Soviet Montage Theory

The foundation of film art is editing.-Pudovkin

The Russian film was born with the Russian Revolution. Costume films, horror films and melodramas-the
typical formulas of Europe and America-were the staples of the pre 1917 Russian film diet. The revolution
changed that all. Lenin considered the cinema the most influential of all the arts. Movies not only
entertained, but in the process, moulded and reinforced the values.
While the German innovators concentrated on the pictorial values of the individual shot, the Soviet
innovators concentrated on the effects of joining the shots together. The Soviet discoveries were the products
of experience and experiment rather than abstract theorizing.
In 1919, after getting hands on Griffiths Intolerance, Kuleshov made it his primer and his student examined
its boldness in cutting. They screened Intolerance incessantly, even re-editing its sequences. They
experimented, and several of his experiments became classics.
One experiment: From a stock footage of Ivan Mozhukin (pre-revolutionary actor), he cut the strip of his
face into three pieces and juxtaposed each with a shot of a plate of hot soup, a dead woman and a little girl
playing with a toy. The viewers praised his acting for hunger, sorrow and joy for each shot respectively.
Editing alone had created the emotion-as well as a brilliant acting performance.
Kuleshov taught three primary purposes served by editing, in building a film.
Narrative Function
A man walks towards the camera; suddenly, something to his right catches his attention and he turns his
head. The audiences natural question is: what does he see? The director then cuts to an old tramp, who pulls
a pistol on the man. And so on. (Sequential action)
Flash back or forward. A cut that furthers the action by revealing a characters thoughts at a particular
moment.
Cross-cut. While the tramp attacks the man with a pistol, the police, the police, aware of the attack, charge to
the rescue. These lessons of cutting had been learnt from Griffith.
Intellectual Response
Metaphorical Cut/Associational Cut: From a group of workers being mowed down by rifles of soldiers, the
director could cut to the slaughter of an ox in a stockyard. The image of the slaughtered ox comments on the
action of the slaughtered workers.
Contrast cut: Cut from the dinner table of a poor man with a few pieces of bread, to the table of a rich man
laden with meats, candles and wine.
Parallel cut: The condemned man sentenced to die at 5o clock, a cut is made on a thief who murders a
victim at precisely 5o clock.
Emotional Cut: The very method of joining the strips of celluloid together, rather than their content.
Rhythmically: Shorter/Longer pieces of film, increasing the tempo and tension or producing a feeling of
slowness and languidness. Strips of equal length can produce a feeling of regular beat.
Tonal cut: A cut to darker pictures can produce the impression of oncoming night and growing despair, or
lighter pictures produce impression of dawn.
Form cut: Cutting on a similarity or difference in the form of an object in the frame. Spinning roulette wheel
to a turning wagon wheel.

Directional cut: Use of direction across the frame either to keep the action flowing or to produce a dynamic
collision.
The Soviet directors discovered that the most cuts must function on all three levels at once. To this discovery
they gave the name montage, which signified the particular way of editing could control the films
structure, meaning and effect.
Sergei M. Eisenstein defined his principle of montage as one of collision, of conflict, of contrast. He does
not simply build shots into a whole, but sees each frame as a unit with a dynamic charge of a particular kind.
In formal terms, this style of editing offers discontinuity in graphic qualities, violations of the 180 degree
rule, and the creation of impossible spatial matches. It is not concerned with the depiction of a
comprehensible spatial or temporal continuity as is found in the classical Hollywood continuity system. It
draws attention to temporal ellipses because changes between shots are obvious, less fluid, and nonseamless.
Methods of montage
Metric - where the editing follows a specific number of frames (based purely on the physical nature of
time), cutting to the next shot no matter what is happening within the image. This montage is used to elicit
the most basal and emotional of reactions in the audience.
Metric montage example from Eisenstein's October.
Rhythmic - includes cutting based on time, but using the visual composition of the shots -- along with a
change in the speed of the metric cuts -- to induce more complex meanings than what is possible with metric
montage. Once sound was introduced, rhythmic montage also included audial elements (music, dialogue,
sounds). Example: The Battleship Potemkin's "Odessa steps" sequence.
Tonal - a tonal montage uses the emotional meaning of the shots -- not just manipulating the temporal length
of the cuts or its rhythmical characteristics -- to elicit a reaction from the audience even more complex than
from the metric or rhythmic montage. For example, a sleeping baby would emote calmness and relaxation.
Example: Tonal example from Eisenstein's The Battleship Potemkin. This is the clip following the death of
the revolutionary sailor Vakulinchuk, a martyr for sailors and workers.
Overtonal/Associational - the overtonal montage is the cumulation of metric, rhythmic, and tonal montage
to synthesize its effect on the audience for an even more abstract and complicated effect.
Example: Overtonal example from Pudovkin's Mother. In this clip, the men are workers walking towards a
confrontation at their factory, and later in the movie, the protagonist uses ice as a means of escape.
Intellectual - uses shots which, combined, elicit an intellectual meaning.
Intellectual montage examples from Eisenstein's October and Strike. In Strike, a shot of striking workers
being attacked cut with a shot of a bull being slaughtered creates a film metaphor suggesting that the
workers are being treated like cattle. This meaning does not exist in the individual shots; it only arises when
they are juxtaposed.
In The Godfather, during Michael's nephew's baptism, the priest performs the sacrament of baptism while
we see killings ordered by Michael take place elsewhere. The murders thus "baptize" Michael into a life of
crime.

Montage is the most cited contribution to film theory by Soviet filmmakers in the 1920s. Below you will see
examples of variations based on the Soviet idea of montage.
Sergei Eisenstein is most famously associated with Soviet Montage Theory. This theory has parallels to most
notably in Ivan Pavlovs who was a Russian physiologist. It was Pavlovs work that found individual stimuli
to be significant as opposed to Gestalt psychology that emphasized the field or 'whole, which absorbs and
transforms stimuli and from which stimuli derive whatever significance they have (Andrew, 55). It is said
that like Pavlovs stimuli, Eisenstein theorized the film frame functioned similiarly. During the 1920s, there
was also a group called the Associationists. Associationists stressed the laws of space, time, and causality
which relate individual percepts. Like Eisenstein, they broke the cognitive process down into sequences of
individual imagistic elements, related not by syntax as is language but by sheer juxtaposition (55). This and
and especially theories of dialectical thinking that arrived from Hegel, Marx and others during this milieu
can all be seen as contributors to Montage Theory. If you are interested in the precursors to Montage Theory
you may want to read more about these figures, movements, and concepts:
Kabuki Theatre
Vsevolod Pudovkin
Jean Piaget
Constructivism
Ivan Pavlov
Ideogram (Japanese language)
Roman Jakobsons The Dominant
Eisenstein argued that montage, especially intellectual montage, is an alternative system to continuity
editing. He argued that Montage is conflict (dialectical) where new ideas, emerge from the collision of the
montage sequence (synthesis) and where the new emerging ideas are not innate in any of the images of the
edited sequence. A new concept explodes into being. His understanding of montage, thus, illustrates Marxist
dialectics.
Eisenstein relates this to non-literary writing in pre-literate societies, such as the ancient use of pictures
and images in sequence, that are therefore in conflict. Because the pictures are relating to each other, their
collision creates the meaning of the writing. Similarly, he describes this phenomenon as dialectical
materialism. Eisenstein argued that the new meaning that emerged out of conflict is the same phenomenon
found in the course of historical events of social and revolutionary change.
He also believed that intellectual montage expresses how everyday thought processes happen. In this sense,
the montage will in fact form thoughts in the minds of the viewer, and is therefore a powerful tool for
propaganda. (Film Form)
How Does One Create Soviet Montage Film Techniques?
Sergei Eisenstein developed the theory further, identifying five different ways to use montage, listed here
courtesy of Wikipedia:

Methods of montage:
Metric where the editing follows a specific number of frames (based purely on the physical nature of
time), cutting to the next shot no matter what is happening within the image. This montage is used to elicit
the most basal and emotional of reactions in the audience.
Rhythmic includes cutting based on time, but using the visual composition of the shots along with a
change in the speed of the metric cuts to induce more complex meanings than what is possible with
metric montage. Once sound was introduced, rhythmic montage also included audial elements (music,
dialogue, sounds).
Tonal a tonal montage uses the emotional meaning of the shots not just manipulating the temporal
length of the cuts or its rhythmical characteristics to elicit a reaction from the audience even more
complex than from the metric or rhythmic montage. For example, a sleeping baby would emote calmness
and relaxation.
Overtonal/Associational the overtonal montage is the cumulation of metric, rhythmic, and tonal montage
to synthesize its effect on the audience for an even more abstract and complicated effect.
Intellectual uses shots which, combined, elicit an intellectual meaning.
Probably the most famous movie produced by any of these directors is Eisensteins Battleship Potemkin
(1925), often referred to as the most influential silent film of all time, and the most famous part of that
movie is the Odessa Steps sequence, which uses montage to great effect.

German Expressionistic Cinema:

German Expressionism is an artistic genre that originated in Europe in the 1920s, and is
broadly defined as the rejection of Western conventions, and the depiction of reality that is
widely distorted for emotional effect. Heavily influenced by artists such as Vincent van
Gogh, Edvard Munch, and El Greco, Expressionists were less concerned with producing
aesthetically pleasing compositions as they were with creating powerful reactions to their
work through the use of bright, clashing colors, flat shapes, and jagged brushstrokes. In its
nature, the movement was interested in the relationship between art and society, and
encompassed a broad range of fields, including architecture, painting, and film. Expressionist
films were initially born out of Germanys relative isolation during the 1910s, and quickly
generated high demand due to the governments ban on foreign films. The films appeal soon
spread to an international audience, and by the early 1920s, many European filmmakers had
begun experimenting with the absurd and wild aesthetics of German cinema. Two of the most
influential films of the era were Metropolis (1927), by Fritz Lang (Austrian, 18771961),
and The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920), by Robert Wiene (German, 18731938). Similar to
Expressionist paintings, Expressionist films sought to convey the inner, subjective experience
of its subjects.
Director Robert Wiene hired Expressionist painters Walter Reimann and Hermann
Warm (German) to create the sets. Like many of their contemporaries, Reimann and Warm
were interested in challenging Modernisms formal and stylistic elements, and used
Expressionism as a means to experiment with perception, constructing a nightmarish world of
jagged lines and incongruous patterns. The films use of expressionistic elements is a prime
example of the genres power to establish a narrative that creates a disconnect between

subjectivity and reality. In scenes throughout the film, sidewalks lead nowhere, walls appear
warped, creating strange shapes, and buildings rise at distorted angles in the background.
Considering the cultural context in which Caligari was created, it makes sense that German
Expressionism was such a widely used device in film, visual art, and literature. The sense of
anxiety, distrust, and uneasiness were at an all-time high in Germany following World War I,
and films such as Caligari were examples of art imitating life.
Expressionist film in the 1920s was based on the premise that film becomes art only to the
extent that the film image differs from reality. This particular interpretation of cinema-as-art
would go on to influence some of the most important filmmakers of the 20th century,
including Alfred Hitchcock, Werner Herzog, and Tim Burton. The style of seminal
Expressionist artists such as Erich Heckel, Wassily Kandinsky, and Emil Nolde perfectly lent
itself to cinematic reinterpretation, as one that spoke to the most prevalent cultural conditions
of the time. During a tumultuous and difficult period in German history, these talented
filmmakers tapped into the popular zeitgeist and created powerful works that have stood the
test of time. The films of this era are, in their own way, a revealing look at a society at a
particular moment in history, expressing the disillusionment, distrust, and isolation
experienced by many people living in Germany at the time.

German expressionist films were prevalent in the 1920s. Amongst the most well remembered are films such
as The Cabinet of Dr Caligari (Robert Weiner, 1920), Nosferatu (F.W. Murnau, 1922), Metropolis (Fritz
Lang, 1927) and Sunrise (F.W. Murnau, 1927). These films were united by highly stylized visuals, strange
asymmetrical camera angles, atmospheric lighting and harsh contrasts between dark and light. Shadows and
silhouettes were an important feature of expressionism, to the extent that they were actually painted on to the
sets in The Cabinet of Dr Caligari.
The story lines of German expressionist films matched the visuals in terms of darkness and disillusionment.
Often sombre in mood and featuring characters from a corrupt underworld of crime, the films dramatic
effects produced motifs of claustrophobia and paranoia. The same words could be used to describe 1940s
Hollywood film noir, a genre hugely influenced by German expressionism. Film noir is typified by Bogart
and Bacall in films such as The Big Sleep. Fritz Lang himself also went on to make notable film noirs such
as Fury and You Only Live Once. (http://michelle-strozykowski.suite101.com)
Background
More than any other national movement in the history of film, German Expressionism was an answer to the
grim reality of daily life. But it was not so much a direct relay of life to art. Rather, it was more of a filter; a
way of assembling the clutter of post-war Germany to coherence on the screen. It was a way to represent and
bring across the reality few could imagine. Sex murders, depression, veterans ghoulishly mangled in the war,
the loss of innocence and complete rejection of the past were the things the German people dealt with during
the post-war years of 1919 1929 (commonly called the Weimar Period in film history). The films produced
in Germany during those years captured the cry of a broken nation and a people horrified by the every-day.
Before the Great War, German film was not nearly as technologically or thematically sophisticated as other
European film. Until 1910, most German films consisted of short, pornographic snippets and crude day-inthe-life anecdotes. Only the works of Oskar Messter showed even the most minute level of innovation. He
implemented the close-up, artificial lighting and even some experimentation with sound. But not until right
before the start of the war did Germany begin to produce truly innovative work. Der Student von Prag (The
Student of Prague) (1913, dir. Guido Seeber) commonly considered early Expressionism explored the

theme of the deep and fearful concern with the foundations of self1. With Student, the foundation for
German Expressionism in film was laid.
Italian Neo-Realist Cinema
The Italian Neo-Realist movement began to emerge with the fall of Mussolini's Fascist regime in 1943 and
was able to entirely establish itself with the end of World War II with the end of German occupation. This
caused audiences all around the globe to be "suddenly introduced to Italian films" (Historical Origins of
Italian Neorealism, n.d.) through works by "Roberto Rossellini (1906-1977), Vittorio De Sica (1902-1974),
and Luchino Visconti (1906-1976)" (Historical Origins of Italian Neorealism, n.d.). With the oppressive
shackles of fascist censorship now gone, Italian directors began to pursue a new style of cinematic realism.
A style which combined the realist cinema and German expressionism that was already present during the
fascist era but combining it with new unexplored topics such as social, political and economic issues that the
regime would simply not of tolerated. As a result neo-realist cinema often took a critical approach to how it
viewed Italian society and culture and tended to focus attention towards the social issues the country was
facing. With directors often looking at the effects of the "resistance, post-war poverty and chronic
unemployment" (Historical Origins of Italian Neorealism, n.d.). Neorealism for many Italian's allowed them
to "put an image to the resistance" (Ratner, n.d.) which before the emergence of neorealist cinema had seen
little to no coverage in mass media from the Italian point of view.
When Neorealism finally emerged it had a number a traits and characteristics that set it apart from the
popular Hollywood model and the fascist controlled cinema of the war era. They are filmed almost
entirely on location, for the most part in poor neighbourhoods or the countryside. Its subject matter usually
consists entirely of or involves life among the poor and the working classes. Realism is emphasized and
performances are mainly constructed from scenes of people performing fairly mundane day to day activities
and tasks, whilst remaining completely devoid of the self-consciousness that amateur acting usually
incorporates. Neorealist films also generally feature children in major roles, though these roles are often
more observational than participatory parts.
Early neorealist films such as Rossellini's 'Rome Open City' (1945). Which received the Grand Prize at the
Cannes Film Festival contained many of these elements which are associated with neorealist cinema.
However Rossellini was also able reverse the ideological and cultural emphasis of the film as discussed by
Bondanella:
"It is a fascinating paradox that Roma citt aperta continued many of the stylistic characteristics of cinema
produced during the Fascist era, but it embodied, at the same time, a clear antifascist ideology that attempted
to reconcile all of the different and conflicting political positions of the various groups making up the Italian
antifascist resistance." (Bondanella in Gottlieb, 2004)
Rossellini was especially able to maintain his reversal of occupation era realism and expressionism by
keeping his primary focus on the character Pina (Anna Magnani), a woman engaged to marry a dedicated
typesetter with whose child she is already pregnant with. Instead of sticking with the traditional main focus
of the Gestapo whilst they search for and find a key member of the Italian Resistance.
However despite the fact that 'Rome, Open City' contained and combined the cinematic elements of the old
German dominated realism and the new budding Italian neorealism. It is not solely these aspects that made
neorealist cinema popular in Italy or even the world. It was the fact that the films clearly depicted clearly the
struggle of the Italian people. Whilst living through the oppression of the German occupation of Rome and
doing everything within their power to resist the occupation. Which hit home with the Italian audience as a
way to see how the resistance stood up to the German occupation whilst with other cinema going audiences

allowed them to peer into the internal social and economic affairs of post war Italy and how the general
populace was dealing with their situation.
Children were often cast in neorealist cinema to play a key role in not only creating a character for all
audiences to sympathise with but as a symbol for the future generations. As a child's characters presence
throughout the film but especially during the climax of a film is indicative of their role in neorealism. As the
children become observers of the difficulties of the present bit it is they who hold the key to make a better
future.
'Rome, Open City' features the clearest link between neo-realism and the Resistance movement. Being set
during the Nazi occupation of Rome, it probes and explores the tensions of this foreign presence and the
divisions it created between those who abetted the Germans and those who opposed the occupation. The film
was made using "black market film stock, little studio shooting, rushes unexamined, sound synchronized in
post-production, and, no surprise, a tiny budget" (Ratner, n.d.)The film therefore has immediacy to it whilst
blended with an operatic emotion. Pragmatic realities drove the film forward equally as much as its script
did. This hybrid of melodrama and recorded footage was the result of Rossellini telling the story in short
bursts that emphasize the intense and unsparing details of ordinary people's lives that have been destroyed
by the occupation. As a result the narrative is driven by veracity rather than comfort.
With the Cincitt (Rome's studio complex) being used as a shelter for refugee's, films had to be shot on
location. Totally encompassed by the shambolic ruins of World War II. Filmmakers had a ready-made
atmosphere present even in their backdrop. As a result Visconti only "shot only on location in
Rome."(Associated Press, 1983) This is evident for example in the opening sequence of the film 'Bicycle
Thieves' directed by Vittorio De Sica in 1948. During this sequence the camera performs a long pan into a
desolate and barren landscape featuring a few rundown apartment blocks. This sequence alone demonstrates
how badly Italy was hit by fascist rule and German occupation as even this apartment complex block which
shows no obvious battle scars or destruction from the war has been reduced to a residential district that is
barely functioning as an internal sub-section of society. This is depicted to the audience by showing the
working class men of the settlement desperately looking for and even begging for work from the local
recruiting agency. With each and every member of this cross section of the Italian working class society
willing to abandon their fellow countrymen in order to get some valuable paid work. This is just one
example of Visconti using a combination of complex shots and long takes to convey the dismal world of his
characters and how they interact with the world. This allows for Visconti to "heighten the interplay between
characters and surroundings, the bleak, unforgiving interiors and street shots reflective of the lousy hand
these no-hopers have been dealt." (Ratner,n.d.) This is a feat he would not of been able to accomplish
without the charismatic albeit war torn landscapes of post war Italy and combining them with the afore
mentioned amateur actors.
Visconti "instead of professional actors used nonactors with no training in performance; for example,
Lamberto Maggiorani, the leading actor, was a factory worker." (Associated Press, 1983) It's this absence of
professional actors that is real key to the authenticity of the characters in a neorealist film. With real people
instead of actors you can see the hardship they have been through not only in their acting but also in their
physical appearance. Whilst this is a normal convention for neorealism on the whole, the use of amateur
actors in 'Bicycle Thieves' further increases the realism of the film. Since the character blends with the
already bleak background for example as Maggiorani was already a factory worker he fit the role perfectly
as he was a part of the working class that was being portrayed in the film but also he does not look like a
well-trained actor like you would expect if this had been shot in Hollywood. The fact that the actors lack the
face of glitz and glamour add a gritty texture of realism to the film. "The amateur actors in this film
enhance the feeling of suffering that a neorealist film attempts to portray." (Famodimu, 2006) Another

factor that defines "The Bicycle Thieves" as being a classic example of a neorealist film is that the central
aspect of the film is about how the characters are struggling to survive. The father for example is frantically
searching for a job in post-war Italy, the son who works at a petrol station despite his very young age, and
the mother who washes clothes to scrape up a little bit more money to allow their family to continue to live
their lives. As a result the father worriedly and hurriedly looks to get a bike in the film so he can get the job
he desperately needs so that he can give his family a little glimmer of hope so that they will have hope that
they can make it through their tough times. This further emphasises the importance of the role of the
children in neorealism as a beacon pointing towards the better future to come.
In conclusion we can see that neorealism was a truly a product that only post war Italy could have produced
with its unique transition from German Expressionist cinema to what is now known as Neorealist cinema.
Only through the dramatic and expressionist war torn back drops and the way that neorealist cinema gave
Italy and the World a view into the acts the resistance carried out in order to oppose the German occupation
as well as depicting the economic and social implications that the people, especially the working classes,
were suffering as a result of the war and the downfall of Mussolini's fascist government. Combining this
with the use of non-professional actors to further develop the sense of realism and how the audience both
become involved with the characters but also allows the audience to see how difficult life was in post war
Italy.
French New Wave Cinema:
The French New Wave was a group of trailblazing directors who exploded onto the film scene in the late
1950s; revolutionising cinematic conventions by marrying the rapid cuts of Hollywood with philosophical
trends. Lindsay Parnell explores how this group of young directors reshaped cinema.
With an emphasis on invigorating cinematic narrative, French New Wave Cinema rejected traditional linear
tropes of storytelling and created a new language of film. Inspired by both depictions of the common, lower
class workers of Italian Neorealism and Hollywoods beloved Golden Age, the French New Wave became
a vibrant influence on international cinema which is still being felt today.
Originating from the artistic philosophy of auteur theory; a concept that acknowledges film as a product of
the directors absolute imaginative and inspired aesthetic vision, new wave filmmakers inspired the cult of
the director as artistic icon on a par with writers and painters.
The philosophical importance of the French New Wave, and their role in the development of a theory of
film, was in large part due to one of the movements most influential and pivotal creators, Andr Bazin.
Bazin, a theorist of cinema and renowned film critic, was the founding father of the French movie magazine
Cahiers du Cinma.

The French nouvelle vague, or New Wave, is widely regarded as one of the most influential movements
ever to take place in cinema. The effects of the New Wave have been felt since its birth as a movement and
long after it faded away. The new wave was spearheaded by a small group of critics who wrote for Cahiers
du Cinema, a French film journal. It was a motion against the traditional French cinema, which was more
literature than cinema. The French new wave gave birth to such ideas as la politique des auteur, jump cuts
and the unimportance of linear structure, if only to name a few. What the French new wave gave, most
importantly, was a radical sense of change in cinema that would trickle throughout the world.

The most important persons involved in the new wave are undoubtedly those who were connected to Cahiers
during the mid-1950s. The editors of the journal were Henry Langlois and Andre Bazin who became
mentors to their writers, many of whom were major figures in the new wave movement (Roberts and Wallis
95). These critics for Cahiers included Francois Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Eric Rohmer, Claude Chabrol
and Jacques Rivette, among others, all of which would play major roles in the beginnings of New Wave
cinema (Lanzoni 207). Each of these soon-to-be filmmakers were well-versed in film history and had a
passion for film that could define them as cinephiles. This film lovers mindset was due largely to the
Cinematheque Francaise, a film archive designed to promote cinema study and cinema culture in France
that Henry Langlois had founded with Georges Franju and had kept open during the occupation (Cook 441).
The Cinematheque gave access to a huge library of international films and the critics of Cahiers consumed
as much of them as they could.
The ideas of the new wave had been festering for sometime in the minds of the critics and editors of Cahiers,
as well as writings of film critic Alexandre Astruc, particularly on his concept of camera-stylo (Cook 441).
However, it is said that the New Wave movement exploded in 1959 with the release of three films
Truffauts Les Quatre des Coups (The 400 Blows), Alain Renais Hiroshima, Mon Amour and Godards A
bout de Souffle (Breathless) (Lanzoni 213). Although Renais was of an older generation of directors, his
style and influence on the New Wave was apparent enough in Hiroshima, which also won the International
Critics Award at Cannes Film Festival in 1959 (Lanzoni 213). Resnais wasnt the only one to walk away
with an award at the 59 Cannes Festival; Truffaut was awarded Best Director for Les Quatre des Coups
(Lanzoni 213).
What audiences saw in these three films was a departure of what Truffaut referred to as cinema du papa,
or grandads cinema (Roberts and Wallis 95). More commonly referred to as the tradition of quality,
Truffaut was speaking of the post-war French cinema that was buried in literature as well as elaborate
dialogue and plots (Cook 442). The French new wave was essentially the opposite of this, stressing the
importance of mise-en-scene and la politique des auteur, or the policy of the author. It was an idea that
sprung out of Astrucs ideas on camera-stylo, which saw the director using film as means to convey a
message or vision, basically the author writing with a camera (Lanzoni 206).
This style was what propelled the new wave movement forward, however, they also borrowed many
techniques from the neo-realists (Roberts and Wallis 95). The new wave filmmakers often used handheld
cameras to shoot on location, partly out of practicality and partly out of innovation. The cameras allowed for
cheap and quick shoots but also gave a less static and structured feel that was more reminiscent of the
cinema du papa.
The new wave also saw the invention and use of the jump cut. The jump cut is when a scene is cut forward
in time, whether by a split second or many seconds. An example is in Godards A bout de Souffle when a
character shoots someone, but all the viewer sees is the gun being pointed then there is a jump cut to the
other character falling over. Godard was no doubt the most prolific user of the jump cut.
Other innovations in new wave cinema included a large use of close ups and a lack of establishing shots.
The filmmakers werent as concerned about establishing spatial and contextual relationships as they were
about the mise-en-scene. A viewer was supposed to feel the setting, not necessarily see it. Alain Resnais uses
this a lot in his two films studied, Hiroshima, Mon Amour and Muriel.

Indian New Wave Cinema:

talk about a New Wave in Indian cinema is complicated, for unlike the French New wave and Italian
Neorealism of the 1950s, and indeed several prominent film movements around the globe, the Indian New
Wave has no clear beginning and end, and no defined aesthetics or issues. While Mrinal Sens NFDCfinanced Bhuvan Shome is widely considered to be the beginning of the New cinema movement, it has no
clear culmination. The Avant Garde bug has caught Indian filmmakers in bursts and pauses. For example
Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen, and Ritwik Ghatak in the 1960s and 70s, Shyam Benegal, Kamal Swaroop, Mani
Kaul in the 80s, and Ram Gopal Varma, Mani Ratnam, Aparna Sen in the 90s and early 2000sall brought
new grammar and ideology to Indian cinema. But their films remained commendable singular works rather
than culminating into a movement, and the makers themselves, with the exception of Ray, were either
unable to continue with the kind of cinema they wanted to make, or adjusted and assimilated with the
mainstream bandwagon.

Every year a bevy of films strive to tackle new concerns and do away with the aesthetics of mainstream
Indian cinema to a certain extent, and are thus marked harbingers of a New Wave movement; but a
movement is much more than thatit is not only a cumulative shift in the ideology, aesthetics, modes of
finance, production, and distribution of films, but also of audience appreciation. However, when a blind,
middle-eastern girl appears on screen photographing the by lanes of Mumbai in Soap opera writer turned
Avant Garde filmmaker Anand Gandhis Ship of Theseus, it becomes clear that something is afoot in the
world of Indian cinema.
Gandhis is a film that uses three storiesthose of a blind photographer who grows uneasy about her craft
once her sight is restored, a monk who is forced to consume allopathic medicineagainst which he is
campaigningto save his own life, and a stock broker who feels guilty after a kidney transplant by possibly
dubious meansas pieces of a puzzle which finally unravel the makers thoughts on an age old philosophical
conundrum (If each of the parts of Theseuss Ship needed repair, and were replaced one by one, is the
resultant vessel still The Ship of Theseus?) . The filmmaker uses characters and their stories to discuss his
thoughts on the matter, rather than the film being driven by plot or characterization, as is the case with
mainstream cinema. Ship of Theseus, which delves into intricacies of everyday life and transcends the
material to philosophical discourse, is as much an experiment of the cinematic form as it is of the stories and
characters it brings to screen. The film, which is densely packed with textual matter and comprises of scenes
that seem more like panel discussions on art, philosophy, theology, and the universe, than conversations
between two people, often frustrates the viewer. Nevertheless, this enigmatic and unique film can certainly
claim to be New Wave because to find an equivalent of Ship of Theseus for what it aims to say, and how,
one would need to do a thorough examination of contemporary cinema from all over the world.
Interestingly, the film was presented by Kiran Rao, filmmaker and wife of actor Aamir Khan (and hence
indirectly by the superstar himself), and thus acquired a kind of release, reception, and visibility that a film
like this would find hard to secure in cinema markets anywhere in the world, let alone in India. For a brief
moment, the makers managed to get actors, filmmakers, mainstream media, and the paying public sit up and
take notice of the film. That a film of this kind was supported by mainstream star giants, and did the kind of
business it managed to is certainly indicative of a new wave in audience appetite for cinema in India.
But in spite of its undeniable influence on the film fraternity, Ship of Theseus fell short of making much
impact at the box office. The monopolization of the distribution and exhibition network by the major studios
and stars in Mumbai, and indeed in regional cinema hubs too, make it impossible for small independent
films to find breathing space. Moreover, the multiplexes, which often credit themselves as supporters of
Indie films, hike up ticket rates and give the best show times to the masala star vehicles. In recent times,
debutant Ritesh Batras film The Lunchbox was able to navigate through this nexus and to find box office
success and global appreciation; and that in itself makes it a remarkable film. Of course, the film was able to

get that kind of visibility because it was backed by mainstream giants in India, as well as renowned film
personnel from over the world; which is reassuring because global players are beginning to take notice of
Indian films enough to invest their faith and fortunes in them.
The films story about desperate loneliness shared by two strangersSaajan Fernandez, a grumpy widower
who is about to opt for voluntary retirement, and Ila, a housewife and mother who is feverishly trying to win
back her husbands affectionturning into love within the backdrop of urban chaos is certainly not a novel
one, but the film managed to strike a global chord because of the universal emotions it captures. The film
espouses a rare quality which is often attributed to Satyajit Rays workit is so deeply rooted in its cultural
milieu that the world it creates is almost completely real and thus immediately relatable. Subsequently the
sentiments attached become as real and passionate as human emotions can be on screen. This in turn lends a
universal quality to the conditions of the characters, and indeed the film too. The Dabbawallah culture
through which Ila and Saajan make their initial contact is unique to Mumbai and may take outsiders a
moment to orient themselves to it, but the idea of something mystical lending itself to make unlikely love
happen is an universal one. The film uses the claustrophobia of Mumbai to further separate Saajan and Ila
from everything around them and add to their isolation, thus heightening the passions associated with the
individuals and making them more unanimously relatable. For example, the extent of Saajans loneliness is
fully realized by the audience, and indeed Saajan himself, when he cannot help himself from peeking into
the happy dining room of a neighboring family while he smokes alone on his balcony.
The contemporary New Wave in Indian cinema is distinguishable from previous movements through several
factors, the most relevant of which are the issues and themes it concerns itself with. Unlike in the past when
Indias existence was a story of nation building, and thus the works of Avante Garde filmmakers were
entirely socio-political in nature where the plot and characters served only as commentary on worldly
matters concerning the Indian nation, today India is a nation that has made its mark on the global landscape
and is now debating its identity. It is a relatively more affluent and secure state, and consequently the
concerns of people have moved away from the world outside to the world insideor perhaps it is a
reflection of the egocentric times we live in, that matters concerning personal well being of the individual
have taken precedence over well being of the state as overarching entity. It is the characters and their unique
psychological issues that take the forefront in contemporary New Wave Indian films. Of course, the sociopolitical climate still plays an integral part, but as a backdrop. While Lakshmi in Ankur had to deal with
her tribulations because of her caste and position in society, Ilas troubles in The Lunchbox arise out of her
personal relationship with her husband. Yes, the fact that she is a middle class housewife with a child does
restrict her to a large extent, but her conflict does not directly arise out of that.
With the exception of the Bengali trio of Ray, Ghatak, and Sen, almost every New Wave Indian filmmaker
had adopted a laissez faire approach as far as the craft of their making went. Films like Ankur, Uski Roti,
and Ardh Satya kept the focus on the narrative and adopted an almost dry approach in utilizing
cinematography and other tools of filmmaking. Of course, there was the odd Om Dar Badar, which twisted
cinematic storytelling on its head, but such incidents remained a rarity in Indian cinema. The current crop of
New Wave filmmakers, like the Hollywood brat pack of the 1970s, are aware of their role as artistes and
storytellers, but more specifically as filmmakers. While watching films like Dhobi Ghat, Gandu, Ship of
Theseus, or The Lunchbox, the audience is very much made aware that the lights, sounds, rhythms, and
patterns bombarding their senses are tools in the hands of the makers. Kiran Rao told an entire story using
talking heads recorded by the subject on a handycam in Dhobi Ghat, Q mocked all limitations of editing
and production design to create a world with his unique stamp in Taasher Desh, and Ritesh Batra placed
known actors like Irrfan Khan and Nawazuddin in real nooks and corners of Mumbai which would only be
populated by native Mumbaikars lending a quality of authenticity to the film that the most craftily casted
sets could not.

The last few years, and more specifically 2013, has given exposure to more Avant Garde Indian films than
can be covered in one article. While the impact made has been too minute to challenge the establish norms
of filmmaking in India, and the concerned time span too little to conclude towards the beginning of a new
New Wave in Indian cinema, one can positively assert that cine-goers are spoilt for choice. Be it Qs trippy
take on Tagores Taasher Desh, Kaushik Gangulys meta look at the world of a foley artist loosing his
hearing in Shabdo, or the upcoming M Cream which explores the curious relationship between frivolity
and rebellion, Indian filmmakers are going placesperhaps not yet in the geographical or market sense, but
surely in their own mind spaces. This is a vital first step.