ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC MACHINERY AND DRIVE SYSTEMSIBEE Press 445 Hoes Lane, P.O. Box 1331 Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331 Stamatios V. Kartalopoulos, Editor in Chief M. Akay M. Eden M. Padgett J.B. Anderson M. E. El-Hawary M.S. Newman R. J. Baker R. J. Herrick W. D. Reeve J. E. Brewer R. F. Hoyt G. Zobrist D. Kirk Kenneth Moore, Director of IEEE Press Catherine Faduska, Senior Acquisitions Editor John Griffin, Acquisitions Editor Anthony VenGraitis, Project Editor IEEE Power Engineering Society, Sponsor PE-S Liaison to IEEE Press, Chanan Singh Cover Design: William T. Donnelly, WI Design BOOKS IN THE IEEE PRESS SERIES ON POWER ENGINEERING Analysis of Faulted Power Systems P. M. Anderson 1995 Hardcover 536pp—_(0-7803-1145-0 Power System Protection P.M. Anderson 1999 Hardcover —1344pp_—_0-7803-3427-2 Power and Communication Cables: Theory and Applications Edited by R. Bartnikas and K. D. Srivastava 2000 Hardcover 896pp_——_0-7803-1196-5 Understanding Power Quality Problems: Voltage Sags and Interruptions Math H. J. Bollen 2000 © Hardcover S76pp_—(0-7803-4713-7 Electric Power Applications of Fuzzy Systems Edited by M. E. El-Hawary 1998 Hardcover 384pp_——_(0-7803-1197-3ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC MACHINERY AND DRIVE SYSTEMS Second Edition nyPAR B7C06 PAUL C. KRAUSE OLEG WASYNCZUK SCOTT D. SUDHOFF —\ Purdue University : ra IEEE Power Engineering Society, Sponsor fee ENGINEERING IEEE Press Power Engineering Series Mohamed E. El-Hawary, Series Editor IEEE PRESS ® WILEY- INTERSCIENCE A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. PUBLICATION‘This book is printed on acid-free paper. @ Copyright © 2002 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronies Engineers, nc, Allright reserved. 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ISBN 0-871-14326-X, Printed in the United States of America 1098765To our families XS \ LueCONTENTS PREFACE. xi Chapter 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS il 1.1 Introduction / 1 1.2. Magnetically Coupled Circuits / 1 1.3. Blectromechanical Energy Conversion / 11 1.4 Machine Windings and Air-Gap MMF / 35 1.5 Winding Inductances and Voltage Equations / 47 References / 58 Problems / 58 Chapter 2 DIRECT-CURRENT MACHINES 67 2.1 Introduction / 67 2.2 Elementary Direct-Current Machine / 68 2.3. Voltage and Torque Equations / 76 24 Basic Types of Direct-Current Machines / 78 2.5 Dynamic Characteristics of Permanent-Magnet and Shunt de Motors / 88 2.6 Time-Domain Block Diagrams and State Equations / 92 2.7 Solution of Dynamic Characteristics by Laplace Transformation / 98 References / 104 Problems / 105 vilviii CONTENTS Chapter 3 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY 109 3.1 Introduction / 109 3.2 Background / 109 3.3. Equations of Transformation: Changes of Variables / 111 3.4 Stationary Circuit Variables Transformed to the Arbitrary Reference Frame / 115 3.5 Commonly Used Reference Frames / 123 3.6 Transformation Between Reference Frames / 124 3.7 Transformation of a Balanced Set / 126 3.8 Balanced Steady-State Phasor Relationships / 127 3.9 Balanced Steady-State Voltage Equations / 130 3.10 Variables Observed from Several Frames of Reference / 133 References / 137 Problems / 138 Chapter 4 SYMMETRICAL INDUCTION MACHINES 141 4.1 Introduction / 141 4.2 Voltage Equations in Machine Variables / 142 4.3. Torque Equation in Machine Variables / 146 44 Equations of Transformation for Rotor Circuits / 147 4.5 Voltage Equations in Arbitrary Reference-Frame Variables / 149 4.6 Torque Equation in Arbitrary Reference-Frame Variables / 153 4.7 Commonly Used Reference Frames / 154 4.8 — Per Unit System / 155 4.9 Analysis of Steady-State Operation | 157 4.10 Free Acceleration Characteristics / 165 4.11 Free Acceleration Characteristics Viewed from Various Reference Frames / 172 4.12 Dynamic Performance During Sudden Changes in Load Torque / 174 4.13 Dynamic Performance During a 3-Phase Fault at the Machine Terminals / 181 4.14 Computer Simulation in the Arbitrary Reference Frame / 184 References / 187 Problems / 188 Chapter 5 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES 191 5.1 Introduction / 191 5.2 Voltage Equations in Machine Variables / 192 5.3 Torque Equation in Machifie Variables / 19756 57 58 59 5.10 SL 5.12 5.13 5.15 5.16 conTents ix Stator Voltage Equations in Arbitrary Reference-Frame Variables / 198 Voltage Equations in Rotor Reference-Frame Variables: Park's Equations / 200 Torque Equations in Substitute Variables / 206 Rotor Angle and Angle Between Rotors / 207 Per Unit System / 209 Analysis of Steady-State Operation / 210 Dynamic Performance During a Sudden Change in Input Torque / 219 Dynamic Performance During a 3-Phase Fault at the Machine Terminals / 225 Approximate Transient Torque Versus Rotor Angle Characteristics / 229 ‘Comparison of Actual and Approximate Transient Torque~Angle Characteristics During a Sudden Change in Input Torque: First Swing Transient Stability Limit / 232 Comparison of Actual and Approximate Transient Torque~Angle Characteristics During a 3-Phase Fault at the Terminals: Critical Clearing Time / 239 Equal-Area Criterion / 242 Computer Simulation / 246 References / 255 Problems / 256 Chapter 6 THEORY OF BRUSHLESS de MACHINES 261 6.1 Introduction / 261 6.2 Voltage and Torque Equations in Machine Variables / 261 6.3 Voltage and Torque Equations in Rotor Reference-Frame Variables / 264 64 Analysis of Steady-State Operation / 266 65 Dynamic Performance / 274 References / 281 Problems / 281 Chapter 7 MACHINE EQUATIONS IN OPERATIONAL VA 12 13 74 15 76 IMPEDANCES AND TIME CONSTANTS 283 Introduction / 283 Park’s Equations in Operational Form / 284 Operational Impedances and G(p) for a Synchronous Machine with Four Rotor Windings / 284 Standard Synchronous Machine Reactances / 288 Standard Synchronous Machine Time Constants / 290 Derived Synchronous Machine Time Constants / 291X CONTENTS 7.7 Parameters from Short-Circuit Characteristics / 204 7.8 Parameters from Frequency-Response Characteristics / 301 References / 307 Problems / 308 Chapter 8 LINEARIZED MACHINE EQUATIONS. 31 8.1 Introduction / 311 8.2 Machine Equations to Be Linearized / 312 83 Linearization of Machine Equations / 313 84 — Small-Displacement Stability: Eigenvalues / 323 8.5 Eigenvalues of Typical Induction Machines / 324 8.6 Eigenvalues of Typical Synchronous Machines / 327 8.7 Transfer Function Formulation / 330 References / 335 Problems / 335 Chapter 9 REDUCED-ORDER MACHINE EQUATIONS 337 9.1 Introduction / 337 9.2 Reduced-Order Equations / 338 9.3. Induction Machine Large-Excursion Behavior Predicted by Reduced-Order Equations / 343 9.4 Synchronous Machine Large-Excursion Behavior Predicted by Reduced-Order Equations / 350 9.5 Linearized Reduced-Order Equations / 354 9.6 Eigenvalues Predicted by Linearized Reduced-Order Equations / 354 9.7 Simulation of Reduced-Order Models / 355, 9.8 — Closing Comments and Guidelines / 358 References / 358 Problems / 359 Chapter 10 SYMMETRICAL AND UNSYMMETRICAL 2-PHASE INDUCTION MACHINES 361 10.1 Introduction / 361 10.2 Analysis of Symmetrical 2-Phase Induction Machines / 362 10.3 Voltage and Torque Equations in Machine Variables for Unsymmetrical 2-Phase Induction Machines / 371 10.4 Voltage and Torque Equations in Stationary Reference-Frame Variables for Unsymmetrical 2-Phase Induction Machines / 373CONTENTS 10.5 Analysis of Steady-State Operation of Unsymmetrical 2-Phase Induction Machines / 377 10.6 Single-Phase Induction Machines / 383 References / 393 Problems / 393 Chapter 11 SEMICONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTERS 395 11.1 Introduction / 395 11.2 Single-Phase Load Commutated Converter / 395 11.3 3-Phase Load Commutated Converter / 406 References / 425 Problems / 425 Chapter 12 de MACHINE DRIVES 427 12.1 Introduction / 427 12.2 Solid-State Converters for de Drive Systems / 427 12.3 Steady-State and Dynamic Characteristics of acide Converter Drives / 431 124 One-Quadrant de/de Converter Drive / 443 12.5 ‘Two-Quadrant de/de Converter Drive / 460 12.6 Four-Quadrant de/de Converter Drive / 463 12.7 Machine Control with Voltage-Controlled de/de Converter / 466 12.8 Machine Control with Current-Controlled de/de Converter | 468 References / 476 Problems / 476 Chapter 13 FULLY CONTROLLED 3-PHASE BRIDGE CONVERTERS 481 13.1 Introduction / 481 13.2 The 3-Phase Bridge Converter / 481 13.3. 180° Voltage Source Operation / 487 13.4 Pulse-Width Modulation / 494 13.5. Sine-Triangle Modulation / 499 13.6 — Third-Harmonic Injection / 503 13.7. Space-Vector Modulation / 506 13.8 Hysteresis Modulation / 510 13.9 Delta Modulation / 512 13.10 Open-Loop Voltage and Current Control / 513 13.11 Closed-Loop Voltage and Current Controls / 516xii CONTENTS References / 520 Problems / 521 Chapter 14 INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES 525 14.1 Introduction / 525 14.2. Volts-Per-Hertz Control / 525 14.3 Constant Slip Current Control / 532 144 Field-Oriented Control / 540 145 Direct Rotor-Oriented Field-Oriented Control / 544 14.6 Robust Direct Field-Oriented Control / 546 14.7 Indirect Rotor Field-Oriented Control / 550 14.8 Conclusions / 554 References / 554 Problems / 555, Chapter 15 BRUSHLESS dc MOTOR DRIVES 557 15.1. Introduction / 557 15.2 Voltage-Source Inverter Drives / 558 15.3. Equivalence of VSI Schemes to Idealized Source / 560 15.4 Average-Value Analysis of VSI Drives / 568 15.5 Steady-State Performance of VSI Drives / 571 15.6 Transient and Dynamic Performance of VSI Drives | 574 15.7 Consideration of Steady-State Harmonies / 578, 15.8 Case Study: Voltage-Source Inverter-Based Speed Control / 582 15.9 Current-Regulated Inverter Drives / 586 15.10 Voltage Limitations of Current-Source Inverter Drives / 590 15.11 Current Command Synthesis / 591 15.12 Average-Value Modeling of Current-Regulated Inverter Drives | 595 15.13 Case Study: Current-Regulated Inverter-Based Speed Controller / 597 References / 600 Problems / 600 Appendix A Trigonometric Relations, Constants and Conversion Factors, and Abbreviations 603 INDEX 605PREFACE ‘The first edition of this book was written by Paul C. Krause and published in 1986 by McGraw-Hill. Eight years later the same book was republished by TEBE Press with Oleg Wasynczuk and Scott D. Sudhoff added as co-authors. The focus of the first edition was the analysis of electric machines using reference frame theory, wherein the concept of the arbitrary reference frame was emphasized. Not only has this approach been embraced by the vast majority of electric machine analysts, it has also become the approach used in the analysis of electric drive systems. The use of reference-frame theory to analyze the complete drive system (machine, converter, and control) was not emphasized in the first edition, The goal of this edition is to fill this void and thereby meet the need of engineers whose job it is to analyze and design the complete drive system. For this reason the words “and Drive Systems” have been added to the title. Although some of the material has been rearranged or revised, and in some cases, eliminated, such as 3-phase symmetrical components, most of the material presented in the first ten chapters were taken from the original edition. For the most part, the material in Chapters 11-15 on electric drive systems is new. In particular, the ana- lysis of converters used in electric drive systems is presented in Chapters 11 and 13 while de, induction, and brushless de motor drives are analyzed in Chapters 12, 14, and 15, respectively. Central to the analysis used in this text is the transformation to the arbitrary refer- ence frame. All real and complex transformations used in machine and drive ana- lyses can be shown to be special cases of this general transformation. The modern electric machine and drive analyst must understand reference frame theory. For this reason, the complete performance of all electric machines and drives considered are illustrated by computer traces wherein variables are often portrayed in differentxiv PREFACE frames of reference so that the student is able to appreciate the advantages and sig- nificance of the transformation used. ‘The material presented in this text can be used most beneficially if the student has had an introductory course in electric machines. However, a senior would be com- fortable using this textbook as 2 first course. For this purpose, considerable time should be devoted to the basic principles discussed in Chapter 1, perhaps some of Chapter 2 covering basic de machines, most of Chapter 3 covering reference frame theory, and the beginning sections of Chapters 4, 5, and 6 covering induction, syn- chronous, and brushless de machines. ‘Some of the material that would be of interest only to the electric power engineer has been reduced or eliminated from that given in the first edition, However, the material found in the final sections in Chapters 4 and 5 on induction and synchronous machines as well as operational impedances (Chapter 7), and reduced-order model- ing (Chapter 9) provide an excellent background for the power utility engineer. ‘We would like to acknowledge the efforts and assistance of the reviewers, in par- ticular Mohamed E. El-Hawary, and the staff of IEEE Press and John Wiley & Sons. Paut C. Krause OteG Wasynezuk Scorr D, Supnor West Lafayette, Indiana November 2001ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC MACHINERY AND DRIVE SYSTEMSChapter 1 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS 1.1. INTRODUCTION ‘There are several basic concepts that must be established before the analysis of elec- tric machines can begin. The principle of electromechanical energy conversion is perhaps the cornerstone of machine analysis. This theory allows us to establish an expression of electromagnetic torque in terms of machine variables, generally the currents and the displacement of the mechanical system. Other principles that must be established ate (1) the derivation of equivalent circuit representations of magnetically coupled circuits, (2) the concept of a sinusoidally distributed winding, (3) the concept of a rotating air-gap magnetomotive force (MME), and (4) the deri vation of winding inductances. The above-mentioned basic principles are presented in this chapter, concluding with the voltage equations of a 3-phase synchronous machine and a 3-phase induction machine. It is shown that the equations, which describe the behavior of alternating-current (ac) machines, contain time-varying coefficients due to the fact that some of the machine inductances are functions of the rotor displacement. This establishes an awareness of the complexity of these vol- tage equations and sets the stage for the change of variables (Chapter 3), which reduces the complexity of the voltage equations by eliminating the time-dependent inductances. 1.2. MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS Magnetically coupled electric circuits are central to the operation of transformers and electric machines. In the case of transformers, stationary circuits are 12 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR ELECTRIC MACHINE ANALYSIS Figure 1.241 Magnetically coupled circuits magnetically coupled for the purpose of changing the voltage and current levels. In the case of electric machines, circuits in relative motion are magnetically coupled for the purpose of transferring energy between mechanical and electrical systems. Because magnetically coupled circuits play such an important role in power trans- mission and conversion, it is important to establish the equations that describe their behavior and to express these equations in a form convenient for analysis. These goals may be achieved by starting with two stationary electric circuits that are mag- netically coupled as shown in Fig. 1.2-1. The two coils consist of turns N; and N>, respectively, and they are wound on a common core that is generally a ferromagnetic material with permeability large relative to that of air. The permeability of free space, ftp, is 4x x 10-7 H/m. The permeability of other materials is expressed as 1 = Hptlg Where 1, is the relative permeability. In the case of transformer steel the relative permeability may be as high 2000 to 4000. In general, the flux produced by each coil can be separated into two components a leakage component denoted with an J subscript and a magnetizing component denoted by an m subscript. Each of these components is depicted by a single stream- line with the positive direction determined by applying the right-hand rule to the direction of current flow in the coil. Often, in transformer analysis, i2 is selected positive out of the top of coil 2, and a dot is placed at that terminal, The flux linking each coil may be expressed as , =O + Pat + On (12-1) ®) = Op + Ba + Smt (12-2) The leakage flux ,, is produced by current flowing in coil 1, and it links only the turns of coil 1. Likewise, the leakage flux &p is produced by current flowing in coil 2, and it links only the turns of coil 2. The magnetizing flux 4p is produced by current flowing in coil 1, and it links all turns of coils 1 and 2. Similarly, the magnetizing flux &,2 is produced by current flowing in coil 2, and it also links all turns of coils 1 and 2. With the selected positive direction of current flow and the manner in which