $7 B00 had been tase and new members joined rolls of = he oie ety et Sadie we eee Suan gan lo “dit and Storr at ty Samed yi A ste cho bl Sore fa ee a a promply stared a balding fin romp sane a ali und He all de sal ‘meer wl eps thei $150.00 bln monument 1 ate pence «gut Cn ree a nao a mS eerie con supervision of every detail ofthe hurd engl amin of Gs newBLACK WALL STRE 3 of Gorm Pagrap 1997) IM Zim Best Chah Ph 8 tucated minister from on August 16, 1953, 2 young, educated at Zam, por ey ater reed Dow. The young mies Rex A a ere arehen, took the reins when Reverend Dowson oe om October were McCutchen preaches his frst sermon on Oxtb way 12, 1958 walled as pasior on 200 Sit Zion eased amare ied 2 sania the Mt Zion 20, 195%, and as ner his leadership, see embarked on ne tnd fr om api Chachi ig eam Poe atria snark atthe oppose endo he Trem the Riot” spectrum ww the The Regeneration 89 ro Chal Aion Methatt Epis (AME) Chr Pht orl (of Gousrin Phtgrp, 1997) Yet another “mother church” in the Greenwood District endured the Riot and thrives to this very day. In 1903 African- ‘American pioneers brought Afican Methodlsm to Tals, Tass Affican Methodist Episcopal (ANCE. church operated out dt a one-room house at 349 North Detr. Charter members J.J. Brrd, William Walker, Emma Lofton Woods, Maggie Vaden, Carve Peek, Matie Barksdale, Mary Ivory, and Laura Martin began the AIM.E. tradition in Tals In 196 the church moved briefly to Gurley Hall, located at 114 North Greenwood Avenue, then to Barksdale Hall at Archer and Hartford streets, Membership increased, and the church Counted sevent-one souls among its number by 1908. Members ‘named the ehurch "Burton Chapel” Shortly thereafter, church trustees made a down payment toward the purchase of theBLACK WALL STREET Semon Cine AE weing On nts intend oh from ome Teen ot eon Harn i od sw, ome i. Spe fer T3960), (Pino eu he Noth Te Hariage Ponda, I) preset church ite at $00 North Greenwood Axemie The mame Peshe church was changed to "Vernon Chapel” Tn 1314 the old church bck base T The fons bat determined co press on, churc ume tumbling dvs In its stead 3 4 oly fared and Bui -Then came the Rit. basement Nena Chapel structure ly in ins, Seared by members raised the sae readied to rebuild the basement and adorned he sue fure with suitable furniture Tied there, Membership toy 1922 and 400 by 1925. C plans to raise enough mon Donations of cash, labor, and mater eon bined 2 mortgage. The new structure od pulpit farnitite, played hos © freshly hewn wooden pons stor PW. Desle and his family tinued ose, ad ryt complete the chsh buildings Signiican regis gathering Mia fO ancmbersip rose to 800. By 1945, all indebted, nes ad beep relied. Arti bythe late 1950s, various cubs and nes tions had been established within this community ‘inde church ‘One of Vernon Chapels xd reached 210 huh tees ad members Id oUt fe were secured, and the formed with ont celebrated contributions (0 the Crecmwond District and to alsa was its noted pastor The Regeneration 91, though the 1960, Res Ben HL, Hil. Reverend 20H. ll. Reverend Hil an itor The oe Bogle, the AME. Review, and the imo Dee, wea leader of te rat magnitude inthe community the i and the sate: Indeed, Reverend ill ecame at Olam state crate Han eh capac un eth By 1074, Vernon Chapel had purchased one black north sd ak a ling The hh ated a xchange ter congregations atangren here etiam te rh wre ate in te fk lowing years. kn 1004 a major renovation project began le by the mew minister Re. lase Nelson Hudson, Jr The new fail tegen aren Nic 185 ern spel remains a ilar ofthe Greenwood Distic, seeped tn history and courage and faith.” a) ist Baptist Chr of North Ta the thi and ial of the “mush churches” of the Greemond Dat Bepwn i 1899 by HB. Ll Robert Grayson, and James Gracy, a i Bop Chak of Nor TPs ner of Godrm Parophy, 197)ee" ~~ 92 BLACK WALL STREET viginaly called Macedonia Rapist Chur i 6 the oldest sits st ‘African Any George Tertll and Heniy Clay is fit deacons min congregation, in_an_ecamenical spit ited Te a community to sare he sme worship fei Method punt warship services took place in a buiking om Oo es ir Sucet and Boston Aven in downtown Tals, toe to The Wiliams Genter, After three-and-one:hall sng James Smith suceeded Reverend Dian In 1007 ye pe et Netherland took the reins, During Reverend fon changed its mame 0m Nett apne Chueh to Fst Baptist Church, Membership era rican chueh in Tulsa. Rev. J, Duncad Netherland’ tena, the congtet vd church faites were enhanced "ae ty Lyons succeeded Reverend Netherland. Dissen- 1 eee chal grew, aed eventually the congregation sli sion in tne cmngtegaion Jet and founded Second Taprist Pa Che hich later became Mt. Zion Baprist Church, Rev, G1 Cc emer the pastorate of Fst Baptist Church fora brief peso. hich Metropolitan Bapti ‘nthe new stractre in April 1918, (grant resolution commending Herb ttre inthe aera ofthe Rit ‘nthe 3st nigh in May, 1921 the feces race war knot ty bok cut, sting wn the next mors or senson in the ranks once again set in. A sucession of sminivens followed. Eventually, under the pastorate of Rex. JF rer rahe cure split occured. Those who left formed Teen Abernathy ook over in 1917, Negoatons were tegen ts onsrat "The Church on the HAI” on Archer See ae gU.O00. The ok bing was razed and work Began Mapa Choe, the former “cc home” of may of Me Tas lal members escaped the Rot unscathed. MC Zion ee Zar edi Vernon Chapel ane several other congestion To ook Fst Baptist Church fora white church i Ba oe hte residential cst. Nevertheless, members of border vane jst av alected bythe Riot a all oxer Aftican- aoe ra tn Tus, Stoned and saddened, they passed & poi American’ Red Cross 0 is The Regeneration 93 fon a mpi mn mehntaeoeac tains caries ee me and under such conditions that the Ameri i (get organization Gand ws bused and Weeding and ic the Faia ato carats ‘occurrence, this great organization, headed by rae ‘Ghrinian gemleman, ‘Maurice Willows, has beard ae rs area ae aa eel Sency ten heart rai cole tip othe of Tle Osh ae See eee tothe American Red Cron Hendguuster Nations nd owes adie Reverend Abernathy departed in 1922 a sun vershelmed the duty earned Sort eet He agin depacel in 124 Rv sea EOvens ned i ‘ vere! Ove retained at First Bap Church or en yeas When he departed in 1034. When he de 1934 the chueh stood fice and clear of =o ne ae anc ee ve completed The church held its morgage Bu on rhe $508 0 yn Septenberst 1957, Reverend Salnaer rete om December I, 1061, al was replace byee" 94 BLACK WALL STREET nanimously confirmed 88 pastor om Rev. Leroy K. Jordan, February 23, 1962. way 23 Toran became a Tulsa legend for his commuity read ch. compassion, and vison. When he retired in 1904, dead Hen Chester Wilson Filled the void: In 196 Dr {JW Johnson beeame past: etetptat Church of North Taba. cceupies three cit loch A the Greencod District in alton, the chute ons shots eraten a complex of single ad mti-famiy apartments for the elderly and the disabled He ee other churches ofthe Greenwood Distict—Mt zion Baptn Church, Vernon Chapel A.M. and Fst Baptist Zion Bap ath Tulsa, share a common legacy of Yeadeshp it cy rcan-Americancomourit. Ironicall the Ris helped ea eee eikdaraerock insiations into the plas of the “mma they have become ra eto American churches, individuals and is avin tn commit stepped into asin inthe Greemeond tutions i Toveryeffor. Notable among them was # gu of Discos unger Just ate the Rit the la fit of Spears ca OE Chappelle was formed. Asa testament yo the devas, Fane Re, the firm intl pitched tent at 607 East tao of We led ta Law lle. This makeshift ofice hardly pases 2rpriiant young minds who occupied it, These dhree te est coumes hours tending ok just othe legal neds of ae tims, Dut to some of ther spiritual needs 28 well the Riot nin & Chappelle lodged more chan $4 main in Spee Moin the City of Toba and various insurance comps Soa pets damage atsing out ofthe Rio. The rm coun ai oped and comforted erally thousands of dazed Riot le corned. prominent African-American organizations Fe out te country of the catastrophe devastation in Tle hraighons ct and made an irgent nationwide appeat for tant vember of 1921, Spears Franklin & Chappelle moved from he anodesttentoffice sno a permanent office Located at Fr rar Grcernood, on the second floor of the Howard uring. The thyee Inwyers worked tireless but they Found eee jy thempelses and to entertain others They accepted The Regeneration 95 1031 eR rn deers sly err a Cy {fT rc noes he a hse ae ng te Geen thie Phan cory he No Tia al comers, with on with one exception: dere would be no to Seip. For them. the misery all rund them sopped tthe otic dow Tn ice became a safe havens proving epite fiom the harsh realy all around aan 1 om ag 18 18, Spe, Rakin & Chapple ld pase ty the tus iy Commision fe at year The Prnance ae wing inthe Rice Green Bh opine mt Aner The dh ke coe aw or Laat a ft. Jo Via si ea thn ea on pee ano importa enjoin the pos Riot iy of Tulsa ve ordinance Ti court Soc tet toe orcanes corte on inveee 96 BLACK WALL STREET The Regeneration 97 taking of property without due process of ln The Fem akg ing reerot charge, Aican-Americans arrested for and ae; iltng oer exising Gre ordinances during his

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