Early Childhood Educ J (2015) 43:99107

DOI 10.1007/s10643-014-0635-8

Promoting Positive Peer Interactions in the Preschool Classroom:

The Role and the Responsibility of the Teacher in Supporting
Childrens Sociodramatic Play
Tina L. Stanton-Chapman

Published online: 28 March 2014

Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014

Abstract Teachers play an important role in expanding

and supporting childrens play and interactions with peers.
This manuscript provides specific guidelines for interventions teachers can use to promote successful peer interactions in preschool settings. The strategies discussed
include: (a) preparing the physical environment for play
(e.g., toy selection, themes); (b) entering and exiting childrens play gracefully, (c) using talk to promote play episodes and social interactions, and (d) selecting the most
appropriate intervention strategies based on direct
obeservation.
Keywords
Prompting

Play
Preschoolers
Teachers
Play support

During a typical preschool day, children have a number of

opportunities to socially interact and play with peers (e.g.,
center time, meal and snack time, outdoor time, group
time). Peer interactions serve a variety of purposes for
children including: participating in play opportunities with
peers, learning how to share and problem-solve during
play, providing and implementing play ideas with peers,
and taking on roles within play (e.g., cook, server, and
customer; doctor and patient). Research suggests that peer
interactions can lead to positive peer relationships,
friendship building, appropriate problem-solving during
play, and peer acceptance. Preschool teachers are the key to
orchestrating successful peer interactions for all children
within the early childhood program including typical,
inclusive, and at-risk classrooms. Their involvement
T. L. Stanton-Chapman (&)
Curry School of Education, University of Virginia, 417 Emmet
Street South, Charlottesville, VA 22904-4273, USA
e-mail: stantonchapman@virginia.edu

requires careful planning and preparation, creativity,

reflection, and providing opportunities for peer interactions
to happen. An example of a teacher providing such an
opportunity is presented in the next paragraph.
During morning meeting, Ms. Lindsey draws the childrens attention to a visual chart. We are going to greet
everyone in a few minutes. Before we greet our friends, we
need to review our greeting rules. First, you will sit next to
different people each day so you have the opportunity to
greet many friends. What does it mean to sit next to different people each day? The children raise their hands to
answer Ms. Lindseys question. Joshua? It means to
make sure you are not sitting next to the same person
2 days in a row, answers Joshua. Yes, it means that you
cannot sit next to the same person 2 days in a row. Ms.
Lindsey then draws their attention back to the visual chart.
When it is time to greet your friends, I want you to look at
your friend, smile at your friend, shake your friends hand,
and say hi in a loud and clear voice. Let me show you what
I mean. Ms. Lindsey walks over to Allison, looks at her,
smiles, shakes her hand, and says, Hi Allison. Ms.
Lindsey then asks the students to discuss what they saw her
do with Allison. After their discussion, the students model
the same behaviors with a peer before doing the group
greeting.
In this example, Ms. Lindsey is serving as a coach in her
students social skills development. She develops her students social skills by providing positive reinforcement
when they display appropriate social skills, assessing their
understanding of social skills lessons and her expectations,
and modeling appropriate social skills. By providing social
skills instruction as part of the everyday classroom routine,
Ms. Lindsey is fulfilling an important role of the early
childhood teacheroffering social skills instruction so that
her students can have positive interactions with adults and

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peers. For preschoolers, social skills instruction, in the

context of everyday routines and play, may be the most
appropriate.
While many teachers, including Ms. Lindsey, provide
social skills instruction in the context of everyday routines
and play, many early childhood teachers do not. This may
lead to children not reaching their full potentialoften
referred to as the early childhood error (Bredekamp
2013; Bredekamp and Rosegrant 1992, p. 3). Kontos
(1999) described the early childhood error as occurring
when early childhood educators prepare an appropriate,
stimulating environment for young children but then stand
back and fail to follow-up with guidance scaffolding or
supportive responsive interactions with children as they
play (p. 364). The following example emphasizes the
early childhood error. Ms. Vickie developed a camping
theme in the dramatic play area in her preschool classroom. She set up a small indoor tent in the middle of the
play area. She added sleeping bags, backpacks, compasses,
binoculars, canteens, and a paper towel tube fire. Her
students had all of the materials they needed to pretend
they were going on a camping trip. What they did not have
was a teacher who was actively involved in their play.
While her students interacted with the camping materials,
Ms.Vickie was often found checking her school email or
preparing materials for her small group activity. While
many children are able to positively participate in dramatic
play when provided with the proper materials, many children are not. This is especially true of culturally diverse or
at-risk students who may have limited prior exposure to the
dramatic play themes offered in a typical preschool classroom (Hartman 2007; Hartman and Brougere 2004).
Without teacher involvement in play or appropriate scaffolding to instruct children on how to play with these
materials, such children may resort to inappropriate play
with the materials and/or their peers. The following
example illustrates this point.
Revisiting Ms. Vickies classroom, we meet Juan. Juans
family recently relocated to the United States from Cuba.
Juans family has never camped before so the camping toys
in the classroom are novel, interesting, and unusual to him.
During center time, Juan visits the dramatic play center
where he is joined by Tao and Natalie. Tao and Natalie
placed the sleeping bags inside the tent and said, Its time
to go to sleep! The three children go inside the tent. Tao
and Natalie go inside the sleeping bags, but Juan does not.
Juan starts talking, but is quickly interrupted by Natalie.
Shh! Its bedtime, she says. No, its not, replies Juan.
Yes, it is, says Tao. Its time to play in the cave, says
Juan. Its a tent and tents are for sleeping, exclaims
Natalie. Natalie is becoming frustrated. Its a cave! Juan
replies and then begins jumping up and down. He

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accidently falls on Tao and Natalie who then angrily

depart the tent leaving Juan behind.
In this scenario, Juan is unfamiliar with a tent and
inaccurately thinks it is a cave. His peers, Tao and Natalie,
become frustrated with Juan because he does not know
how to play appropriately with the camping toys. The end
result is frustration for Tao and Natalie and peer rejection
for Juan as his classmates left him alone in the tent. This
situation may have been prevented if Ms. Vickie would
have provided instruction on the camping toys before the
children were permitted to play with them in the dramatic
play area. Instruction can be provided during morning
circle, small group time, or large group time (e.g., This is
a tent. A tent is a home you can you use when you sleep
outdoors. This is how you use it). By giving all children
instruction on new toys that appear in a dramatic play
theme, unfamiliarity and peer rejection may be reduced and
successful peer interactions may increase. If Ms. Vickie is
not able to or chooses not to provide instruction on new
toys, she may also monitor the new dramatic play theme
when the center is open and provide support to children as
needed. Either strategy will reduce the likelihood of a situation like Juans.
In the 1970s, Vygotzky emphasized the important role
adults, including teachers, have in childrens play.
According to Vygotzky, adults can assist young children in
play that they are unable to do on their own (Seefeldt and
Barbour 1998). In other words, social interactions with
adults are necessary to further childrens play. Vygotzky
coined this term the zone of proximal development. The
zone of proximal development is the distance between the
actual development level as determined by independent
problem solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problem solving under adult guidance
or in collaboration with more capable peers (Vygotzky
1978). Specifically, it is the skills that a young child can
perform with assistance, but are not able to perform independently. The zone of proximal development is constantly
changing; as a child gains new skills and abilities, the zone
moves forward or changes. The following example highlights Anus zone of proximal development.
Anu and Lauren are in the house area feeding their
babies. Lauren says to Anu, Your baby wants a bottle.
Anu does not reply. Lauren speaks again, Your baby
wants a bottle. Anu does not reply. The teacher then
intervenes, Anu, Lauren is talking to you. Anu turns to
Lauren and answers, What? Your baby wants a bottle,
declares Lauren. Ok, replies Anu and she gives her baby
a bottle. Anu is able to respond to a peer if reminded to
listen to a peer who is talking to her. The teachers prompt
is the zone of proximal development that moves Anu from
no response to a response.

Early Childhood Educ J (2015) 43:99107

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Teachers must use their knowledge of theories and

research to guide the development of play in young children. During free play or center time, early educators
typically assume the role of stage manager who helps
children get ready to play. As a stage manager, teachers
support play by orchestrating the physical environment and
scheduling an appropriate amount of time for play to take
place (Hoorn et al. 2003; Howard and McInnes 2013). This
also includes providing materials for play and giving suggestions for use of materials (Kontos 1999; McWilliam and
Casey 2008).
This article provides a conceptual framework that
directly addresses the most appropriate times for teacher
involvement in childrens play and offers specific guidelines for interventions teachers can use to promote successful peer interactions in preschool settings. The
strategies discussed include: (a) establishing a socialemotional climate for play; (b) entering and exiting childrens play gracefully, (c) using talk to promote play episodes and social interactions, and (d) selecting the most
appropriate intervention strategies based on direct obeservation. Although play appears to be decreasing in the
preschool classroom (Carlsson-Page 2009), these teacher

Possible Teacher
Prompt

Possible
Teacher
Prompt

talk strategies can be used throughout the preschool day;

not just during free play opportunities.

Conceptual Framework and the Role of the Teacher

in Childrens Play
Figure 1 provides a conceptual framework that directly
addresses the most appropriate times for teacher
involvement in childrens play. The Appendix provides an
example of a teacher using the strategies outlined in
Fig. 1 during center time. Observational studies in preschool classrooms have previously reported that teachers
are more likely to become involved in childrens play
when young children are not currently engaged with peers
(Harper and McCluskey 2003; Kontos and Wilcox-Herzog
1997). While this strategy is optimal for beginning a peer
interaction, it is less effective in maintaining or scaffolding a child through a peer interaction. The objective
in developing the conceptual framework was to assist
teachers in thoughtfully planning when and how to scaffold target children during peer interactions for maintenance purposes.

Child 1 initiates a
social interaction to
Child 2

Social interaction
maintained when
Child 2 hears and
responds to Child 1

Possible Teacher Prompt

Possible Teacher
Prompt

Child 2 hears the

social interaction
made by Child 1

Child 1 hears and

responds to Child 2

Child 2 responds to
the social interaction
made by Child 1

No social interaction

Possible Teacher Prompt

Child 2 ignores the social

interaction made by Child 1

Social-Emotional Cultural Context

Fig. 1 A conceptual framework for a teachers role in supporting peer relationships

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The graphic representation of the social-emotional cultural context attempts to explain childrens interactions
with peers and how teachers can support this process. The
overall social-emotional cultural context provides the
foundation for the conceptual model. When a child enters a
social interaction with another child, he or she brings with
them a history of positive and negative social encounters, a
preferred pattern for interactions, and temperament characteristics. Culture may influence the display of these
personality traits and the way they contribute to adaptive or
maladaptive functioning in the social interaction (Chen
et al. 2006). For example, in the United States, shy/inhibited children tend to initiate social interactions by using
hovering, waiting, and/or other nonverbal behaviors with
peers (e.g., Schmidt and Fox 1998). These interaction
behaviors are often viewed negatively by peers, and the
children are typically rejected or ignored by their classmates (Rubin et al. 2002). Conversely, Chinese children
who initiated social interactions using shy/inhibited techniques were less likely to experience peer rejection as
shyness is considered an acceptable and even desired trait
in Chinese culture (Chen et al. 2006). The meanings and
understandings that children derive from these prior
experiences are brought to current play episodes and play
situations.
Children are not the only individuals who bring prior
experiences to the social interaction. Classroom teachers
who supervise childrens play with peers also bring their
prior experiences including their cultural expectations for
interacting with others, home language to use when interacting with others, and appropriate ways to play. These
expectations may be the same or different from the children
enrolled in their classrooms, and thus, teachers have the
ability to influence the childrens peer relationships and
interactions (Howes and Shivers 2006). In other words,
teachers may plan activities and prompt for social interactions in a manner that is consistent with their beliefs for
what to do when developing childrens social skills (Huijibregts et al. 2008). This is important to recognize as race,
ethnicity, and culture may largely influence childrens
social development. For example, in Dutch cultures,
teachers do not become involved in childrens interactions
during play unless there is a communication breakdown
and friendly directives or comments must be offered to fix
the problem (Jones and Reynolds 1992). Israeli caregivers
differ from Dutch caregivers in that they tend to ignore
childrens conflicts and emotional distress during peer
interactions (Rosenthal and Gatt 2011). Their lack of
involvement is not due to their desire to allow children to
suffer during communication breakdowns, but a cultural
expectation to allow children to problem-solve communication breakdowns on their own. Training all preschool
teachers, regardless of culture, to intervene in specific ways

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during play episodes can be effective in changing the

quality and quantity of peer-to-peer interactions in preschool children.

Establishing a Social-Emotional Climate for Play

The social-emotional climate of the classroom can enhance
or impede the development of competent peer-to-peer
relationships (Howes 2011). Teachers who are warm,
sensitive, and engaging with all of their students create an
atmosphere where play activities and social interactions are
accepted, desired, and are fun. When children view
teachers as someone they can trust, they develop a secure
teacher-student relationship that serves as a secure base for
play. Preschool children who view their teachers as secure
bases for play and interactions are more willing to participate in play episodes with peers as they feel comfortable
navigating the unfamiliar territory of peer play with adult
assistance (Grossmann et al. 1999). Peer play can be a
difficult journey for many children as peers are less likely
than adults to wait for a response to one of their initiations,
scaffold a child through a social interaction, or be patient
while a peer develops a play idea (Stanton-Chapman 2013).
Teachers must use their knowledge of theories and
research to guide the development of play in young children. During free play or center time, early educators
typically assume the role of stage manager who helps
children get ready to play. As a stage manager, teachers
support play by orchestrating the physical environment and
scheduling an appropriate amount of time for play to take
place (Hoorn et al. 2003; Howard and McInnes 2013). This
also includes providing materials for play and giving suggestions for use of materials (Kontos 1999; McWilliam and
Casey 2008). A quality classroom environment reflects a
culturally sensitive setting where each child feels valued
(Tarman and Tarman 2011). The toys and suggestions for
materials should reflect different cultures and lifestyles
especially those of the preschoolers in the classroom.
Play Enhancer
While the stage manager level of support may be appropriate for many children, children from diverse families,
children from at-risk environments, or children with disabilities may need the teacher to assume the role of play
enhancer for quality play to take place (Kontos 1999).
Teachers who assume the play enhancer role enter childrens play and provide support to make it a quality
experience for the children involved, although not so much
support that play is stifled (refer to Fig. 1). A teachers
ability to set-up, observe, and exit play with sensitivity and
grace is crucial to the success of the play enhancer role

Early Childhood Educ J (2015) 43:99107

(Hoorn et al. 2003). Developmental abilities are often the

key component of determining how assistance is needed.
For example, Brad is a preschooler with disabilities
diagnosed as having autism and specific language
impairment. He is fully included in Ms. Brendas class. Ms.
Brenda finds that Brad frequently has difficulty sustaining
interactions with other children. When she notices Brad
watch Tariq build a birthday cake using pegs and pegboards in the manipulative area, she assumes the role of
play enhancer to help Brad participate in play with Tariq.
Ms. Brenda suggests, Brad, say Tariq can I help? Brad
tentatively says to Tariq, Can I help? Tariq answers,
Ok. Brad takes a yellow peg and adds it to the pegboard.
He quickly adds several more pegs to the pegboard. Tariq
says, Thats enough. Brad continues to add pegs to the
pegboard. Ms. Brenda then intervenes, Brad, Tariq asked
you to stop. Its time to sing Happy Birthday. Brad stops
adding pegs, and Ms. Brenda begins the Happy Birthday
song.
Ms. Brenda knows that Brad has difficulty entering play
and needs her encouragement to socially interact. She
provides the needed prompt that allows Brad to enter
Tariqs play. She also re-enters the interaction when Brad
begins to violate Tariqs play parameters by adding too
many pegs to the birthday cake. Keen observational skills
assisted Ms. Brenda with knowing when to enter and exit
the childrens play. She was able to determine if and when
she should join the children (Howes 2011).

Entering and Exiting Childrens Play

Timing is critical when teachers enter and exit childrens
play. Using observational methods, teachers must watch
childrens play episodes and make the executive decision if
entering their play is warranted or not. During this observation, teachers have the opportunity to view childrens
play themes, roles, words, and plot (Leong and Bodrova
2012). Teachers who decide to enter childrens play episodes must do so seamlessly without disrupting the interaction. As seen in Fig. 1, this entry can take place before or
during a social interaction between peers has occurred.
Respect for childrens ongoing, shared, make-believe play
is critical. Adult entry into play is best when children are
transitioning between themes or roles instead of when they
are deeply engrossed in pretend play. For instance, Ms.
Rogers notices that Antwon is observing Brandon and
Keaton pushing cars around a track. She knows Antwon
wants to join in on their play, but lacks the social skills to
appropriately ask for their permission to participate. She
carefully observes their play and patiently waits for the
perfect time to assist Antwon with his goal. This moment
arrives when the boys decide to add to the track with

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additional blocks. Ms. Rogers asks, Brandon and Keaton,

Antwon would like to help you build the track and guide a
car along the track. Is it ok for him to help you? Ms.
Rogers knew that the best time for Antwon to enter
Brandon and Keatons play was when they stopped pushing
their cars and decided to add to the track. By waiting for a
transition in play to occur, the teacher finds a time in play
where the target child is most likely to receive a successful
outcome; entrance in the play activity. If Ms. Rogers would
have interrupted the boys play when they were pushing
their cars, the boys may have rejected Antwons bid to join
in on their play due to their full engagement with the
materials.
Exiting childrens play and relinquishing control back to
the children is also a critical skill preschool teachers must
learn. Trawick-Smith (2001) discusses the importance of
leaving childrens play gracefully and flawlessly with the
discussion of three exiting strategies. The first strategy is
for the teacher to use storytelling to explain his or her
departure from the play episode. For example, Mr. Henry
entered the restaurant play of Olivia and Tameka with the
intention of facilitating Carloss entrance into the play. He
turns to Olivia and Tameka and states, Carlos and I
would like to eat. They sit down at the table and look over
the menu. They decide to order an appetizer. Olivia and
Tameka bring food to the table, and ask if Carlos is ready
to order more food. Mr. Henry sees that Carlos is currently
engaged with Olivia and Tameka by ordering his food from
the menu. He says to his students, Thank you for the
terrific meal. I must get back to work. In this example,
Henry uses the storyline of needing to go back to work as a
means to exit the childrens play. The second strategy is for
the teacher to leave the play area unobtrusively when the
children are involved in play and will not notice the teacher
leaving the play scene. Finally, the teacher may simply
explain to the children that he or she must leave in order to
play with other children. For instance, Ms. Amber might
say to her students, OK, it is time for me to go because I
promised Will and Jason I would help them with their
puzzle. This strategy effectively allows children to know
that the teacher is not an equal playmate, but an individual
in charge of the class and other children.

Teacher Talk
Teacher talk is a form of support that educators can use to
enhance peer interactions and play. Teacher talk refers to
specific help that teachers provide to children to assist
them to become better language learners (Stanton-Chapman and Hadden 2011, p. 18). Teacher talk can take five
different formats (Sharpe 2008). The first format is
recasting. Recasting is defined as providing implicit

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corrective feedback (Fukuya and Hill 2006). In the preschool classroom, a teacher may use a recast by changing a
childs word into a more appropriate word so the peer can
comprehend or follow the social interaction and continue
the play episode. The following example illustrates how
this intervention strategy can be used by preschool educators in the natural classroom.
DeFredra and Estabraq are playing with a doctors kit
in the dramatic play area of a preschool classroom. The
two girls are using the tools to examine a sick doll. Ms.
Williams is observing their play. Can you hand me the
beeper? asks Estabraq. What? replies DeFredra. Can
you hand me the beeper? Estabraq repeats. DeFredra
appears confused so Ms. Williams intervenes. Ms. Williams
picks up the stethoscope and says, stethoscope. Estabraq
repeats the word, stethoscope, and DeFredra takes the
stethoscope from Ms. Williamss hand and gives it to
Estabraq.
By observing the play of DeFredra and Estabraq, Ms.
Williams witnesses a communication breakdown. She
realizes that Estabraq does not know the word stethoscope
and uses the word, beeper, instead. When DeFredra does
not understand what Estabraq is asking of her, Ms. Williams steps in the play and facilitates the social interaction
by using a recast to provide the needed word for clarification purposes. The play interaction is able to continue as
planned.
The second format of teacher talk is repeating.
Repeating is when a teacher restates what a child has just
said (Stanton-Chapman and Hadden 2011). This technique
is especially helpful when a child with a language or
speech delay is included in the general education classroom
and is interacting with peers during play. Sometimes peers
do not understand a childs statement, request, or question.
If a teacher observes confusion in a peer after a child with a
language or speech delay has spoken, the teacher could
repeat what this child has said so the peer can better
comprehend the message. The following example illustrates repeating. Archie and Keon are in the manipulative
area playing with play dough. Archie has an articulation
disorder where he makes errors of substitution such as p
for f and b for z. Archie says to Keon, Look Keon,
I made pibba. Huh,?, answers Keon. Pibba, Archie
answers. Mr. Reed realizes that Keon doesnt understand
that Archie is saying pizza so he repeats Archies
statement to assist in the communication breakdown,
Archie said he made pizza, Keon. Repeating prevents or
ameliorates communication breakdowns and allows the
play episode to continue. Previous research has demonstrated that young children are less likely to ask a peer to
repeat an unintelligible message than adults (Bruce et al.
2010). If a teacher does not intervene at this time, it is
possible that the peers will exclude the child from

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continued play. By repeating the missed message, the

teacher may prevent possible rejection from the play group.
Expanding is the third format of teacher talk. Expanding
is defined as when a teacher rewords a childs incomplete
or short statement or utterance into a complete sentence
(Walker et al. 2009). For example, if two girls are playing
with baby dolls and one girl says crying, the teacher
could look at the peer playmate and expand the girls
utterance to her baby is crying. Expanding a childs
statement is typically done by adding adjectives or verbs to
the nouns the child is already producing. In peer-to-peer
interactions, the purpose of a teacher expanding a childs
utterance is to make sure the peer comprehends the target
childs message for the sake of the play episode continuing.
The fourth teacher talk factor is questioning. Questioning is defined as a teacher beginning a back-and-forth
interaction with children (Stanton-Chapman and Hadden
2011). This form of teacher talk is especially helpful
in situations when an educator is assisting a small group of
peers in starting a play episode. The following example
illustrates questioning.
Hans, Jennifer, and Logan are in the dramatic play area
which is set-up as a grocery store. Ms. Cindy is assisting
the children into their roles. Who would like to be the
cashier? asks Ms. Cindy. Me, answers Logan. OK.
Let me put this apron on you and you can stand by the cash
register waiting for your customer, says Ms. Cindy. Ms.
Cindy then asks, Who would like to be the customer? I
do, replies Jennifer. Would you like the shopping cart or
a basket for your shopping? asks Ms. Cindy. A basket,
says Jennifer. Here is your basket, states Ms. Cindy as
she hands the basket to Jennifer. That means you are the
grocery worker, Hans. What does a grocery worker do?
questions Ms. Cindy. Helps Jennifer, replies Hans. Yes,
the grocery worker helps the customer. The worker can
also help put food on the shelves or put food in a bag to
help the cashier. The worker has many important roles,
says Ms. Cindy.
In this example, Ms. Cindy uses the teacher talk format
of questioning to not only help the children to begin a play
episode, but to make sure all children understand their
assigned roles. Many times children do not understand the
roles that one can play within a dramatic play theme. This
is especially true of children who have limited experience
with a play theme, such as a florist shop. It is important for
teachers to check their students knowledge if the teacher believes they will have difficulty assuming the play
roles.
The final teacher talk strategy is prompting. Prompting
is when a teacher provides a specific cue to a child (e.g., I
think Marcus would like a turn) (Stanton-Chapman and
Hadden 2011). This form of teacher talk is extremely
important for social skills development in typically

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developing children and children with disabilities as previous research has shown that prompting children to
engage in social behaviors with peers increases social skills
development in both the target child and peer (Bovey and
Strain 2005). Once children consistently then independently use the learned social skills, teachers can reduce or
eliminate the amount of prompts given. Prompts can be
used to direct a childs attention to a peer (e.g., Lily is
talking to you) or providing children with ideas on how to
participate in a play activity before that play activity begins
(e.g., Pilar, who would you like to play in the manipulative area with you?). The following example illustrates
how prompting can be used in the early childhood classroom during play.
Abriana and Lakesha are playing at the water table. Abriana is pouring a cup of water into a two-cup container
while Lakesha is soaking a sponge with water. Mr. Mike is
monitoring the water play for safety purposes. Look, Lakesha says to Abriana. Abriana ignores Lakesha. Lakesha
repeats, Look! Abriana ignores Lakesha. Abriana, Mr.
Mike exclaims. What? answers Abriana. Lakesha is
talking to you, replies Mr. Mike. Abriana looks towards
Lakesha and says, What? Look what happens when I
push the sponge in the water, Lakesha states.
In this example, Mr. Mike enters and exits Abriana and
Lakeshas play rather quickly. After Lakesha has unsuccessfully requested Abriana to look at the sponge two
times, Mr. Mike enters the social interaction by prompting
Abriana to pay attention to Lakesha. Once Abrianas focus
is directed towards Lakesha, Mr. Mike is able to leave the
social interaction as the two girls are able to continue the
interaction without the teachers assistance.
All five teacher talk strategies can be used in inclusive
classrooms and will benefit typically developing children,
children at-risk, and children with disabilities. The end
result is an increase in social skill development across all
types of children including those from various racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic class backgrounds.

Observations to Select the Most Appropriate

Intervention Technique
For intervention techniques that target peer-to-peer interactions to be successful, it is critical that preschool teachers
observe children as they play. Direct observation allows
educators to learn more about the extent and quality of
their students play and the themes and toys that interest
them most. Data should also be gathered on preferred play
centers, playmate characteristics, and the absence or presence of adults in the play center. This knowledge gives
teachers direction for the guidance of play and the best
techniques to use with a given child.

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Conclusion
Play allows children to develop their creativity, verbal
skills, and peer relationships. Some children lack the skills
needed to successfully interact with their peers. Preschool
teachers are the key to orchestrating successful peer
interactions for all children within the early childhood
program including typical, inclusive, and at-risk classrooms. Their involvement requires careful planning and
preparation, creativity, reflection, and providing opportunities for peer interactions to happen. Teacher talk is
another form of support that educators can use to enhance
peer interactions and play. Teachers observe children in the
classroom environment and gather data on the environmental arrangement and the childrens interests and abilities. Based on the information gathered from these
observations, teachers select the most appropriate intervention technique that will best promote successful peerto-peer interactions.

Appendix
As previously mentioned, teachers must thoughtfully plan
when and how to scaffold target children during peer
interactions for maintenance purposes. The goal of this
Appendix is to demonstrate how a teacher can provide
support to preschoolers during center time using the model
outlined in Fig. 1. The model itself is embedded in the
Social-Emotional Cultural Context. In this example, the
assumption is that the teacher is aware of his or her possible biases regarding cultural expectations for interacting
with others, home language to use when interacting with
others, and appropriate ways children can play. The children also bring prior positive and negative social encounters to this play episode, a preferred pattern for interactions,
and temperament characteristics that may or may not
influence the current social interaction.
Luke and Brea are playing at the Lego table. Both are
actively engaged with the Legos. Luke built a small planelike structure and initiates a social interaction with Brea to
show her what he made. To begin the social interaction
(refer to Letter A in the model), Luke says, Brea, I made a
spaceship. Since Luke initiated the social interaction, a
teacher prompt is not needed.
Brea is busy building her own Lego structure, and
consequently, ignores Luke (refer to Letter B in the model).
Luke repeats his statement and is again ignored by Brea.
The teacher witnesses this failed interaction and uses a
repeat teacher talk strategy to Brea in an attempt to salvage the social communication breakdown. The teacher
says to Brea, Brea, Luke said he built a spaceship. Brea
then looks at Lukes spaceship and says, I want to make

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106

one too. In this example, if the teacher did not provide

support, Luke would have experienced a social communication breakdown (refer to Letter E in the model) as no
interaction with Brea would have taken place. The teachers support helped Luke receive a response to his
initiation.
However, Luke does not respond to Breas statement
(refer to Letter C in the model). When Luke does not
respond to Brea, the teacher uses a repeat teacher talk
strategy to Luke to again salvage the social communication
breakdown. The teacher says to Luke, Brea would like to
make one too. Luke then answers, You need to do this.
He then shows Brea how to make a spaceship that is
similar to his plane-like structure. The children then work
together to build a spaceship for Brea (refer to Letter D in
the model). At this point, the social interaction is maintained and the children do not need teacher support in
order to play together.
This example illustrates how teachers can support childrens play in a manner that does not stifle their play. In all
instances of support, the teacher was able to enter and exit
the childrens play rather quickly while ensuring that the
social interaction between the children was maintained.
Without teacher support, the likelihood of Luke and Brea
playing together was relatively small since Luke already
experienced a social communication breakdown when Brea
ignored his initiation to interact.

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