CHAPTER 16

Statistical Quality Control

TEACHING SUGGESTIONS
Teaching Suggestion 16.1: Japans change in status since WWII.
Remind students that Japan began a few decades ago with perhaps the worlds worst quality and
that Made in Japan was synonymous with shoddy products just 45 years ago.
Teaching Suggestion 16.2: Four interesting quotes from QC expert Philip Crosby.
1. The cost of quality is the expense of doing things wrong.
2. There is absolutely no reason for having errors or defects in any product or service.
3. If quality isnt ingrained in the organization, it will never happen.
4. It is much less expensive to prevent errors than to rework, scrap, or service them.
Teaching Suggestion 16.3: Natural vs. assignable variations.
Random chance natural
Specific cause assignable
Teaching Suggestion 16.4: Mean and range charts.
Mean and range charts tell us what we need to know about the process. Each plays a necessary role.

ALTERNATIVE EXAMPLES
Alternative Example 16.1: Twenty-five engine mountings are sampled each day and found to
have an average width of 2 inches, with a standard deviation of 0.1 inch. To set control limits that
include 99.7% of sample means (Z = 3),
0.1
2 0.06
25

UCL x x Z x 2 3
= 2.06 inches

0.1
2 0.06
25

LCL x x Z x 2 3
= 1.94 inches

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

16-1

Alternative Example 16.2: Several samples of size n = 8 have been taken from todays
production of fencing poles. The average of the sample means is 3 yards in length and the average
sample range was 0.015 yard. We find the 99.7% x-bar chart control limits for the process below.
R 0.015 yard

x 3 yards

A2 = 0.373 from Table 16.2

UCL x x A2 R 3 0.373 0.015 3.006 yards
LCL x x A2 R 3 0.373 0.015 2.994 yards
Alternative Example 17.3: The average range of a process is 10 pounds. The sample size is 10.
Using Table 16.2, D4 = 1.777, D3 = 0.223. The 99.7% R-chart control limits are
UCL R D4 R 1.777 10 17.77 pounds
LCL R D4 R 0.223 10 2.23 pounds
Alternative Example 16.4: Based on samples of 20 IRS auditors, each observed handling 100
files, we find that the total number of mistakes made in handling files is 220. We set 95.45% pchart limits on this process below:
p

total no. mistakes

220

0.11
total no. files
100 20

0.11 1 0.11
100

0.03

100 is the size of each sample

UCL p p Z p 0.11 2 0.03 0.17

LCL p p Z p 0.11 2 0.03 0.05

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

16-2

AlternativeExample16.5:TherehavebeencomplaintsthatthesportspageoftheDubuque
Registerhaslotsoftypos.Thelastsixdayshavebeenexaminedcarefully,andthenumberof
typos/pagerecordedbelow.Istheprocessincontrol,usingZ=2?
Day
Number of Typos
Mon.
2
Tues.
1
Wed.
5
Thurs.
3
Fri.
4
Sat.
0
c 15 / 6 2.5

The c-chart control limits are

UCL c c 2 c 2.5 2 1.58 5.66

LCL c c 2 c 2.5 2 1.58 0.66 or 0
The process is in control.

SOLUTIONS TO DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

16-1. The central limit theorem allows us to use the normal curve regardless of the distribution of
the population we are trying to control.
16-2. The ultimate goal of x - and R-charts is to ascertain, by a sampling procedure, that the
process is kept within specified upper and lower bounds. The combination of x and R-charts
allows one to determine that both the average or customary value and the extreme deviations are
within the limits.
16-3. A control chart for variables is used when the item of concern is measured in continuous
units such as the length or weight of an item. A control chart for attributes is used when the
sampled items are placed into categories such as defective or nondefective. The number or
proportion of items in each category is the relevant measure.
16-4. A p-chart measures the proportion of defective items in a sample. The binomial distribution
is the appropriate distribution with p-charts, and the normal distribution is often used to
approximate the binomial distribution. A c-chart is used to control the number of defects per unit
of output. The Poisson distribution is the appropriate distribution with c-charts, and the normal
distribution is often used to approximate this.
16-5. Some patterns that would indicate a process is out of control are (1) one or more items out
of the control limits, (2) two or more items near the control limits, (3) a run of 5 consecutive
items below (or above) the central line, (4) trends in either direction for 5 or more items, and (5)
extremely erratic behavior.
16-6. A process might become out of control due to such factors as tool wear; a change in raw
materials; a change in working environment (temperature or humidity, for example); tired or
poorly trained labor; or an employee using a different (and potentially better) method.
16-7. Any time that one samples less than the entire lot of the product, there is the possibility of

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

16-3

making an error, which is the acceptance of the lot even though the process is actually out of
control. The sample means may be within the limits due to random chance.
16-8. n = 6
From Table 16.2, A2 = 0.483, D4 = 2.004, D3 = 0
UCL x X A2 R
= 46 + 0.483 2
= 46.966
LCL x X A2 R
= 46 0.483 2
= 45.034
UCL R D4 R
= 2.004 2
= 4.008
LCL R D3 R
=02
=0
16-9. n = 10
From Table 16.2, A2 = 0.308, D4 = 1.777, D3 = 0.223
UCL x X A2 R
= 60 + 0.308 3
= 60.924
LCL x X A2 R
= 60 0.308 3
= 59.076
UCL R D4 R
= 1.777 3
= 5.331
LCL R D3 R
= 0.223 3
= 0.669
16-10. n = 8
From Table 16.2, A2 = 0.373, D4 = 1.864, D3 = 0.136

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

16-4

UCL x X A2 R
= 17 + 0.373 0.5
= 17.187
LCL x X A2 R
= 17 0.373 0.5
= 16.814
UCL R D4 R
= 1.864 0.5
= 0.933
LCL R D3 R
= 0.136 0.5
= 0.068
16-11. n = 4
From Table 16.2, A2 = 0.729, D4 = 2.282, D3 = 0.0
UCL x X A2 R
= 10.04 + 0.729 0.52
= 10.42
LCL x X A2 R
= 10.04 0.729 0.52
= 9.66
UCL R D4 R
= 2.282 0.52
= 1.187
LCL R D3 R
= 0 0.52
= 0.0

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

16-5

The smallest sample mean is 9.9, the largest 10.2. Both are well within the control limits.
Similarly, the largest sample range is 0.6, also well within the control limits. Hence, we can
conclude that the process is currently within control.
One step the QC department might take would be to increase the sample size to provide a
clearer indication as to both control limits and whether or not the process is in control.
Table for Problem 16-11
Time

Box 1

Box 2

Box 3

Box 4

Average

Range

9 A. M.

9.8

10.4

9.9

10.3

10.10

0.60

10 A.M.

10.1

10.2

9.9

9.8

10.00

0.40

11 A.M.

9.9

10.5

10.3

10.1

10.20

0.60

12 P.M.

9.7

9.8

10.3

10.2

10.00

0.60

1 P.M.

9.7

10.1

9.9

9.9

9.90

0.40

Average

10.04

0.52

1612.
Hour
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

X
3.25
3.10
3.22
3.39
3.07
2.86
3.05
2.65

R
0.71
1.18
1.43
1.26
1.17
0.32
0.53
1.13

Hour
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

X
3.02
2.85
2.83
2.97
3.11
2.83
3.12
2.84

R
0.71
1.33
1.17
0.40
0.85
1.31
1.06
0.50

Hour
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

X
2.86
2.74
3.41
2.89
2.65
3.28
2.94
2.64

R
1.43
1.29
1.61
1.09
1.08
0.46
1.58
0.97

Average length = x = 2.982

Average range = R = 1.02375
n=4

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

16-6

From Table 16.2, A2 = 0.729, D4 = 2.282, D3 = 0.0

UCL x X A2 R
= 2.982 + 0.729 1.024
= 3.728
LCL x X A2 R
= 2.982 0.729 1.024
= 2.236
UCL R D4 R
= 2.282 1.024
= 2.336
LCL R D3 R
= 0 1.024
= 0.0
The smallest sample mean is 2.64, the largest 3.41. Both are well within the control limits.
Similarly, the largest sample range is 1.61, also well within the control limits. Hence, we can
conclude that the process is currently within control.
16-13. UCL p p 3

p 1 p
n

LCL p p 3

p 1 p
n

n = 200
Percent
Defective
p

1-p

0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10

0.99
0.98
0.97
0.96
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.90

p (1 p ) / n
0.0070
0.0099
0.0121
0.0139
0.0154
0.0168
0.0180
0.0192
0.0202
0.0212

LCLp

UCLp

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0038
0.0096
0.0159
0.0225
0.0293
0.0364

0.0311
0.0497
0.0662
0.0816
0.0962
0.1104
0.1241
0.1375
0.1507
0.1636

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

16-7

16-14.
Sample

Sample

Sample

Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Range
1.10
1.31
0.91
1.10
1.21
0.82
0.86
1.11
1.12
0.99
0.86
1.20

Mean
46
45
46
47
48
47
50
49
51
52
50
52

R 1.049
x 48.583
n = 12

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

16-8

From Table 16.2:

A2 = 0.226, D4 = 1.716, D3 = 0.284
LCL x x A2 R
= 48.583 0.266 1.049
= 48.304
UCL x x A2 R
= 48.583 + 0.266 1.049
= 48.86
LCL R D3 R
= 0.284 1.049
= 0.298
UCL R D4 R
= 1.716 1.049
= 1.800
The smallest sample range is 0.82, the largest 1.31. Both are well within the control limits.
The smallest average is 45, the largest 52. Both are outside the proper control limits.
Therefore, while the sample ranges are within limits, all but one sample mean are outside
limits, and apparently increasing. Immediate action is needed to correct the problem and get
the sample averages within the control limits.
16-15. See the table.
Table for Problem 16-15
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

X
63.5
63.6
63.7
63.9
63.4
63.0
63.2
63.3
63.7

R
2.0
1.0
1.7
0.9
1.2
1.6
1.8
1.3
1.6

Sample
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

X
63.5
63.3
63.2
63.6
63.3
63.4
63.4
63.5
63.6

R
1.3
1.8
1.0
1.8
1.5
1.7
1.4
1.1
1.8

Sample
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

X
63.8
63.5
63.9
63.2
63.3
64.0
63.4

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

R
1.3
1.6
1.0
1.8
1.7
2.0
1.5

16-9

x 63.488 <ARTFILE="17_15eq01.eps"W="41.895pt"H="12pt"XS="100%"YS="100%"/>
R 1.496
n=4
From Table 16.2, A2 = 0.729, D4 = 2.282, D3 = 0.
UCL x X A2 R
= 63.488 + 0.729 1.496
= 64.6
LCL x X A2 R
= 63.488 0.729 1.496
= 62.4
UCL R D4 R
= 2.282 1.496
= 3.414
LCL R D3 R
= 0 1.496
=0
16-16. a. We find x 1011.8 and R 96.3 . Then using Table 16.2 we find
b. UCL x X A2 R 1011.8 0.577 96.3 1067.37
LCL x X A2 R 1011.8 0.577 96.3 956.23
c. The process appears to be out of control. There are two sample means less than 956.23
and there are three sample means greater than 1067.37.
16-17. We get D3 and D4 from Table 16.2. The limits are
UCL R D4 R 2.114 96.3 203.58
LCL R D3 R 0 96.3 0 The sample ranges are in control
16-18. Develop upper and lower control limits for a c-chart, we compute
c 20 / 20 1
LCL c 3 c 1 3 1 2 ; since this cant be negative, we let LCL = 0
UCL c 3 c 1 3 1 4 The process is in control.

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

16-10

16-19. p 0.1
p 1 p
0.1 0.9
0.1 3
n
10
0.1 3 0.0949 0.1 0.285 0.385

UCL p p 3

p 1 p
0.1 0.9
0.1 3
n
10
0.1 3 0.0949 0.1 0.285 0.185

LCL p p 3

we let this be 0 since the proportion cannot be negative.

SOLUTIONS TO INTERNET HOMEWORK PROBLEMS

16-20. UCL p p 3

p 1 p
n

LCL p p 3

p 1 p
n

UCL p 0.011 3

0.011 0.989
1000

= 0.0209
LCL p 0.011 3

0.011 0.989
1000

= 0.0011
16-21. UCL p p 3

p 1 p
n

LCL p p 3

p 1 p
n

UCL p 0.025 3

0.025 0.975
200

= 0.0581
LCL p 0.025 3

0.025 0.975
200

= 0.0081 or 0

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

16-11

16-22.
Number
Defective
6
5
6
4
3
4
5

Day
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
p

Day
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Number
Defective
3
6
3
7
5
4
3

Day
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

Number
Defective
4
5
6
5
4
3
7

0.0467

p 1 p
0.0467 0.9533

0.0211
n
100

For a 3 p-chart, the upper control level is given by

UCL p 3 0.0467 3 0.0211 0.11
LCL = 0
The process is in control.
16-23. Average blemishes/table

2000
20
100

Using a normal approximation to the Poisson distribution:

c 20
c 20 4.472
UCL c c 3 c
= 20 + 3 4.472
= 33.4 or 33 blemishes
LCL c c 3 c
= 20 3 4.472
= 6.6 or 7 blemishes
Yes; 42 blemishes is considerably above the upper control limit.

Copyright 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

16-12