TRANSFORMER

INTRODUCTION
A transformer is an electrical device that
transfers electrical energy between two or
more circuits through electromagnetic
induction. Electromagnetic induction produces
an electromotive force within a conductor
which is exposed to time varying magnetic
fields. Transformers are used to increase or
decrease the alternating voltages in electric
power applications.
A varying current in the transformer's primary
winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer core and a varying field impinging
on the transformer's secondary winding. This
varying magnetic field at the secondary
winding induces a varying electromotive
force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary
winding due to electromagnetic induction.
Making use of Faraday's Law (discovered in
1831) in conjunction with high magnetic

permeability core properties, transformers can

be designed to efficiently change AC voltages
from one voltage level to another within power
networks.

CONSTRUCTION
Basically a transformer consists of two
inductive windings and a laminated steel core.
The coils are insulated from each other as well
as from the steel core. A transformer may also
consist of a container for winding and core
assembly (called as tank), suitable bushings to
take our the terminals, oil conservator to
provide oil in the transformer tank for cooling
purposes etc. The figure at left illustrates the
basic construction of a transformer.

In all types of transformers, core is constructed

by assembling (stacking) laminated sheets of
steel, with minimum air-gap between them (to
achieve continuous magnetic path). The steel
used is having high silicon content and
sometimes heat treated, to provide high
permeability and low hysteresis loss. Laminated
sheets of steel are used to reduce eddy current
loss. The sheets are cut in the shape as E,I and L.
To avoid high reluctance at joints, laminations
are stacked by alternating the sides of joint. That
is, if joints of first sheet assembly are at front
face, the joints of following assemble are kept at
back face.

WORKING

The basic principle behind working of a

transformer is the phenomenon of mutual
induction between two windings linked by
common magnetic flux. The figure at right
shows the simplest form of a transformer.
Basically a transformer consists of two
inductive coils; primary winding and secondary
winding. The coils are electrically separated
but magnetically linked to each other. When,
primary winding is connected to a source of
alternating voltage, alternating magnetic flux
is produced around the winding. The core
provides magnetic path for the flux, to get
linked with the secondary winding. Most of the
flux gets linked with the secondary winding
which is called as 'useful flux' or main 'flux',
and the flux which does not get linked with
secondary winding is called as 'leakage flux'.
As the flux produced is alternating (the
direction of it is continuously changing), EMF
gets induced in the secondary winding
according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. This emf is called 'mutually induced
emf', and the frequency of mutually induced
emf is same as that of supplied emf. If the
secondary winding is closed circuit, then

mutually induced current flows through it, and

hence the electrical energy is transferred from
one circuit (primary) to another circuit
(secondary).
Ideal transformer equations (eq.)
By Faraday's law of induction:

VS= -NS d/dt ..(1)

VP= -NP d/dt

(2)

Combining ratio of (1) & (2)

Turns ratio

VP /VS = -NP /-NS =a (3)

Where
for step-down transformers, a > 1
for step-up transformers, a < 1
By law of conservation of energy, apparent, real and reactive power are each
conserved in the input and output

S = IPVP=ISVS ..(4)
Combining (3) & (4) with this endnote yields the ideal transformer identity

VP / VS= IS / IP = NS / NP = (LP / LS).. (5)

By Ohm's law and ideal transformer identity

ZL = VS / IS. (6)
Apparent load impedance Z'L (ZL referred to the primary)

ZL = VP / VS = aVS / ( IS /a ) = a2VS/IS = a2ZL..

(7)

Energy losses
Real transformer energy losses are dominated
by winding resistance joule and core losses.
Transformers' efficiency tends to improve with
increasing transformer capacity. The efficiency
of typical distribution transformers is between
about 98 and 99 percent. Hysteresis and eddy
current losses are constant at all load levels
and dominate overwhelmingly without load,
while variable winding joule losses dominating
increasingly as load increases.
Winding joule losses

Current flowing through a winding's conductor

causes joule heating. As frequency increases,
skin effect and proximity effect causes the
winding's resistance and, hence, losses to
increase.
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a
small amount of energy is lost due
to hysteresis within the core. According to
Steinmetz's formula, the heat energy due to
hysteresis is given by
Wh 1.6max,
and, hysteresis loss is thus given by
Ph Wnf f1.6max
where, f is the frequency, is the hysteresis
coefficient and max is the maximum flux
density, the empirical exponent of which varies
from about 1.4 to 1.8 but is often given as 1.6
for iron.
Eddy current losses
Ferromagnetic materials are also
good conductors and a core made from such a
material also constitutes a single shortcircuited turn throughout its entire
length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within

the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are

responsible for resistive heating of the core
material. The eddy current loss is a complex
function of the square of supply frequency and
inverse square of the material thickness.
Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless,
since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is
returned to the supply with the next half-cycle.
However, any leakage flux that intercepts
nearby conductive materials such as the
transformer's support structure will give rise to
eddy currents and be converted to heat.

APPLICATIONS
Transformers are used to increase (or step-up)
voltage before transmitting electrical energy

over long distances through wires. Wires

have resistance which loses energy through joule
heating at a rate corresponding to square of the
current. By transforming power to a higher
voltage transformers enable economical
transmission of power and distribution.
Consequently, transformers have shaped
the electricity supply industry, permitting
generation to be located remotely from points
of demand. All but a tiny fraction of the world's
electrical power has passed through a series of
transformers by the time it reaches the
consumer.
Since the high voltages carried in the wires are
significantly greater than what is needed inhome, transformers are also used extensively
in electronic products to decrease (or stepdown) the supply voltage to a level suitable for
the low voltage circuits they contain.
The transformer also electrically isolates the
end user from contact with the supply voltage.
Signal and audio transformers are used to
couple stages of amplifiers and to match
devices such as microphones and record
players to the input of amplifiers. Audio

transformers allowed telephone circuits to

carry on a two-way conversation over a single
pair of wires. A balun transformer converts a
signal that is referenced to ground to a signal
that has balanced voltages to ground, such as
between external cables and internal circuits.
Transformers made to medical grade standards
isolate the users from the direct current. These
are found commonly used in conjunction with
hospital beds, dentist chairs, and other medical
lab equipment.

Certificate
This is to certify that Sonali Mendhe
of 12thA of Army Public School Agra
Cantt. has completed the Project in
session 2016-17 under supervision
and guidance Of Mr. Vijay Physics
teacher.

Teachers
Signature

Acknowledgement
I am greatly thankful for the
Cooperation and help form school
Authorities, our Physics teacher
Mr. Vijay and our lab assistant Mr.
I am also thankful to my friends
who were with me in this project
and my parents who always be
with me. Without there help and
proper guidance my investigatory
project might not have
completed.

2016-17
Physics Project:- Transformers
Submitted by:
to:
Sonali Mendhe
12th A

submitted
Mr. Vijay

Contents
Introduction
Construction
Working
Energy losses
Applications