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The Importance of Entrepreneurship to

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The Importance of Entrepreneurship to Hospitality, Leisure,

Sport and Tourism
Dr Stephen Ball
Reader in Hospitality Management, Sheffield Hallam University

Introduction
Recommendation 40 in the National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (Dearing Report,
1997) stated that:
We recommend to higher education institutions that they consider the scope for
encouraging entrepreneurship through innovative approaches to programme design and
through specialist postgraduate programmes.
Whilst this might be an obvious move in more vocationally oriented programmes, the extent to which
entrepreneurship (or indeed employability) learning and teaching should feature in university
programmes is still a topic of debate, with concern around the degree of relevance to the subject and
the potential watering down of academic programmes. This report is the first investigation of current
provision for entrepreneurship within hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism programmes.
There is no doubt that entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship teaching are in vogue. The main
purpose of this work is to explore the importance of entrepreneurship to the hospitality, leisure, sport
and tourism industries and the extent and nature of entrepreneurship teaching in these areas. Before
doing this, relevant literature and other sources are reviewed to explore the general importance of
entrepreneurship, to briefly examine previous research on entrepreneurship, and to discuss the
meaning of entrepreneurship. Quotations, particularly from industrial practitioners, are used when
considering the importance of entrepreneurship to hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism to reinforce
the points being made.
General importance of entrepreneurship
The subject of entrepreneurship has attracted much attention in both the UK and other countries
during the last three decades. It has become flavour of the month both in practice and in the
development of policy in political, industrial, educational and other settings. For example Henry, Hill
and Leitch (2003:3) state, it is now widely recognised that the promotion of entrepreneurship is not
only necessary for a healthy economy but also critical for sustaining prosperity and creating new jobs.
Initiatives related to entrepreneurship in these various settings abound. The heightened interest in
entrepreneurship has been as a consequence of a diverse range of contributory factors including the
belief that it can act as a recipe for economic prosperity and that it can reduce unemployment.
Many others believe entrepreneurship is beneficial and necessary for economic prosperity. These
include the Bolton Committee (1971); Gorman et al (1997); Hisrich and Peters (1998) and Jack and
Anderson (1998). The Government in the UK has also recognised the importance of entrepreneurship

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Ball, S (2005) The Importance of Entrepreneurship to Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism

and has made the encouragement of entrepreneurial activity an important aspect of its policy (DTI,
1998; DTI, 2001):
Entrepreneurship and innovation are central to the creative processes in the economy,
to promoting growth, increasing productivity and creating jobs (DTI, 1998).
The importance of entrepreneurship pervades all sectors of the economy and all types of
organisations, but industry and individual businesses, especially small businesses, are particularly the
places where entrepreneurship is crucial for economic growth, productivity gains and job creation.
The contribution of entrepreneurs in industry is also key for economic growth. Furthermore, the role of
women in the economy has been growing in importance for many years and female entrepreneurship
and women entrepreneurs have become significant economic forces. In many countries that are
members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the number of
women entrepreneurs is rising. According to the OECD, enterprises owned by women now make up
one-quarter to one-third of the total business population worldwide. Women are likely to become even
more important to the economy in the future.
Ethnic minority entrepreneurship is also rising in importance, especially related to small business
activity, and has been the subject of interest from a variety of sources (see for example Ram and
Barrett, 2000). The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Survey of 2004 found that more people in the UK
have tried to start their own business than in any other major industrial country except the USA. The
survey found that entrepreneurship activity rose to 6.4% in 2003 and that black and Asian people are
twice as likely to start businesses as whites. Particular interest in entrepreneurship has focused on
the role of small business. This has been:
...both because of its ability to adapt to a changing environment and because its
structure allows it to adjust itself to technical change at a rate fast enough for survival.
Many countries have now recognized this and are preparing new policy measures to
support small firms and entrepreneurship.
(Garavan and OCinneide, 1995:1)
Entrepreneurship associated with small business is regarded as the key vehicle for the creation of
new enterprises as it generates job growth and stimulates competition. The importance of small firms
and entrepreneurship to the health of the economy and job creation have been recognised by the UK
Government:
Small businesses are the lifeblood of the economy. They are at the forefront of this
governments efforts to promote enterprise, innovation and increased productivity. Small
firms are vitally important because of their role in the supply chain, the competition they
stimulate and the ideas and products they bring to the market place.
A few figures illustrate this vividly. The 3.7 million small and medium-sized enterprises
(SMEs) represent 99.8% of all UK businesses. They account for over half the UKs
economic activities, providing 56% of non-government jobs (excluding financial services)
and 52% of turnover. Small firms are and will continue to be the main providers of new
jobs (Hewitt, 2000).
A similar picture exists elsewhere. SMEs play a major role in economic growth in the OECD areas,
providing the source for most new jobs. Over 95% of firms in OECD countries are SMEs and these

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Ball, S (2005) The Importance of Entrepreneurship to Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism

account for 60-70% of employment in most countries (OECD, 2000). In the past, entrepreneurship
and small business were used interchangeably but this is no longer the case:
Entrepreneurship is not confined to a particular business size or a particular stage in an
organisations life cycle, such as the start-up phase. In a competitive environment,
entrepreneurship is an essential element in the long-range success of every business
organization, small or large, new or long established.
(Schollhammer, 1982:210).
Thus, there is a need for an entrepreneurial approach to management in both the development of new
businesses and in existing businesses (intrapreneurship). Accenture conducted a study in 2001
involving interviews with 880 board-level executives in 22 countries. They found that senior
executives do understand the importance of entrepreneurship: Overwhelmingly, they support it, try to
promote it and want more help from government and from their own employees in that task. But
across all countries, almost 70 per cent of executives think their employees lack entrepreneurial spirit
(http://www.academyofenterprise.org/articlesEntra.shtml). Such an entrepreneurial approach is
appropriate for both large and small businesses, and regardless of whether they operate in the private
or public sectors.
Entrepreneurship has moved to the core of management thinking and action in many different
contexts and the relevance of the concept is increasingly being recognised by educationalists in the
design and delivery of their courses. The centrality of entrepreneurship in contemporary management
is echoed by Wickham (2004:xv) who states that:
... an entrepreneurial approach is no longer seen as an option but as the only option for
managers seeking to enhance the performance of their organisations. This is so whether
the organisation is a new start-up striving to establish itself in the marketplace, an
established business seeking to reinvigorate itself, or a governmental or non-profit
organisation meeting the opportunity and the challenge of the shifting boundaries
between the public and private sectors.
There are other reasons why entrepreneurship is important, these include that it can act as a vehicle
for personal development or for solving social problems. Social entrepreneurship is an important
aspect of entrepreneurship. In this, the objective is not to make profit per se, but to achieve social
good through the process of identifying opportunities, exercising creativity and building new services.
Previous research on entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship has been heavily researched. Wickham (2004:xiii) records that over the period
2000-2003 around 1,000 new peer-reviewed papers and books were published with significant
reference to the entrepreneur or entrepreneurship. There have been many writers who have
contributed to theories about entrepreneurship and the entrepreneur. A summary of the key
contributions of economic writers on the role of the entrepreneur can be found in Deakins and Freel
(2003).
Previous work in the hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism fields has been sparse. Morrison,
Rimmington and Williams (1999) noted the dearth of texts in the hospitality, tourism and leisure
industries which stimulated the production of their book. Of the articles on entrepreneurship applied to
these fields, those related to hospitality are possibly greatest in number. But even here it is limited, as

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Ball, S (2005) The Importance of Entrepreneurship to Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism

Pittaway and Chell (1999) and Lynch and MacWhannell (2000) both state. Pittaway and Chell
(2001:83) identify only a small number of studies from the literature. They say:
Morrison and Thomas (1998) have introduced some interesting short cases about
hospitality entrepreneurs that highlight some of the elements of entrepreneurship. Chell
and Pittaway (1998) have introduced the Critical Incident Technique and explained how
it can be used to investigate entrepreneurial behaviour. Williams and Tse (1995) have
explored the relationship between strategy and entrepreneurship in the US restaurant
sector. Lennon and Vannocci (1989) have analysed some of the literature on
entrepreneurship and explored innovation. Small (1987) examined entrepreneurial types
and restaurant classification. Kermally (1986) has extolled the virtues of entrepreneurial
education for hospitality students. Berger and Bronson (1981) and Litzinger (1965)
examined the personality profile of entrepreneurs in the hospitality industry.
While Lynch and MacWhannell (2000) claim that research on entrepreneurship in hospitality adopts
similar approaches to more general research and concentrates on formally established organisations,
they indicate that accommodation workers have been neglected, and state that research findings do
not relate to wider macro-social and economic aspects. Lynch and MacWhannell (2000:109) say that
overall, the level of knowledge regarding the hospitality entrepreneur remains low, and this is
particularly so regarding small businesses which predominate in the industry (Quinn, Larmour and
McQuillan, 1992).
In tourism generally, relatively little attention has been paid to the role of entrepreneurial activity and
in particular, to how tourism enterprises operate in different countries (Morrison et al. 1999; Shaw and
Williams 1998). Shaw and Williams (2002) explore the importance of tourism entrepreneurship and
discuss its role in understanding tourisms impact on economic development. With reference to the
political economy approach they say:
... only scant attention has been paid to the role of entrepreneurs in the tourism industry.
Beyond general discussion of the impact of transnational organizations, the literature is
remarkably uninformative on the influence of small or even medium-sized businesses
(Harper, 1984).
However, as Mathieson and Wall (1982:82) argue there is little doubt that the tourist industry
exhibits backward linkages and that external economies have emerged, yet few researchers
have examined the relationship between such linkages and entrepreneurial activity. This
situation is slowly being rectified as more recent studies have started to recognise the
importance of local entrepreneurial activity (Dahles and Bras 1999; Shaw and Williams 1998,
2002).
So what is entrepreneurship?
When I use a word said Humpty Dumpty, it means just what I chose it to mean neither more nor less (Carroll, 1946).
Getting a grasp both of the concept and practice of entrepreneurship is difficult and has been made
more problematic by the many contrasting perspectives of definers and commentators involved with
entrepreneurship. Many of the definitions of entrepreneurship are a function of the researchers
academic background (Sexton and Bowman-Upton, 1991). Entrepreneurship has been defined in
numerous ways by many people with no single definition or interpretation being universally accepted.

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The challenges of defining entrepreneurship have been discussed by Wickham (2004:5-8). From the
many varied definitions in existence it is apparent that entrepreneurship is a complex and rich
phenomenon and is a particular approach to wealth creation. This is emphasised by Morrison (1998)
who, in recognising the definitional conflicts, claims that entrepreneurship, in essence, involves the
process of creating value by bringing together a unique package of resources to create or exploit a
market opportunity. Herein lies some of the importance attached to entrepreneurship as both the
creation of value and the exploitation of markets are important.
The key to understanding entrepreneurship is to understand the entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship
derived from the word entrepreneur which originated in seventeenth-century France and was applied
to an individual who provided services associated with carrying out a commercial project for someone
with capital to invest. A more modern perspective is provided below from the UK Government White
Paper on Competitiveness:
Entrepreneurs sense opportunities and take risks in the face of uncertainty to open new
markets, design new products, and develop innovative processes. In the knowledge
driven economy this process is critical in large and small businesses alike. (DTI, 1998)
The importance of entrepreneurship to hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism
An entrepreneurial approach is just as relevant and important in hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism
as in other sectors, if not more so. The hospitality, leisure, sports and tourism industries can be
regarded as archetypal entrepreneurial industries employing approximately 10% of UK employment in
2004 in over 160,000 food service outlets, 26,000 guest houses, 3,000 health and fitness clubs,
15,000 hotels, 3,000 health and fitness clubs, 6,800 visitor attractions, ranging from gardens to local
museums and many other types of outlet, according to Mintel. The vast majority of these are small
independent owner-managed businesses with outlets which opened having taken advantage of low
barriers to entry. They tend to be highly flexible to changing customer demands and offer personal
and localised service. This is typified in the sports and exercise industry where many small
businesses offer coaching and fitness services. These small businesses are the fabric of local society.
The hospitality, leisure, sports and tourism industries are areas where discussions related to change,
development, innovation and management are increasingly being couched in terms of
entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship is a driver of change, innovation and employment in these
industries and is crucial to meeting the rapidly changing demands of hospitality, leisure, sports and
tourism consumers. Within established businesses the concept of intrapreneurship is key to enabling
new markets to be developed for these changing consumer demands and to facilitate new concept
development. Rob Bailey (Senior Manager, KPMG - Tourism and Leisure Advisory Services, March
2005) supports this view stating that:
Entrepreneurship is critical to the hospitality, leisure, sports and tourism sectors, as with
rapidly changing consumer demands and expectations, constant innovation by
businesses is vital to meet and, hopefully, exceed these evolving demands and
expectations.
Entrepreneurship is an important force behind success in any industry. This is particularly so in the
dynamic and rapidly evolving hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism industries throughout the world.
These entrepreneurial industries are major contributors to national economies and their growth, and
are guaranteed to grow both in terms of their quantity and quality. There are challenges though
related to reaching growth targets and these relate to capacity, availability and skills of the workforce,

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Ball, S (2005) The Importance of Entrepreneurship to Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism

developing new products and services, and ways of delivering these to the customer, and so on.
Entrepreneurial activities generally develop newly combined means of production, new products, new
markets, new methods of manufacturing or distribution, new sources of material, or new forms of
organisation (Schumpeter, 1934). Hence, entrepreneurship is necessary for overcoming these
challenges in these industries and in achieving this, the outcomes are the various forms of innovation.
For businesses innovation has the potential to boost productivity and increase the ability to price
discriminate and enhance profits. Entrepreneurship then, is key to gaining competitive advantage and,
as a result, greater financial rewards. Entrepreneurship and innovation in these industries would
therefore seem key contributors to economic development, not only in the UK but elsewhere, as the
following quotes demonstrate:
The role entrepreneurship plays in African economies and society particularly in the
hospitality, tourism, sport and leisure industries, is enormous and cannot be overemphasized in the provision of employment, wealth creation and in terms of innovation.
The primary goal of entrepreneurship is profitability and growth.....
(E. I. Babagbale, General Manager, Yola International Hotel, Yola, Nigeria, March 2005).
Unique touches and experiences that wow are becoming tomorrows expectations in
the hospitality industry. Marriott and other leading brands are competing in a global
market. Entrepreneurship in the development of new concepts and initiatives to gain a
competitive edge is a key strategy as companies realign their brand vision and identity.
Whether it is Marriott with their new bedding package, high speed wireless internet
packages, new pre-arrival concierge service, or simply state of the art design at
entrepreneur Ian Schragers hotels, providing a unique experience will set the company
apart from the rest.
(Nicola Roberts, Director of Revenue Analysis, Marriott Hotels, Miami Beach Cluster,
March 2005).
Often, external consultants are employed to advise businesses on entrepreneurial ideas and
activities:
In many cases, our tourism and leisure sector clients engage us to provide innovation,
creative thinking and problem-solving to assist them in optimising the financial
performance of their businesses. We are also engaged by clients to provide a 'sense
check' of their entrepreneurial ideas, some of which may at first glance appear 'risky'
commercially, but upon closer examination have significant potential.
(Rob Bailey, Senior Manager, KPMG - Tourism and Leisure Advisory Services, March,
2005).
While having its economic benefits, entrepreneurship in the hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism
industries can also prove hugely beneficial in social terms, as the following indicates:
Much in the same way that men of science have pushed back the boundaries of our
physical world, entrepreneurs, in the hospitality and leisure industries, have influenced
and pushed back the boundaries of our social world; for example, imagine not being able
to take a low cost flight, stay in a budget hotel, or eat a cheap meal. Entrepreneurs are
the life blood of the hospitality and leisure industries, trail blazers who take calculated
risks, not unnecessary ones, to bring to the masses something new and unique, adding
interest and colour to our lives.

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As an entrepreneur, there is a need to be aware of your environment, and above all, you
must have strength in your convictions and the courage to follow them through. You
need to be pragmatic; willing to lead by example, and able to recognise in others, traits
that complement your own weaknesses. Although fortune favours the brave, you should
also be prepared for failure. Nevertheless, when you take a risk it should be calculated,
after all, the better part of valour knows when to walk away from a fight, and you need to
learn from every experience that life throws at you.
Essentially an entrepreneur is an individual with vision, someone who works hard and
has the courage to try something new - even if it means failing
(Leslie Bailey MSc MHCIMA, Division Manager m.a.x. concepts, Hong Kong, March
2005).
Social entrepreneurship is an important aspect of entrepreneurship in the hospitality and related
industries. Catering and tourist attractions are often important elements of economic development
and regeneration initiatives. The revitalisation of inner cities is often linked with, and heavily reliant
upon, ethnic minority entrepreneurship which has traditionally been concentrated in the catering,
retailing and clothing industries, but is increasingly associated with the emergent industrial sectors
(Deakins and Freel, 2003:89). There are also many unrecognised social entrepreneurs
delivering public services through an enterprise e.g. pensioners lunch clubs and fitness and
wellbeing classes, see for example:
www.seeda.co.uk/europe/joint_europe_committee/docs/June2003/Item3a.doc.
In conclusion then, an awareness of the importance of entrepreneurship in hospitality, leisure, sport
and tourism is not new, with evidence of entrepreneurial activity in these industries centuries ago.
However, interest in entrepreneurship has heightened more recently as its importance has become
increasingly recognised. Entrepreneurship has become the battle-cry of recent UK and other
governments in their pursuit of a variety of economic, social and other objectives. This cry acquired a
new sense of urgency in the 1980s as economic growth faltered. Thus, entrepreneurship is often seen
as an economic function. But as Ball (2001) suggests, it is also viewed as a way of explaining
business ownership and organisational structure, a means of improving social and individual wellbeing, a means of analysis of industry structure, a rationale for government policy, and an approach
to education. Recent emphasis on entrepreneurship has been coupled with developments in
education and teaching. The growth and diversity of the hospitality, leisure, tourism and sports
industries along with increases in consumer expectations of their leisure time and experiences has
placed greater demands on providers. Consequently graduates with entrepreneurial abilities, good
technical, business and interpersonal skills are increasingly being sought by employers.
The next section analyses the nature and extent of contemporary entrepreneurship teaching in
hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism provision in higher education in the UK.

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Ball, S (2005) The Importance of Entrepreneurship to Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism

Entrepreneurship Teaching in Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism

The importance of entrepreneurship within the hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism industries is
increasingly being reflected in subject curricula. SkillsActive has declared its vision for, A skilled
workforce in an industry equipped to fulfil its potential at the centre of the economic and social
development of the nation (2004). Karen Bill (Principal Lecturer, University College, Worcester,
March 2005) puts this into context for education, stating that:
This vision is complicated by the challenges facing the industry in terms of the global
economy and self-employment trends. Departments must therefore begin to
acknowledge the work of the Council for Graduate Entrepreneurship, and the Lambert
Review of business-university globalisation and the Roberts Report which have started
to outline a forward agenda for facilitating a more entrepreneurial culture and developing
graduates who are capable of operating effectively in a knowledge economy. To this
end, I am in the process of validating two modules one at undergraduate and one at
postgraduate level which focus on the role of the sports manager as a business
entrepreneur, and to enable students to develop their potential to acquire an
entrepreneurial capability and enhance their communication skills.
No direct work has been undertaken in hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism regarding student
perceptions of their need for entrepreneurship teaching in subject courses. However, two projects
funded by the Higher Education Academy Network for Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism have
captured the opinion of graduates concerning their preparation for work:
Sleap (2005) researched the views of physical education and sport science students from the
University of Hull regarding the extent to which they felt that the work skills they required following
graduation had been developed at university. The students surveyed did feel that university had
helped them to develop many work skills and as would be expected, students felt that they had
developed more personal and communication skills then business related skills. However: It was
felt that there was little opportunity for development of commercial awareness, networking,
entrepreneurship, financial skills and awareness of a work culture (2005:8). These views support
the results of a previous survey conducted by the Higher Education Careers Service Unit (1999)
which indicated that entrepreneurial and business skills had been least developed by university
experiences (Sleap, 2005:8).

Tomkins (2004) investigated the key skills required for employment as perceived by local
employers and recent graduates of the University of Gloucestershire. This was done to inform
strategies to support the effective development of key skills by students through the use of
personal development planning (PDP). She found that All employers . indicated their
requirements for self-assured, independent thinkers who could communicate effectively with a
range of stakeholders in various contexts (2004:12). The study indicated that generally new
graduates tended to feel under-confident in their first jobs. Tomkins concluded that work
experience (including community or live project work), practical modules and personal
development planning were important vehicles in supporting the key skills development of
students. Bill and Bowen-Jones (2004) also strongly support the need for an integrated approach,
using PDP in conjunction with the academic curriculum and wider learning opportunities in order
to support the development of entrepreneurial skills, which students require to operate in a highly
competitive, complex and dynamic workplace (2004:18).
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Ball, S (2005) The Importance of Entrepreneurship to Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism

The following review of current provision was undertaken using the Higher Education Academy
Network for Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism course directory. This enabled a search, where
information was available, of courses currently offering entrepreneurship (or variant) modules; the
courses that have been identified are listed as Appendix 1. It is recognised that the outcomes will not
be comprehensive, however, it is anticipated that the results should provide a fairly representative
overview of current provision.
Hospitality
Entrepreneurship teaching is fairly widespread in hospitality management higher education
programmes in the UK. Thirteen universities were identified as offering entrepreneurship related
modules in their courses, at a variety of levels, although mostly this was in the final stages of the
course. The majority of modules are offered as optional rather than compulsory choices. Five
universities offered entrepreneurship modules at more than one level in their course, and Napier
University, Edinburgh, offered a degree programme entitled hospitality management with
entrepreneurship. The most common words in module titles were entrepreneurship, enterprise,
innovation or development related to business, new business, concept or product.
Leisure
Entrepreneurship teaching is once again fairly widespread in leisure programmes. Thirteen
universities were identified as offering entrepreneurship related modules in fourteen programmes, and
this was also most likely to be in the later stages of study. Interestingly, the majority of the leisure
programmes which incorporated entrepreneurship modules were event management courses. The
University of Highlands and Islands Millennium Institute Golf Management programme included
modules in entrepreneurship within each level of study. The most common words in module titles
were entrepreneurship and enterprise.
Sport
In sport, it appears that there is less provision for entrepreneurship related study, particularly given
the substantial scale of provision in sport in comparison to hospitality, leisure and tourism. Eleven
universities were identified as offering entrepreneurship related modules in nineteen programmes.
The majority of these programmes related to sport management, rather than to sport sciences or
coaching. The majority of entrepreneurship modules were optional rather than compulsory, and were
generally offered in the final stages of study. The most common words in module titles were
enterprise, entrepreneurship and small business.
Tourism
The teaching of entrepreneurship is also prevalent in tourism subject provision. Twenty higher
education institutions were identified to be offering undergraduate tourism, and mainly tourism
management, courses which contained entrepreneurship (or variant) modules. Generally, these
modules were offered in the last two years of the programmes, and three universities offered
entrepreneurship modules at two levels. Across institutions, the majority of modules were optional, but
a significant number were compulsory. The most common words in module titles were
entrepreneurship, enterprise, innovation, business development and small business.

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Conclusion
This paper has illustrated the importance of entrepreneurial teaching within hospitality, leisure, sport
and tourism higher education and its relevance within subject curricula. The review of current
provision for entrepreneurship within subject programmes suggests that whilst there is fairly
substantial inclusion of the topic within programmes, there is perhaps potential for course teams
which do not currently offer this aspect to consider the rationale for its inclusion within their
curriculum. Whilst there is evidence of entrepreneurship-related opportunities in HLST programmes
across the subjects, its inclusion in sports science and coaching degrees is conspicuous by its
absence.

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Ball, S (2005) The Importance of Entrepreneurship to Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism

Morrison, A. and Thomas, R. (1998) The future of small firms in the hospitality industry. International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Millennium Retrospective: Hospitality Global
Forum. Available from http://www.mcb.co.uk/htgf/.
Morrison, A., Rimmington, M. and Williams, C. (1999) Entrepreneurship in the Hospitality, Tourism
and Leisure Industries. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (1997) Available from:
http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/ncihe/
Pittaway, L. and Chell, E. (1999) Entrepreneurship in the Service Firm Life Cycle. In A. Roper and Y.
Guerrier (2001) A Decade of Hospitality Management Research. Newbury: CHME Threshold
Press, 79-100.
Ram, M. and Barrett, G. (2000) Ethnicity and enterprise. In S. Carter and D. Jones-Evans, Enterprise
and Small Business: Principles, Practice and Policy. Harlow: Pearson Education.
Roberts Report (2002) SET for success.
Schollhammer, H. (1982) Internal Corporate Entrepreneurship. Encyclopaedia of Entrepreneurship.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 209-229.
Schumpeter, J. (1934) History of Economic Analysis. New York: Oxford Press.
Sexton, D. L. and Bowman- Upton, N. (1991) Entrepreneurship: Creativity and Growth. New York:
Macmillan.
Shaw, G. and Williams, A. M. (1998) Entrepreneurship, small business culture and tourism
development. In D. Ioannides and K. Debbage (eds.) The Economic Geography of the Tourist
Industry. London: Routledge, 235-255.
Shaw, G. and Williams, A. M. (2002) Critical Issues in Tourism: A Geographical Perspective (2nd edn).
Oxford: Blackwell, 145-164.
Sleap, M. (2005) University Experiences And The Employment Environment, Unpublished Research
Report, Higher Education Academy Network for Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism.
Available from:
http://www.hlst.heacademy.ac.uk/projects/sleap_summary.pdf
Small, R. W. (1987) A Discriminant Analysis of Restaurant Entrepreneur Types and Restaurant
Classifications. Doctor of Philosophy Degree, Dissertation: Claremont Graduate School , US.
Tomkins, A. (2004) Best of both worlds: An exploration of key skills required for graduate work in the
leisure and sport industry and links to Personal Development Planning. LINK 11. Available from:
http://www.hlst.heacademy.ac.uk/resources/link11/contents.html
Universities UK (2004) Participating and Performing: Sport and Higher Education in the UK.
Wickham, P. A. (2004) Strategic Entrepreneurship (3rd edn). Harlow: Pearson Education.
Williams, C. E. and Tse, E. C. Y. (1995) The relationship between strategy and entrepreneurship: The
US restaurant sector. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 7(1), 2226.

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Ball, S (2005) The Importance of Entrepreneurship to Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism

Other useful entrepreneurship and small business readings

Atkinson, J. and Storey, D. (1994) Small Firms and Employment In J. Atkinson and D. Storey (eds)
Employment, The Small Firm and the Labour Market. London: Routledge.
Baines, S. and Wheelock, J. (1998a) Reinventing Traditional Solutions: Job Creation, Gender and the
Micro business Household. Work, Employment and Society 12(4), 579-601.
Ball, S. (1996) Wither the Small Independent Take-Away? International Journal of Contemporary
Hospitality Management 8(5), 25-30.
Beaver, G. (2002) Small Business, Entrepreneurship and Enterprise Development. Harlow: Pearson
Education.
Begley, T. and Boyd, D. (1987) Psychological Characteristics Associated with Performance in
Entrepreneurial Firms and Smaller Businesses. Journal of Business Venturing 2(1).
Berryman, J. (1983) Small Business Failure and Bankruptcy: A Survey of the Literature. International
Small Business Journal 1(4), 47-59.
Bird, B. (1988) Implementing Entrepreneurial Ideas: The Case for Intention. Academy of Management
Review 13(3), 442-453.
Bird, B. and Jelinek, M. (1988) The Operation of Entrepreneurial Intentions. Entrepreneurship Theory
and Practice, Winter.
Birley, S. and Westhead, P. (1994) A Taxonomy of Business Start-up Reasons and their Impact on
Firm Growth and Size. Journal of Business Venturing 9(1), 7-31.
Bridge, S. O'Neill, K. Cromie, S (1998) Understanding Enterprise, Entrepreneurship and Small
Business. Hampshire: Macmillan.
Burns, P. (2001) Entrepreneurship and Small Business. London: Palgrave.
Bygrave, W., DHeilly, D. McMullen, M. and Taylor, N. (1996) Toward a Not-For-Profit Analytical
Framework. Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research. Babson College, Washington, 30-39.
Carter, S. and Jones-Evans, D. (2000) Enterprise and Small Business: Principles, Practice and
Policy. Harlow: Pearson Education.
Carter, S., Tagg, S., Ennis, S. and Webb, J. (2002) Lifting the Barriers to Growth in UK Small
Businesses. Federation of Small Business.
Chapman, P. (1999) Managerial Control Strategies in Small Firms. International Small Business
Journal 17(2), 75-82.
Cunningham, J. B. and Lischeron, J. (1991) Defining Entrepreneurship. Journal of Small Business
Management. January, 45-61
Curran, J., Kitching, J., Abbott, B. and Mills, V. (1993) Employment and Employment Relations in the
Small Service Sector Enterprise A Report. London: ESRC Centre for Research on Small
Service Sector Enterprises.
Curran, J. and Blackburn, R. (2001) Researching the Small Enterprise. London: Sage.
Dewhurst, P. and Horobin, H. (1998) Small Business Owners. In R. Thomas (ed) The Management of
Small Tourism and Hospitality Firms. London: Cassell.
Ferguson, D. H., Berger, F. and Francese, P. (1987) Intrapreneuring in hospitality organizations.
International Journal of Hospitality Management 6(1), 23-31.
Gimeno, J., Folta, T., Cooper, A. and Woo, C. (1997) Survival of the Fittest? Entrepreneurial Human
Capital and the Persistence of Underperforming Firms. Administrative Science Quarterly 42,
750-783.
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, Executive Report (2002).
Goffee, R. and Scase, R. (1995) Corporate Realities: The Dynamics of Large and Small
Organizations. London: Routledge.
Goss, D. (1991) Small Business and Society. London: Routledge.

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Ball, S (2005) The Importance of Entrepreneurship to Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism

Green, S. and Lewis, R. (1997) From innovation to new sport development; a slippery slope. Tourism
Recreation Research 22(2), 37-47.
Kaplan, J. M. (2003) Patterns of Entrepreneurship. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
Lumpkin, G. and Dess, G. (1996) Clarifying the Entrepreneurial Orientation Construct and Linking it to
Performance. Academy of Management Review 21(1), 135-172.
Kanugo, R. N. (1998) Entrepreneurship and Innovation: Models for Development. McGill University.
Morrison, A. (1998) Entrepreneurs or Intrapreneurs, In C. Lashley and A. Morrison (eds.) Franchising
Hospitality Services. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 68-91.
Murphy, G., Trailer, J. and Hill, R. (1996) Measuring Performance in Entrepreneurship Research.
Journal of Business Research 36(1), 15-23.
Osbourne, R. (1991) The Dark Side of the Entrepreneur. Long Range Planning 24(3), 22-31.
Ram, M., Abbas, T., Sanghera, B., Barlow, G. and Jones, T. (2001) Apprentice Entrepreneurs? Ethnic
Minority Workers in the Independent Restaurant Sector. Work, Employment and Society 15(2),
353-372.
Ross, G. (1998) Entrepreneurialism: Perspectives on tourism hospitality business contexts. Tourism
Recreation Research 23(2), 33-43.
Stokes, D. (2002) Small Business Management: A Case Study Approach (4th edn). London: Letts.
Storey, D. J. (1994) Understanding the Small Business Sector. London: Routledge.
Thomas, R. (ed) (1998) The Management of Small Tourism and Hospitality Firms. London: Cassell.
Thomas, R. (2000) Small Firms in Tourism. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Wiklund, J. (1999) The Sustainability of the Entrepreneurial Orientation Performance
Relationship. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Fall 99, 24(1), 37-49.
Wortman, M. S. Jnr. (1987) Entrepreneurship An integrating Typology and
Evaluation of the Empirical Research in the Field. Journal of Management 13(2), 259-279.
Organisations
A useful starting point is The National Council for Graduate Entrepreneurship and further
organisations can be found in the Entrepreneurship Resource Guide .

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