CHAPTER-10

LOST CIRCULATION

Lost circulation is defined as the total or partial loss of drilling

fluids or cement slurries into highly permeable zones, cavernous
formations, and natural or induced fractures during drilling or cementing
operations. Lost circulation must not be confused with fluid loss which is
more related to primary porosity, whereas lost circulation can occur in
formations with both primary and secondary porosities.
Lost circulation can be an expensive and time-consuming problem.
During drilling, this loss may vary from a gradual lowering of the mud in
the pits to a complete loss of returns.
The major consequences of lost circulation include the following:
-The possibility of a blowout because of a drop in the mud level.
-The possibility of sticking the drill pipe because of poor cuttings
removal.
-No zonal isolation due to insufficient cement fill-up.
-Excessive cost because of loss of mud, increased rig time, and remedial
cementing operations.
-Losses to the producing zone resulting in extensive formation damage.

-The loss of the well

Seeping losses can occur with any type of lost circulation zone,
when the solids in the mud are not sufficiently fine to seal the formation
face. Partial losses frequently occur in highly permeable gravels, small
natural fractures, or as a result of fracture initiation. Complete losses
are usually confined to long gravel sections, large natural fractures, wide
induced fractures, or cavernous formations

Classification of lost-circulation zones

Severity classification for lost circulation is as follows:

Type of losses

Severity

Seeping (minor)

Less than 10 bbl/hr

Partial (medium)

10 to 500 bbl/hr

Complete (severe)

Total, unable to keep the hole

full

In addition, it is common to classify lost-circulation zones into four

categories.
-Unconsolidated or highly permeable formations
-Natural fractures or fissures

-Induced vertical or horizontal fractures

-Cavernous or vugular formations
Identifying features of lost circulation zones;
Porous Sands and Gravels
-Gradual lowering of the mud level in pits
-Losses may become complete, if drilling is continued
-Since rock permeability must exceed about 10d before whole mud can
penetrate, and oil and gas sand permeability seldom exceeds about 3.5d,
it is improbable that loose sands are the cause of mud loss to an oil or gas
sand unless the loss can be attributed to the ease with which this type of
formation fractures
Natural Fractures
-May occur in any type of rock
-Loss is evidenced by gradual lowering of the mud in the pits. If drilling is
continued and more fractures are exposed, complete loss of returns may
be experienced.
-Fracture must have a finite supported with to take mud
Induced Fractures
-Occur where fractures are horizontal in any formation under mud rings

-Loss is usually sudden and accompanied by complete loss of returns.

Conditions are conductive to forming induced fractures when mud weight
exceeds 10.5 lb/gal
-Loss may follow any surge of pressure of trip
-When loss of circulation occurs and adjacent wells have not experienced
lost circulation, induced factures should be expected.
Cavernous Zones
-Normally confined to limestone
-Loss of returns may be sudden and complete
-Bit may drop several inches to several feet just preceding loss
-Drilling may be rough before loss

Lost Circulation While Drilling

It is possible to classify the available solutions in three categories
and there is an optimum technique for solving each particular type and
severity of a lost circulation problem.
Bridging Agents in the Drilling Fluid: When the loss of mud is first
detected, immediate consideration should be given to the possibility of
reducing and maintaining the mud weight at the minimum necessary to
control the formation pore pressure. Reduced mud pressure will help
combat losses no matter what types of formations are exposed. A

continuing partial loss of returns is indicative of seepage, and can usually

be solved by decreasing the equivalent mud circulating density, or by
adding Lost Circulation Materials (LCMs) to the drilling mud. Decreasing
the weight of the mud or its downhole rheological properties can reduce
the equivalent mud circulating density. According to their physical nature
and mechanism of action; LCMs can be classified into four categories;
-Granular
-Lamellar
-Fibrous
-Encapsulated
The granular LCMs form two types of bridges; one at the
formation face and one within the formation matrix. The latter type of
sealing is preferred because a more permanent bridge forms within the
formation, and pipe movement in the wellbore does not easily dislodge the
granular particles. The effectiveness of granular LCMs depends primarily
on a proper particle-size distribution, with larger particles first forming
a bridge across or within the void, and the smaller particles bridging the
openings between the larger particles. This process continues until the
void spaces become smaller than the drilling mud solids. The problem
finally becomes one of filtration. A blend of large, medium, and small
particles, or one of large and small particles, is most commonly used.

Fibrous materials are best used for controlling losses to porous and
highly permeable formations, because they are able to form a mat-like
bridge over the pore openings. The mat reduces the size of the openings
to the formation, permitting the colloidal particles in the mud to rapidly
deposit a filter cake. Flake LCMs are also designed to bridge and form a
mat on the formation face, also providing the best results when treating
losses to permeable and porous formations.
Blends of granular, flake, and fibrous LCMs are effective in solving actual
field problems. This strategy provides a gradation of particles size as
well as variation of material types for sealing different classes of lost
circulation zones.
Another important parameter is that; the effectiveness of a plug in
preventing fluid loss into a fracture depends on the mechanical strength
of the plug as well as its permeability. The portion of the plug responsible
for its mechanical strength is the bridge, and the portion that controls
the plug permeability is the filter.
Single Particle Bridging: If the dimension of a particle normal to the
fracture direction is larger than the width of the fracture opening;
single-particle bridging is possible. This type of bridging can also occur
inside a fracture at locations where it undergoes a sudden reduction in
width

Multiple Particle Bridging: If all particle dimensions are smaller than the
fracture width, bridges are possible only when two-three particles
interact to form a stable arch from one fracture wall to the other.
Consider a two-particle bridge at the fracture undergoes a sudden
reduction in width. It is assumed for simplicity that the two particles are
identical in shape, size, and mechanical properties
Implications of Bridging Models: The mathematical models for the single
and two particle bridges indicate that the particle size and shape play
important

role

in

determining

the

maximum

allowable

pressure

differential across the plug. The result has implications with respect to
particle-size distribution and concentration in the drilling fluid
A wide distribution of particle sizes makes available many
combinations of particle sizes for bridging a wide range of fracture
widths. The bridging models show that stable bridges can develop only
with particles of certain dimensions relative to the fracture width. As a
result, particles outside an effective range for a fracture of interest do
not contribute to a stable bridge, although they may act as filter
material. Consequently, a tailored particle-size distribution for a narrow
range of fracture widths should provide the best plugging capabilities.

A higher particle concentration at the fracture site improves the

probability of forming a bridge and decreases the volume of drilling fluid
that passes through the fracture before a plug forms.
Also a lot of tests are performed. The results obtained are as follows;
-The modified version of the API bridging materials tester improves the
data quality of slot tests, making it a more effective tool for screening
potential LCMs
-The large-scale LCTF more accurately simulates dynamic flowing
conditions

prevalent

in

fracture-plugging

applications.

Significant

differences in plugging performance are noted between the LTCF and the
API tester with some materials
-The PMPT complements the slot tests by measuring the material
properties important in bridge-plugging mechanics and has proved
valuable in measuring the elastic modulus, compressive strength, and
softening temperature of LCM particles. The softening temperature
correlated well with the effects of temperature on laboratory slotplugging performance
-Effective theoretical models of one and two particle bridging mechanics
were developed that predict the maximum pressure differential
sustainable by a plug. Variables in the models include the size and shape
of the bridging particles relative to the fracture width as well as the

mechanical properties of the particles. The models were shown to provide

accurate predictions of slot-plugging test results
-Plugging performance plots that allow the comparison of LCMs of
different particle sizes and different types in fractures of known width
can also help to determine the potential for plugging bit nozzles in field
LCM applications. Plugging performance plots developed for several
commercial LCMs have potential in severe, fracture-dominated, under
pressured loss zones.
-Particle size distribution is an important factor in the bridge-plugging
process. Quality control is important in the LCM manufacturing process to
ensure economical use of materials with consistent results in field
applications

Surface Mixed Systems:

Cement Plugs: Neat cement slurries are effective for solving seeping or
minor loss, with the advantage of providing high final compressive
strengths. Slurries with a limited degree of fluid-loss control can be used
to solve seeping, partial, or total losses, and contain a mixture of clays,
diatomaceous earth, and LCMs. The size of the LCM is increased as the
losses become more severe. Low-density cement systems can be used for

any type of lost circulation problem. They have the added advantage of
reducing the hydrostatic pressure.
Thixotropy is a term used to describe the property exhibited by a system
that is fluid under shear, but develops a gel structure when the shear is
stopped. In practical terms, thixotropic systems are fluid during mixing
and displacement, but rapidly form a rigid, self-supporting gel structure
when pumping ceases. When thixotropic slurry enters a lost circulation
zone, the velocity of the leading edge decreases and a gel structure
starts to form. As the gel strength develops, resistance to flow increases
until the entire zone is plugged. Such systems are very effective for
solving severe lost circulation to naturally fractured formations.
Other Surface- Mixed Systems: Systems that do not contain Portland
cement usually involve a gelling agent with an activator. After a given
period of time, or due to an increase inn temperature, the components
react to form a no flowing mass. The advantage of such systems as the
ability to predict when the mixture will change from a liquid to a solid. In
general they are most applicable to partial lost-circulation problems in
high-permeability sandstones, or for sealing micro fissures.
In cases, where the lost circulation zone is also a zone of interest, either
for production or injection purposes, it may be necessary to design the
plugging material for eventual removal during the completion of the well.

Such systems are generally acid soluble, consisting of bridging agents

slurried in a viscous fluid, or cementitious materials.
Typical bridging materials include ground calcium carbonate particles with
diameters ranging from 0.0003 in. to 0.01 in. they are used at
concentrations up to 10 lb/bbl of carrying fluid. Assuming a relatively
homogeneous sandstone formation where the sand grains are of similar
size, it is possible to predict the required particle size of calcium
carbonate to form a bridge in the pore throats of the formation matrix
thereby reducing the loss of fluid.
Downhole Mixed Systems:

Downhole mixed systems consist of two or

more fluids, which, upon making contact in the wellbore or the lost
circulation zone, form a viscous plug or a precipitate, which seals the
zone. It I common practice to prevent the mixing of the fluids until they
are in front of the lost circulation zone, by pumping a spacer or by
pumping one fluid down the drillstring while the other fluid is
simultaneously pumped down the annulus.
For partial losses better success is achieved by Mud-Diesel-Oil-Bentonite
(M-DOB) plugs instead of LCMs. M-DOB plugs are a combination of diesel
oil and bentonite and are sometimes called gunk plugs. When this mixture
contacts water or water base mud, a mass with high gel strength is
formed. Soft, controlling the proportions of the indigriends may form

medium, and hard plugs. The DOB slurry is pumped down the drillpipe, and
the mud down the annulus.
M-DOB plugs suffer from several drawbacks:
-They break down with time
-They are difficult to apply in long openhole intervals
-When losses are severe, it is impossible to achieve a reliable pumping
rate down the annulus; therefore, the degree of mixing cannot be
controlled.
-No compressive strength is developed.

Lost Circulation During Cementing

Before initiating a conventional primary cementing operation, the
lost circulation problem should be eliminated or significantly reduced by
the techniques described above. If this is not possible, or losses are
anticipated during primary cementing job, there are two possible options.
The first is to maintain the downhole pressures during the job below the
maximum equivalent mud circulating density, either by reducing the
density of the cement slurry, minimizing the height of the cement column,
or limiting the casing and annular friction pressures during the placement
of the cement slurry. The second option is to pump a plugging material as
a spacer in front of the cement slurry, add lost circulation materials to

the cement slurry itself, or use special additives which impart thixotropic
properties to the cement slurry. When trying to prevent cement losses to
highly fractured or vugular formations, it is often necessary to use a
combination of techniques.

Downhole Pressure Reduction

Computer

simulators

can

calculate

the

estimated

downhole

pressures at ant particular depth in the well, and at any time during the
cementing operation. This enables the operator to know exactly which
cement slurry parameters and job procedures are required to prevent
lost circulation and maintain adequate hydrostatic pressure in front of
permeable zones. The most relevant parameter is the cement slurry
density, which may be reduced by adding one or more cement extenders
The rheological properties of cement slurry may also be adjusted
to provide lower friction pressure losses during placement. This is
especially critical in narrow annuli where viscous slurries can cause very
high friction pressures
The downhole pressure exerted on lost circulation zones can also
be decreased by using mechanical devices such as stage collars or

external casing packers (ECPs). Stage collars permit the casing string to
be cemented in two or three stages, lowering the dynamic and hydrostatic
pressures.
To reduce the risk of cement fallback if losses do occur, a special
stage collar with a pack off adaptation can be used which, when expanded,
provides a seal between the casing and the formation to prevent
downward fluid movement. Cement baskets can be placed just below the
stage collar to provide the same effect. A typical application would be a
two-stage job with an ECP just above the lost circulation zone, and a
stage collar just above the ECP. After the first stage is performed, the
ECP is expanded to seal the annulus, preventing the transmission of
hydrostatic pressure to lower zones. However, if the size of the hole is
larger than anticipated, the ECP may fail to provide a perfect seal
because of insufficient lateral expansion.

Lost Circulation Materials for Cement Slurries

When LCMs are used in the cement slurry, care must be taken to
ensure that the materials are inert to the cement composition. Also the
size and the concentration of the materials should be selected to avoid
bridging or plugging of the downhole equipment. The morphologies of the

materials are the same as those used in drilling fluids. The most common
LCMs for cement slurries are of the granular type, designed to bridge at
the formation face or within the matrix. Gilsonite, a naturally occurring
black asphalite hydrocarbon with a particle size between 8 and 60 mesh,
is widely used. Crushed coal, with a standard mesh size of 14 to 200 is
applied in the same manner as gilstone and can be used in high
temperature wells. Cellophane flake with diameters of

in. is the most

common flake material. Fibrous materials are seldom used in cement

slurries because they can plug cementing equipment. In addition, some
organic chemicals may be present that may retard the thickening time of
the cement slurry.

Thixotropic Cement Systems

The self-supporting property of thixotropic cements is useful
across formations with low fracture gradients. When ordinary slurries
pass over a weak zone, the increase in hydrostatic pressure can cause
formation breakdown. As a result, the top of the cement falls to a point
below the desired level of fill-up. Thixotropic slurries do not fall back,
because some of the hydrostatic pressure is transmitted to the
formation face and casing walls.

Identification of Type of Loss Zone

1-Find the exact depth of the loss zone
Loss zones usually are not at the bit depth as reported with the
expectation of the point of first loss. In most cases, losses occur at the
point of the first loss where the loss zone was sealed but reopened as
drilling proceeded.
Drilling and mud logs will help to find the point of first loss. Evidence of
where the loss zone is can be obtained from how the lost circulation
material performed and where they were found in the hole.Temperature
survey or gamma-ray log and radioactive material can be used.
2-Find the Type of Lost Zone
It is the best determined by litho logy and amount of losses. Depth is
the factor that gives an indicator of whether fractures are vertical or
horizontal.
3-Severity of Loss Zone
It is the best determines by the amount of losses and the static mud
column weight.

Lost Circulation Techniques and materials

Technique 1: Pull up and Wait
This procedure can solve seeping, partial or complete losses due to
induced vertical fractures. The fractures could be induced accidentally.
If pressure is released, the fracture will close and heal, and will support
virtually the same pressure as before being fractured.
Technique 2: Plug of Bridging Agents in Mud (Water and Oil Base)
Use of bridging materials in mud against seeping and partial losses
can be successful in all types of loss zone. Size and concentration of
bridging agent must be adjusted to the severity of the losses.
Technique 3: High Filter Loss Slurry Squeeze
This technique consists in squeezing into the loss zone a thick
slurry carrying different kind of lost circulation materials. The kind and
size of the lost circulation material depend on the severity of the loss.

Example of slurry:
-80 bbl water + 15-20 lb/bbl Attapulgite or Sepiolite or
-80 bbl water pretreated with : 25 lb/bbl sodium and 0.25 lb/bbl caustic
soda to remove calcium and magnesium ions + 5-20 lb/bbl bentonite. Allow
the clay yield.
-Add 0.5 lb/bbl lime and 50 lb/bbl diatomaceous earth material.

-Add lost circulation material.

Technique 3A: High Water Loss, High Solids Squeeze with Cements
The addition of cement into the high water loss, high solids slurry
might convert the temporary plug to a permanent one.
The dehydration of the slurry will leave the fracture packed with solids
and further setting of cement will plug the loss permanently.
Technique 4: Cements (Neat, Extended, Thixotropic)
The facility of changing cement slurry properties makes it a very
useful tool for lost circulation. They can be used against complete losses
to gravels, horizontal natural or induced fractures and natural vertical
fractures.
-Neat Portland Cement
-Bentonite or Attapulgite Cement
-Portland Cement with Lost Circulation Materials
Gilsonite or Kolite can be added to cement slurries that are being
used to regain cements. They will act as bridging agent preventing the
slurry to go further into the fractures.
Portland Cement with frac sand
Frac sand will provide bridging properties required to start the bridge
against which dehydration starts.
Light weight cement systems

Loss zones which do not have fluids flowing through can be sealed with
special light weight slurries, balancing squeezing and letting the slurry to
set.
Thixotropic cements
Developing of high gel strength once stopped help the cement to
remain close to the well bore.
Technique 5: Downhole Mixed Soft Plugs
Best application against induced fractures and to hold cement slurries at
or near the well bore until they set.
Mud Diesel Oil Bentonite
DOB is mixed and displaced through the pipe. Mud is pumped to the
annulus when the slurry reaches the sub. This will form a soft plug M +
DOB into the fracture.
Zonelock S
It is a solution of D 75 in water which when in contact with a calcium
or heavy sodium brine will form a permanent gel D 75 solution and calcium
chloride solution are pumped through pipe, separated by a spacer (fresh
water). Components will mix while being squeezed into the loss zone,
forming a gelatine type gel.

Polymer plug
DOWELL polymer plug is a 10:90 blend of a polymer bentonite
slurries in diesel oil or other light oil. Polymer plug is mixed with fresh or
salt water base mud results in the hydration of the polymer and bentonite
giving a nearly permanent plug in loss zones.

Technique 6: Downhole Mixed Soft-Hard Plugs

Diesel Oil Bentonite-2-Cement
This technique is similar to the DOB plug but cement once in
contact with formation water will set leaving a permanent hard seal.
It is not applicable where oil muds are in use.
Zonelock 5C
It consists in a zonelock S system followed by a cement slurry.
Cement and slurry are separated by a solution of M8 in fresh water.
The cement will as soon it contracts the D 75 solution, sealing the loss
zone.
Oil Mud-Water-Oleophilic Bentonite
WOB is placed in the same manner as DOB except that water (not
diesel oil) is run ahead and behind it and it is mixed downhole by adding oil
base mud to it.

Lost Circulation Materials

There are three basic ways that circulation may be lost during a
cementing job. Part of the slurry may be lost to a porous formation.
Second, some zones are highly fractured, and here the loss of circulation
may be partial or complete. Third, the most prevalent type of lost
circulations during cementing operations is to a weak formation. Here, a
small over-balanced of the formation pressure is sufficient to cause the
formation to part and to take fluid into the induced fracture.
Usually, the operator will have some idea of where fluid loss may
occur during cementing operations from his experience in drilling the well.
When slurry loss to the formation is anticipated, then one of the many
commonly used lost-circulation materials can be added to the cement.
These materials are made to block or bridge excessive permeability or
fractures, and thus to stop the loss of slurry.
Another method of combating lost-circulation is to lighten the
slurry density so that a lesser load will be imposed on the formation and
there will be less tendency to induce fractures. Slurries may be lightened
by use of extenders. When the slurry weight is thus made less, the
hydrostatic head is correspondingly lowered, and the pressure against the
formation may be lowered enough to keep the formation from opening up
and taking the slurry. Actually, the two methods of lost-circulation

control may be used either singularly or together. If cement is lost

primarily because an over-balance of formation pressure is large enough
to fracture the formation, a low-density cement may be used. On the
other hand, if the formation already contains existing fractures, various
bridging materials are incorporated into the cement slurry. The two
methods (lightening the slurry and adding bridging materials) may also be
used simultaneously. In the case of a weak formation, containing natural
fractures, it would be desirable to have this combination of low density
cement containing a bridging material.

Lost Circulation material for Drilling Fluid and Cement

J15 is a granular and sized lost circulation material that has been
used for a number of years in mud and cement slurries. J15 is made by
crushing and screening a set phenol-formaldehyde plastic. In lost
circulation and cementing problems, J15 is a replacement for walnut
shells, particularly in high temperature wells where eliminating the
undesirable chemical effects of tannic acid released by the walnut shells
offsets the additional cost of J15. Tannic acid thins muds and is a strong
retarder for cement slurries. J15 is non-reactive at high temperatures
more than 180 F. It is physical properties reddish-brown color, its size is
granular and specific gravity is 1.2. J15 is a special material and is used

under conditions of high temperature and chemical inertness to offset

cost. It performs the same function as walnut shells at a much higher
temperature and has application under certain conditions.