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83

MEASUREMENTS IN WELLS
relation is mainly determined by the fluctuations of
the water levels; the fluctuations are caused by
natural factors which have not changed.
The vertical shift of the line indicates the drop
ot the water level in well 1 relative to the water
level in well 2; the time when the shifting began
indicates the time when the pumping station was
started. The diagram therefore discloses valuable
information.
The size and extent of the
groundwater level in the area can
by drawing some more diagrams of
in fig. 15.11, for wells nearby and at
from the pumping station.

decline of the
be determined
the type shown
larger distances

The method described above, which is called mass

plotting, has long been known, but it is still considered
an effective and yet simple method of determining
changes in the groundwater level.
References
Beltman, J. H., The archives for. groundwater levels
in the Netherlands, Publication nr. 33 of the Int.
Ass. of Sc. Hydrology ( General Assembly of
Brussels, 1951 ) 1952, pp 294-298.
Jacobs,' M.,and S. Schmorak, Salt water encroachment
in the Coastal Plain of Israel, Publ. nr. 52, Intern.
Ass. of Sc. Hydrology ( General Assembly
Helsinki, 1960) 1961, pp 408-423.

Chapter

1\32 6

16

GROUNDWATER MODELS1
Groundwater models or analogues are, instruments for the study or solution of groundwater flow
problems by imitation of the flow on a certain scale
( Todd, pp 307-318 ).
There are a number of reasons why model
experiments are carried out.
1.
The fiow problem may be so complicated
that it cannot be solved by means of
the usual methods ( formulas, graphical
methods, numerical methods ). The problem is then imitated in a model and the
data wanted are obtained by measurements
and readings on the model.
2.
If a great number of slightly differing
variants of a problem have to be studied
( e.g.
different
locations
and
different
spacings of wells in a given area ), the
information wanted can be easily found
by means of a model adaptable to the
different variants of the problem by means
of a few simple modifications. Solving the
problem by means of formulas, on the
other hand, would require a repetition of
nearly all the calculations for each variant.
3.
Model
studies
are
of
importance
in
fundamental research, e.g. for checking or
verifying new formulas, for studying in
detail certain aspects of flow, for studying
the fundamental laws of flow, etc.
4.
The use of models for the purpose of
instruction is evident.
Models have shown a great development in
recent years. This does not only apply to groundwater models but it is true in many fields of
technique: heat conduction,
accoustic problems,
strength problems, etc. At the same time calculating machines have shown a development, more or
1 By G. Santing.

less. parallel with the models. This has resulted in

a situation which makes it sometimes difficult to say
whether an instrument is a model or a calculating
machine. It is, therefore, necessary to say a few
words about the principles of both types of instrurnents.
Principle of models
When discussing the principle of models, only
groundwater models will be dealt with.
The flow of water through the porous soil or, more
generally expressed, the Bow of a viscous liquid through
a porous medium, is a physical phenomenon, one of
the innumerable physical phenomena in nature. It
satisfies a certain physical law, like all other phenomena do. . This law is Darcy's law, which can be
expressed by
dh
v--K

............

(/6.1 )

Among the other physical phenomena thel,8 are

quite a few which obey a law that is analogous to
Darcy's law. This is true:e.g. for the Bow of electricity
through an electrical conductor. The law in question
is Ohm's law, expressed by
dE
I=-9ds
where
I

............(16.2)

= electrical current per unit cross-secti9nal

areas;
= specific conductivity of the conductor;

E - voltage;
dE.
voltage gradient in the direction of the
ds
current.
The equations ( 16.1 ) and (16.2) are analogous
and both satisfy the equation of Laplace. This analogy

84
makes it possible to imitate the phenomenon of the
flow of a viscous liquid through a porous medium.byi the
flow of an electrical current through a conductor or
vice versa. The voltage E then represents.:the:
hydraulic head h of the liquid, the voltage gradient
dE
dh
ds represents the hydraulic gradient-,
ds .the
' electrical
conductivity 0- represents the hydraulic conductivity K
and the electrical current I represents the specific discharge. v. Moreover there exists a correspondence
between the flow lines of the electrical, current and the
flow lines of the liquid, and between lines of equal
voltage and equipotential lines.of the flow of the liquid.
The model based on this analogy is called an electrical model. A simple example, viz. a model to study
the seepage under a dam, is shown in fig. 16.1. .
Also the phenomenon of heat conduction through
a thermal conductor satisfies a law thit is' analogous .
to Darcy's law, viz. Fourrier's law
dt
q=,-Ads ............ ,.('16.3 )
where
q = heat flow per unit area;,
t = temperature of the conductor;
X = specific thermal conductivity.
The analogy. with Darcy'slaw -is obvious. The
model based on this analogy is called a thermal
analogue or a heat-flow model.
h1
h2
//028A
..66*.:./.:'......./
1 :,...:'..
... 7.4
102E . . : ...B/
.. ... .........-A-'...'..
..../.- ..'......:,
21.1....i ...:..,1.:-:......fi i 3. 5..............t...Aqulili.irl*,
-YV *AAAA,ARAAAAXA A/yy995NS68525RS5000

fi&:

PROTOTYPE
lillII
Electrodes
Et

-0-3 .2

LECTURES BY CONSULTANTS
Another phenomenon satisfying a .law that is
analogous to Darcy's law is the: laminar #ow of. a
viscous Uquid through a narrbw channel between
parallel plates. The law in question is Poiseuille's law,
dh
v- -CdS ........... (16.4)
where C is a constant. determined by the width of the
channel and the viscosity of the liquid.
The models based on this analogy are called
parallel-plates models or Hele-Shaw viscous-fluid channels :(Todd.1955, Santing 1958 ).
, Still. another phenomenon in, this list is the transverse defiection of a thin membrane .stretched in. a
rigid frame in such a way that it has a uniform tension.
The weight of the membrane must be so small as to
be negligible.
If such a membrane is defiected by a load (fig.
16.2), the tension T will alway be tangent to the
inembrane surface.
From the figure it is obvious that the quotient of
the components of the tension satisfies -the equation
Tz
dz
or
Tx -dx
dz
Tz-T*dx
If the deflection of the membrane is small, the
component Tx of the tension may be considered as
constant. Hence
dz
Tz -Cdx .............. (16.5)
This expression is analogous to the Darcy
equation. There exists a correspondence between the
slope of the membrane dz
32.and the hydraulic gradient
dh
dx . The 'surface of the membrane represents the
phreatic or piezometric surface, the deflection represents the drawdown. - The models: based on this principle are called membrane analogues.
From the foregoing it is clear that groundwater
flow can be studied by means of:
a. sand models, etc. based on Darcy's law (Hall,
1955; Grover and Kirkham, 1961 );
=X

Electrical cohductor
MODEL
Fig. 16.1 ELECTRICAL MODEL TO STUDY SEEPAGE
UNDER A DAM

C
W
Z

T ---El
Tz /,1'--042
Tx

Fig. 16.2 DEFLECTION OF A MEMBRANE

GROUNDWATER MODELS
b.

viscous-fluid channels or Hele-Shaw models,

based on Poiseuille's law (Todd,-t 1955i
Santing, 1958 );
c.
electrical models, based on Ohm's law
( Karplus, 1958 );
d.
heat-flow models or thermal analogues, based
on Fourrier's law;
e.
membrane analogues, based on Hooke's law
(Hansen, 1952).
The list is not exhaustive; only the most
frequently used types of models have been, mentioned. EFurther,
combinations
of
the
different
types are sometimes used.
This discussion of the principle of models
should eAd with .the following remark. '
A model is never an exact reproduction of the
prototype on a certain scale; a groundwater model
never imitates all aspects of the flow.
This should not be considered as a serious
disadvantage. , Only those
aspects have to be
imitated' in the model, that are of importance for the
solution of our problem. Many aspects of groundwater flow, e.g. capillary phenomena, are of no interest at, all; they do not affect the problem.'' It is
therefore not a disadvantage that these phenomena
are not imitated in most of the models. One might
even say that it is rather an advantage, because thE
smaller the number of aspects of the flow'. to, be
imitated in the model, the simpler the model will be.
Models and calculating machines
A model is a particular device belonging to a
group of instruments called analogues. An analogue
is defined as an instrument in which continuous
variable physical quantities behave analogous''to the
variables of the problem studied by means of the
instrument.
The physical quantities may be temperature,
stress, velocity etc. They have to be quantities that
vary. in a continuous or gradual way, that is to say:
not by shocks or pulses.
If the problem' studied by the analogue is a
physical problem with physical variables, the instrument is called a model (or analogue-model or
simulator).
The instrument can also be used as a computor;
then its the variable physical quantities behave ( as
far as their magnitude is concerned ) analogously to
tlie variables of the mathematical equation to be
solved by means of the instrument. The' instrument
is then called an analogue-computer. A simple
example is the slide-rule. The more complicated
analogue-computers are often electronic.
In contrast with the analogues, based on con,
tinuous variable quantities, here exists another group
of instruments based on the use of discrete quantities, figures, pulses. These instruments, the digital
compute-rs, are the- calculating niachines proper.
Thbir ' functioning is based on simple drithmetic

85
operations such . as adding' and abstracting. The
machines, therefore, are of importance for problems
that have to be solved by means of arithmetic operations, e.g. problems in which a great number of
numerical data. have to be worked out, statistical
problems, book-keeping problems,. etc. This does
not mean that groundwater flow, problems cannot. be
solved by means of . a digital ,computer; certainly i
these instruments can, in principle, .be used : also
for this purpose. In that case however, the groundwater problem in question has first to be analysed
by means of. certain numerical methods in order to
transform the physical data of the problem into
numerical data that can be put into the instrument.
This analysis is' a work that in most cases will. have
to be done by a specialist.
Another disadvantage of the digital computer
with respect to . its', use for the solution' of physical
probiems''is.thatthe operation' carried out by it has
no direct relation with the actual, process in nature;
it is an arithmetical operation ihat does not, correspond with the process taking place in the prototype. ,.In.,an analogue,.: on .the other hand, ,every
stage and every step have 6 direct relation with a
stage in the physical phenomenon. During the
model experiment and by means of it we get an
insight into the course of the process taking : place
in nature. During the experiment in a model we
may change some of the boundary conditions, if
necessary. This is not possible with a digital
computer.
In some cases it is of advantage to combine
models with computers or: to provide a model with
certain active parts that can carry out certain computations during the test. ' Th.e active parts make
use of the results of the model, test 'itself. -The results . of the computations are then used to adjust
or readjust certain conditions in the model. Such a
model will be useful in cases in which there, is a
mutual influencing of a boundary condition and the
groundwater flow. An example is the movement of
an interface' between salt and fresh groundwater. The
boundary 'conditions and the flow pattern affect the
movement of the interface while on: the other hand
the position of the interface ( a boundary condition!)
affects the flow pattern.
Adaptation of the model' to different groundwater
flow problems
A model-analogue is never a universal instrument by means of which all kinds of problems can
be solved. A model will , always be designed for or
has. to be adapted . to a particular problem.
In the present paragraph, the adaptation of the
model to different kinds of problem will be discussed.
This discussion, however, will be confined to one
type of . model only. The reason is thatt model
technique is nearly a science in itself; a discussion
of all types of models would lie far outside' the

86
LECTURES BY CONSULTANTS
scope of this chapter. However, the same principles
Area
i
m
i
t
ated
in the model
as discussed in the following lines are generally used PROTOTYPE:
L
in the design of other types of models.
The model selected for the discussion is the
viscous-fluid channel mentioned before. It consists
in principle of a narrow channel between two parallel
plates. The model is based on the analogy between
=S.t...
Darcy's law and Poiseuille's law. The latter governs
Impermeable base 0<<29.
B
the flow of a viscous liquid through the channel
J
and is expressed by
MODEL:
1
b2 dh
v = - -12 v -ds ...... (16.6)
Vertical
Reservoir
where
.Vs 254ction
Vav = the average velocity of the liquid in the
'llIllilllfl1-1TTI1-1-1--r,channel;
Front view
g = the acceleration of gravity;
Reservoir
b = the width of the channel;
v = the kinematic viscosity of the liquid;
Horizontal section
dh = the hydraulic gradient.
Fig. 16.3 VISCOUS FLUID CHANNEL FOR THE
ds
STUDY
OF
TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF
PHREATIC GROUNDWATER
For a given model of width b and a given liquid
of viscosity v at a given temperature the product
At the boundaries A and B of the investigated
1
bz
section, certain boundary conditions will have to be
12 g-v
satisfied. . E.g. the .groundwater levels at these bounis a constant. Hence
daries may show seasonal fluctuations. These
dh
boundary conditions also have to be imitated in the
Vav - -Cmodel. For that purpose two boundary reservoirs
ds
It is evident to call C the permeability coefficient have been connected to the channel. The level of
of the channel, Km, the index m denoting model. the model fluid in these reservoirs must simulate these
variable boundary conditions. This condition can be
Hence
satisfied e.g. by providing the reservoirs with vertically
1
be
adjustable overflows.
m =12 g -7Apart from the conditions at the two vertical
(16.6) can then be written as
boundaries,
generally many other conditions have to
dhm
be imitated; recharge of the groundwater by rainfall;
Vm --Km.'-.'(16.7)
dsm
groundwater abstraction; local clay layers; anisotropy
the water-bearing formation; fresh and salt groundThe application of the model can best be shown ofwater,
etc., . etc.
by means of a few examples.
How some of these conditions can be realized
The first one is a case of two-dimensional flow
in the model is shown in fig. 16.4.
of phreatic groundwater, as shown in fig. 16.3.
In this example it is assumed that the flow in
Rainfall can be imitated by means of a sprinkler
the area between the verticals A and B will have to mounted above the channel. Groundwater withbe studied. Therefore, a section of the aquifer be- drawal can be simulated by extracting a certain
tween these verticals has to be imitated by the model. amount of fluid.
The narrow vertical channel imitates the permeable
aquifer, the fluid in the channel represents the groundSprinkler
water and the surface of the model fluid represents
l 64 $# 411141114:441114
0
the phreatic surface of the groundwater. It has been
said already that the channel has a certain permea1|Vertical
bility coefficient. It is clear that the channel also has :4
] section
a storage capacity. Therefore, the two hydraulic
0 Clay layer
properties of an aquifer with phreatic groundwater,
eitak"g,adigh
viz. the permeability and the storage capacity, are
adequately imitated in the model.
11 N
Front view
Since the flow in the channel is two-dimensional,
FLUID CHANNEL IMITATING
it is clear that only two-dimensional flow problems Fig. 16.4 VISCOUS
RAINFALL, GROUNDWATER ABSTRACcan be studied in this type of model.
TION AND A LOCAL CLAY LENSE

Abstractron

GROUNDWATER MODELS
Since the permeability of the soil is imitated in
the model by the permeability of the channel,
1
b2
Km - -
12 v
it is clear that differences in permeability of the soil
can be simulated by differences in the permeability
of the channel. The latter can be obtained by
varying the width b of the channel. A clay layer,
therefore, is represented by a narrower part of the
channel.
Anisotropy means that the permeability coefficient
of the soil is not the same in all directions; e.g.
K == Kz. The model channel, however, is isotropic.
Yet anisotropy of the soil can be imitated by constructing a distorted model, i.e. using different scales
for the horizontal and the vertical dimensions of the
model (Bear, 1960).
When salt-water - fresh-water relationships have
to be studied in the model two model fluids of
different density are used (Santing, 1951 ).
A second example of the application of the viscousfluid channel is a model for studying the flow through
an aquifer of a certain areal extent. The model is
then put in a horizontal position (fig. 16.5). The
transmissibility of the space between the two model
plates is then given by Km bm, wherein bm stands for
the distance between the plates.
This model has no storage capacity; so only
steady-state problems can be studied by it. However,
storage can be easily introduced by providing the
model with a great number of small reservoirs on top
of the upper plate (fig. 16.5) (Santing, 1958). The
levels of the .fluid in these storage reservoirs indicate
at the same time the phreatic or piezometric surface.
The horizontal model can also be made suitable
for the imitation of leaky aquifers. For that purpose
the upper plate has to be perforated in order to represent a semi-permeable layer (fig. 16.6).
Well
---1 I.-'_-=- . .11.- . . , . . .-- r-

87
Perforated upper plate
1-1 Constant
- .-level-..."__L_.1-1Boundary
1 reservoir
L| bstraction
Fig. 16.6 VISCOUS FLUID CHANNEL IMITATING A
LEAKY AQUIFER
On top of the model a reservoir with a constant
fluid level represents the upper water-bearing stratum
with a constant phreatic surface.
The reading of iluid levels and the measurement
of yields or discharges does not present difficulties
in this type of model. Piezometric heads can be read
by means of manometers connected to the channel
(fig. 16.6).

Monomiter

Applicability of the different types of models

It has been said already that a model can never
imitate all aspects of a groundwater flow problem.
However, not all models are similar in this respect;
in one case a sand model may be the most suitable
model whereas in another case an electrical type may
be preferable. For each problem it has to be determined what the right type of model is.
In order to give an idea of the applicability of
the different model types, a table has been drawn up,
listing for each model type the various hydrological
quantities and properties that can be imitated.
The table indicates that the sand model seems to
have the greatest applicability. This however, is not
entirely true. Highly complex aquifer systems with
different groundwater horizons cannot be easily represented in a sand model. Other disadvantages of the
sand model are that (1) the thickness of the capillary
zone generally is out of proportion with respect to
the vertical scale. of the model; (2) it is difficult to
lill the model with the model fluid without trapping
air in the granular material; (3) the measurement of
the head inside the model is not easy; (4) sand
models generally are heavy, unwieldy instruments.
In many respects the Hele-Shaw channel is to be
preferred to the sand model. A disadvantage of the
PROTOTYPE
channel, however, is that it is restricted to 2-dimensional ow. Further, it is a rather expensive type of
model because of the still high cost of the transparent
Boundary
plastic used for the plates.
III
reservoir
lk'll
The great advantage of the Hele-Shaw channel
consists in its relative simplicity and in the visibility
MODEL WITHOUT STORAGE
of the flow (e.g. the movement of an interface). If
complicated aquifers and variable bbundary condiPiezometric surface tions have to be represented in the model, its conStorage vessels
struction becomes laborious and its operation will
1 -4.
require many hands. This, however, is.true for all
types of models.
kell
i
The thermal model looks favourable on the list.
However, the great problem of insulation to avoid
MODEL WITH STORAGE
heat
and the unwieldiness of the model Inake
Fig. 16.5 VISCOUS FLUID CHANNEL IMITATING AN it of losses
little practical interest.
AQUIFER OF CERTAIN AREAL EXTENT

88

LECTURES BY CONSULTANTS
TABLE
LISTING THE HYDROLOGICAL QUANTITIES AND PROPERTIES THAT
CAN BE IMITATED IN THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF MODELS

Quantity or aspect
imitated in the
model
Type of flow (2- or 3- dimensional) - :
Permeability coeff. ..................
Anisotropy of soil ..................
Heterogenity. of: soil ................
Sem-permeable layer................
Phreatic surface ............... .....
Capillary' zoner...............:......
Storage, phreat. water...............
Storage, confined water..............
Rain
............................
Contact with surface water...........
Groundwater head.,.3...........-...
Darcy velocity (rate of flow per unit
cross-sectibnal area)...............
Misibility; of flow lines . ...............
Discharge,.yield ........ ... .........
Volume of water.....................
Density differences
(fresh and salt
water)
..........-.-.,-.,-.- .
Flow through npn-saturated media.....:

Hele-Shaw
viscous-fluid
channel

Electrical

vert'-1
CaI

..hori.
zoniA

Thermal
model

con 11 nu0.5

3-dim.
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes"
yes
yesc
yes
yes
yes.

2-dim.
yes;
yes
yes
yes

2-dim.
. yes
yes
yes
yes

3-dim.
yes
yes
yes
yes

3-dim.
yes
yes
yes
yes

3-dim.
yes
yes
yes
yes

yes
yes
yesc
yes
yes
yes

Yesb
yes
yesd
yes
yes

yesb
yes
yesd
yes
yes

yesb
yes
yesd
yes
yes

yesb
yes
yesd
yes
yes

yes
yesh.
yes
yes

yes
yes
yes
yes

yes
yes
yes
yes

yesf

yeSf
yesi
yes
yes

yes f

yes
yesl

yes

yes

Sand
model

a: :The,presence of.the capillary zone, in the model may

cause difliculties, as its thickness is likely to 66 out,of proportion, to the thickness of the saturated zone in ' the model.
Addition. lof, surface-tension reducing chemicals to. the model
fluid (detergents) may help to solve this problem.
b Only for small fluctuations of the groundwatdr ' head,
since the transmissibility of the, water-bearing layer limitated
in the model . has a fixed value.
c Imiiation"of 'stdrage' is in -11)rinciple possible by ' providing the model with storage reservoirs; the model, however,
becomes rather complicated, and unmanageable. : . 1
d The , recharge is not uniformly distributed, over the
a'rea ' but is ' concentrated 'in' a large number bf points, of
supply;' the number of points should be as large as possible
in order to approach as. much as possible a uniform distribution of the recharge ("Beuken model") ( Karplus, 1958 ).
e Rain can be imitated by the weight 'of the 'membrane
or by a uniformly distributed load or pressurd. ,
'u

Great i possibilities are offered by:the electrical

models, which have:.become, more and more. popular
intrecent years.. Electrical models have many advantages: their construction.. is. simple; the ,parts,: and
accessories used. are obtainable : on . the market- and
can be used,,again afterwards when a new model has
to be built; the readings are: relatively isimple and
do not, require. skilled: technicians;:the models can be
easily made recording. A disadvantage is that, an
electrical model representing complicated, unsteady
flow problems cannot be designed bysa,civil or hydraulic engineer but requires the experience of an electrical
specialist.
,.
The membrane analogy: does not rank. high . on
the list; it is the least applicable type. , Only simple
2-dimensional:'steady-state problems'. can, be studied.
Ydt it is still popular, since it is simple to build and
to handle.. Particularly., multiple well flow problems
can be investigated easily by means of this model.

yes
yes

'etwork

yes
yes

Membrane
model
2-dim.
yes
yes

yese
yes
yes
yef
yesl
yesk

f Density of heat-flow rate or electrical current per unit

cr6ss-sectional area.
g Velocity of small balls rolling over the membrane
surface (Karplus, 1958 ).
h Visible in a Christiansen filter, a model in which the
granular material is transparent and has the same angle of
refraction to light as the model fluid (Van Meurs, 1957 ).
1 In some electrolytical models only, by using an indicatort in the electrolyte.
1 The paths of small balls rolling over the membrane's
surface (Karplus 0361958);
or by the moir6 method ( De Josselin
de, Jong, 1961 ).
k Force,'Or' load perpendicular to the 'membrane and
causing, the ' defiection.
1.This: type of flow can be studied in a translucent sand
model (Todd, 1961 ).
1 i

Accuracy of the results of model tests

c

In order to.say something about the accuracy of

model tests, it is necessary to compare a model test
with one of the other methods to solve groundwater
flow problems. It is obvious to select for this comparison thei 'mathematical method.
' ' The various steps necessary in both methods; in
order to arrive at the results, are schematically represented in the following diagram.
Three steps appear to be necessary in both
methods. In the mathematical method the prototype
is first, simplified and idealized in order to obtain a
mathematical model that can be translated into the
formula with the boundary conditions to match...Then,
finally the tesulth are arrived at by means of calculations, i.e. solving the formula for the given boundary
conditions.
:
. As to the model, the first step also involves an
idealization. , The second step. in the, representation

GROUNDWATER MODELS

89
Mathematical method

Prototype
( soil for, mation and
boundary
conditions )

'''
>

'"

'''

tical '.

ideali-

Formula

Mathema-

-+

model..,i:

zation

>

boundary
conditions

translation

Results

calculation

Model test
Prot6type
( soil formation and
boundary
conditions )

'

1
.)

ideali-

3
>.

Idealized
prototype

tion

zation

of the idealized prototype by a model. Finally, the

results are obtained by means of measurements..

The following conclusions can now be- drawn.

The first step, idealization, is necessary in both
methods, but for ' the model generally to a lesser
degree. So here the model can be considered as to
represent the more' accurate method.

'

>

Model

imita-

Results

measureInent

References
Bear, J., Scales of viscous analogy models' fort groundi

water studies, Proceedings, Am. ' Soc.' of Civ.

Erigrs., Vol 86, nr. HY 2, Febr. 1960; pD .11-23.

Gtover ' B. L., and D. Kirkhain, 'A glassbead'glyderol
model for non-hteddy-state' tild drailiagE, ' Proc:,

- 1

Soil Sci. Soc.Am.,1 1961, pp 91-94.

The hecond step does not intrciduce any' inaccuracy in ' the mathematical method. In" the model,
however, the accuracy is affected by- the technical

Hall, H. P., An investigation of steady flow toward 'a

gravity well, La Houille Blanche, Vol 10; 1955,
nr.1, pp'36-46.

construction of the model. A carefully constructed

and calibrated model of course will give.better results
than a model that has been inaccuratel built. ' Also,

Hansen, V. E., Complicated well problems solved by

thE melitbrane analogy, Trans., ' Am. Geophys.
Union, Vol 33,' 1952, pp 912-916.

the experience of the operators carrying out the model

test affects the results. So in this second step the

Tosselin de Jong, T. de, Moire patterns of the membrane analogy for groundwater movement applied

model certainly is inferior to the mathematical method.

to multiple uid flow.

This is true also in the third step. A dalculation

can be refined as far as necessary. The accuracy of

Research, Vol 66 No. 10, Oct. 1961, pp 36253628.

Journal of Ge6physical

measurements, however, has a practicdl limit. And

here again the degree of experience of the dperators

Karplus, W. J., Analog simulation, McGraw - Hill

Book Company Inc.' 1958.

doing the readings affects the accuracy 9f the results.

All these considerations, however, have theoretical value only. In practice the accuracy of a model
certainly is sufficient, because it is generally niuch
greater than the accuracy of the hydrological data used
for the experiment (formation constailts K, b, c, B,
S and other data such as rainfall, evaporation, fiuctuations of the groundwater level ). These field data

Santing G., Moddle pour l'6tude des probldmes de

1'6coulement simultand des eaux souterraines
douces et saldes. Publication nr. 33 of the Int.
Ass. of'Sci. Hydr. ( General Assembly of Brussels
1951 ) 1951, pp 184-193.
Santing, G., A horizontal scale model based on' the
viscous flow analogy, for studying groundwater

are known only approximately; an error of say 25 %

in the value of K or c is nothing to be surprised at.

flow in an aquifer having ;storage, Publication nr.

44 of the Int. Ass. of Sci. Hydrology ( General
Assembly of Toronto, 1957 ) 1958, pp 105-114.

It is, therefore, fully justifiable ' to state that the

accuracy of a model is quite sufficient for practical
purposes. There is, however, 'one exception. In

Todd, D. K., Flow in porous media studied in HeleShaw channel. Civil Eng., Vol 25, nr. 2; p 85,
1955.

highly complicated models it is sometimes not possible

to satisfy all scale conditions; the correct representation of different permeabiliti6s in a viscous-fluid channel e.g. will lead to different scales for the velocity in
different parts of the model, an annoying consequence.

Todd, D. K., The distribution of groundwater beneath

artificial recharke areas, Publication nr. 56 of
the Int. Ass. of Sci: Hydrology (Symposium
Athens 1961 ) 1961 pp '254-262.
Van Meurs, Pr., The'tise of: transparent three-dimen-

But this little trouble hardly affects the great

value models have for the solution of complicated
problems.

"'

sional models for studj,ing. the mechanism ' of

flow processes in oil reservoirs, Trans., A.I.M,E,,
Vol. 210, 1957, p 295.