IGSCE Revision Notes

I.G.C.S.E.
Mathematics
Extension Level
Revision Notes
June 2008
Primes, Factors, Powers and Standard Form..................................................................................5

Prime numbers......................................................................................................................................................................5
Factors..................................................................................................................................................................................5
Prime Factors........................................................................................................................................................................5
Common Factors and Highest Common Factor...................................................................................................................6
Multiples...............................................................................................................................................................................6
Common Multiples and Lowest Common Multiple.............................................................................................................6
Square numbers....................................................................................................................................................................6
Triangular numbers...............................................................................................................................................................7
Square roots and prime factors.............................................................................................................................................7
Indices (Powers)..................................................................................................................................................................7
Standard Form......................................................................................................................................................................8
Converting from standard form to an ordinary number.....................................................................................................8
Converting TO standard form...............................................................................................................................................8
Combining numbers in standard form..................................................................................................................................9
Introduction to Algebra...................................................................................................................... 9
Substituting in formulae.......................................................................................................................................................9
Simplifying expressions and brackets..................................................................................................................................9
Solving equations...............................................................................................................................................................10
Re-arranging formulae........................................................................................................................................................11
English statements and equivalent mathematical expressions...........................................................................................12
Forming equations..............................................................................................................................................................12
Inequalities..........................................................................................................................................................................13
Miscellaneous Number.................................................................................................................... 13
Long Multiplication............................................................................................................................................................13
Long Division.....................................................................................................................................................................14
Fractions - proper, mixed, and improper fractions.........................................................................................................14
Converting from mixed fractions to top heavy fractions..............................................................................................................................................14
Converting from top heavy fractions to mixed fractions..............................................................................................................................................14
Adding and subtracting fractions..................................................................................................................................................................................14
Reciprocals....................................................................................................................................................................................................................15
Multiplying and dividing fractions...............................................................................................................................................................................15
Converting a decimal to a fraction................................................................................................................................................................................15
Fractions and recurring decimals..................................................................................................................................................................................16
Negative numbers...............................................................................................................................................................16
Rounding off to the nearest ................................................................................................................................................16
Rough approximations........................................................................................................................................................16
Sequences........................................................................................................................................ 17
Sequences from rules..........................................................................................................................................................17
Standard sequences.............................................................................................................................................................18
Perimeters and Areas....................................................................................................................... 18

Perimeter.............................................................................................................................................................................18
Area....................................................................................................................................................................................19
Volumes and Surface Areas............................................................................................................ 19

Surface Areas......................................................................................................................................................................19
Volumes..............................................................................................................................................................................20
Prisms............................................................................................................................................................................................................................20
Pyramids........................................................................................................................................................................................................................20
Converting Units.................................................................................................................................................................20
Lengths..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................20
Areas.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................21
Volumes.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................21
Statistics 1........................................................................................................................................ 22
Mode, median and range....................................................................................................................................................22
Median, quartiles and interquartile range...........................................................................................................................22
Mean...................................................................................................................................................................................23
Frequency tables and tally charts........................................................................................................................................23
Bar chartsand line graphs...................................................................................................................................................24
Histograms..........................................................................................................................................................................24
12/12/16 IGCSE Extension Level Revision SDB
Pie charts.............................................................................................................................................................................25
Finding the mode and mean from a grouped frequency table............................................................................................26
Surveys, questionnaires and sampling................................................................................................................................26
Percentages...................................................................................................................................... 27
Percentages as fractions and decimals................................................................................................................................27
Finding a percentage of a given number.............................................................................................................................27
Percentage increases and decreases....................................................................................................................................27
Finding the original number after a percentage change.....................................................................................................28
Simple interest....................................................................................................................................................................28
Compound increases or decreases......................................................................................................................................28
Expressing one number as a percentage of another............................................................................................................29
Geometry.......................................................................................................................................... 29
Angle properties.................................................................................................................................................................29
Acute, obtuse and reflex angles....................................................................................................................................................................................29
Angles on a line, vertically opposite and round a point................................................................................................................................................29
Parallel lines..................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
Bearings..............................................................................................................................................................................30
Angles of elevation and depression....................................................................................................................................30
Triangles.............................................................................................................................................................................31
Angles in a triangle add up to 180o...............................................................................................................................................................................31
Exterior angle equals sum of the two interior opposite angles.....................................................................................................................................31
Equilateral and isosceles triangles................................................................................................................................................................................31
Congruence.........................................................................................................................................................................32
Quadrilaterals......................................................................................................................................................................33
Special quadrilaterals....................................................................................................................................................................................................33
Polygons.............................................................................................................................................................................33
Regular polygons................................................................................................................................................................34
Sets................................................................................................................................................... 34
Set Notation........................................................................................................................................................................34
Venn diagrams....................................................................................................................................................................35
Functions.......................................................................................................................................... 35
Notation..............................................................................................................................................................................35
Composite functions...........................................................................................................................................................35
Inverse functions.................................................................................................................................................................36
Transformations............................................................................................................................... 36
Translations.........................................................................................................................................................................36
Combining translations.................................................................................................................................................................................................36
Rotations.............................................................................................................................................................................36
Finding the centre of rotation........................................................................................................................................................................................37
Reflections..........................................................................................................................................................................37
Enlargements......................................................................................................................................................................37
Positive scale factor......................................................................................................................................................................................................37
Fraction scale factor......................................................................................................................................................................................................38
Negative scale factor.....................................................................................................................................................................................................38
Pythagoras........................................................................................................................................ 38
Ratio.................................................................................................................................................. 39
Sharing in the ratio of two numbers...................................................................................................................................39
Sharing in the ratio of three numbers.................................................................................................................................39
Map Scales..........................................................................................................................................................................39
Trigonometry 1................................................................................................................................. 40
SOH CAH TOA............................................................................................................................................................................................................40
The awkward case, x on the denominator........................................................................................................................40
Quadratic functions & factorising...................................................................................................41

Multiplying out two brackets - F O I L...........................................................................................................................41
Factorising..........................................................................................................................................................................41
General examples of factorising.........................................................................................................................................41
Algebraic fractions.............................................................................................................................................................42
Quadratic equations......................................................................................................................... 42
Solution by factorising........................................................................................................................................................42
Solution by completing the square.....................................................................................................................................42
Quadratic equation formula................................................................................................................................................43
Simultaneous equations.................................................................................................................. 43
Solving by elimination........................................................................................................................................................43
Graphs 1........................................................................................................................................... 44
Distance between two points..............................................................................................................................................44
Gradient..............................................................................................................................................................................44
Mid-point............................................................................................................................................................................45
Straight lines, y = mx + c...................................................................................................................................................45
Parallel lines.......................................................................................................................................................................45
Plotting curves....................................................................................................................................................................46
Standard graphs.............................................................................................................................................................................................................47
Probability......................................................................................................................................... 48
Possible outcomes...............................................................................................................................................................48
Equally likely outcomes................................................................................................................................................................................................48
Probability and relative frequency......................................................................................................................................48

Two or three coins..............................................................................................................................................................48
Two dice.............................................................................................................................................................................48
Coin and spinner.................................................................................................................................................................49
Tree diagrams.....................................................................................................................................................................49
With replacement..........................................................................................................................................................................................................49
Without replacement.....................................................................................................................................................................................................50
Compound events...............................................................................................................................................................50
Complements (not).......................................................................................................................................................................................................50
Exclusive, OR............................................................................................................................................................................................................51
Independent, AND......................................................................................................................................................................................................51
Trigonometry 2................................................................................................................................. 52
3-Dimensional problems.....................................................................................................................................................52
Lengths and angles........................................................................................................................................................................................................52
Sine & cosine for angles between 90o and 180o.................................................................................................................53

Graphs...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................53
Solving equations..........................................................................................................................................................................................................53
Sine and Cosine rules,area of a triangle.............................................................................................................................54

Sine rule........................................................................................................................................................................................................................54
Cosine Rule...................................................................................................................................................................................................................54
Area of a triangle................................................................................................................................................................55
Proportion......................................................................................................................................... 56
Direct proportion...........................................................................................................................................................................................................56
Inverse proportion.........................................................................................................................................................................................................56
Similar figures.................................................................................................................................. 57
Similarity............................................................................................................................................................................57
Corresponding sides and enlargement................................................................................................................................58
Corresponding sides factor............................................................................................................................................................................................58
Enlargement factor........................................................................................................................................................................................................58
Areas and volumes of similar figures.................................................................................................................................59
Statistics 2........................................................................................................................................ 60
Scatter graphs and lines of best fit......................................................................................................................................60
Correlation..........................................................................................................................................................................60
Cumulative frequency graphs.............................................................................................................................................61
Finding median and quartiles from a cumulative frequency graph..............................................................................................................................62
Percentiles.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................62
Kinematics........................................................................................................................................ 63
Distance, speed and time....................................................................................................................................................63
Basic results..................................................................................................................................................................................................................63
Gradient of a distance time curve..............................................................................................................................................................................63
Gradient of a speed time curve..................................................................................................................................................................................63
Area under a speed time curve...................................................................................................................................................................................63
Converting units - speeds...................................................................................................................................................64
Accuracy........................................................................................................................................... 65
Decimal places and significant figures...............................................................................................................................65
To nearest 5 or nearest 10 etc............................................................................................................................................65
Limits of accuracy in calculations......................................................................................................................................65
Graphical Inequalities...................................................................................................................... 66
Inequalities in one variable.................................................................................................................................................66
Lines and points............................................................................................................................................................................................................66
Inequalities....................................................................................................................................................................................................................66
Inequalities in two variables...............................................................................................................................................67

Lines and points............................................................................................................................................................................................................67
Inequalities....................................................................................................................................................................................................................67
Practical situations..............................................................................................................................................................68
Translating english statements into mathematics..........................................................................................................................................................68
Types of number............................................................................................................................... 70
Natural numbers, integers and rational numbers................................................................................................................70
Irrational numbers...............................................................................................................................................................70
Real numbers......................................................................................................................................................................70
Converting fraction to decimal.....................................................................................................................................................................................70
Converting recurring decimal to fration........................................................................................................................................................................70
Circle Geometry............................................................................................................................... 71
Segments and sectors..........................................................................................................................................................71
Length of arc and area of sector.........................................................................................................................................71
Tangents..............................................................................................................................................................................72
Angle properties.................................................................................................................................................................72
Constructions with compass and ruler..........................................................................................73

Perpendicular bisector........................................................................................................................................................73
Angle bisector.....................................................................................................................................................................74
Dropping a perpendicular from a point to a line................................................................................................................74
Constructing a 60o angle.....................................................................................................................................................74
Loci.................................................................................................................................................... 75
Common loci......................................................................................................................................................................75
Matrices............................................................................................................................................. 76
Size.....................................................................................................................................................................................76
Adding matrices..................................................................................................................................................................76
Multiplying matrices by a number......................................................................................................................................76
Multiplying matrices...........................................................................................................................................................76
Data matrices......................................................................................................................................................................77
2 2 matrices.....................................................................................................................................................................77
Identity matrix...............................................................................................................................................................................................................77
Determinant...................................................................................................................................................................................................................77
Inverse matrices............................................................................................................................................................................................................78
Transformations and 2
2 Matrices..............................................................................................79
Matrices as transformations................................................................................................................................................79
Base vectors........................................................................................................................................................................81
Common transformations...................................................................................................................................................82
Enlargements, stretches and shears.....................................................................................................................................83
Enlargements.................................................................................................................................................................................................................83
Stretches........................................................................................................................................................................................................................83
Shears............................................................................................................................................................................................................................84
Vectors.............................................................................................................................................. 85
Position vector....................................................................................................................................................................85
Adding, multiplying............................................................................................................................................................85
Magnitude...........................................................................................................................................................................85
Adding vectors in a diagram.........................................................................................................................................................................................86
Primes, Factors, Powers and Standard Form

Prime numbers
A prime number is a number which has only two factors, 1 and the number itself:
15 has factors 1, 3, 5 and 15 so 15 is not prime.
7 can only has two factors, 1 and 7, so 7 is prime.
The first few prime numbers are: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59 ...
Factors
2 divides into 12 so 2 is a factor of 12: other factors are 3, 4, and 6 - also 1 and 12:
so the complete set of factors of 12 is 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.
For large numbers write down the factors in pairs - be methodical about it:
Factors of 80 are
1
2
4
5
8
80
40
20
16
10
and we can see easily that it is now time to stop!
Prime Factors
Factors which are also prime numbers are called prime factors.
21 is a factor of 42 but is not a prime so is not a prime factor.
2 is a factor of 42 and is prime so is a prime factor; so also are 3 and 7 prime factors of 42
and we can write 42 as a product of its prime factors, 42 = 2 3 7.
50 has prime factors 2 and 5 (twice) and we write 50 as a product of its prime factors as
50 = 2 5 5 or 50 = 2 52.
For larger numbers we find pairs of factors repeatedly to find the prime factors
1260
= 10
126
= 2 5 2 63
=25 2 9 7
=25 2 33 7
=223357
writing factors in ascending order
so we write 1260 = 22 32 5 7.
Common Factors and Highest Common Factor

The complete set of factors of 12 is 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.
The complete set of factors of 18 is 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18.
Notice that 1, 2, 3, 6 are all factors of both 12 and 18 and are called common factors of 12 and
18.
6 is the biggest common factor of both 12 and 18 and is called the Highest Common Factor,
or H.C.F. of 12 and 18.
For larger numbers it is usually helpful to write each one as a product of its prime factors: so
to find the H.C.F. of 120 and 144 we first write
120 = 2 2 2 3 5
and
= 22235
144 = 2 2 2 2 3 3 = 2 2 2 2 3 3
giving the H.C.F. as the product of all the common factors = 2 2 2 3 = 24.
Multiples
Multiples of 6 are 6, 12, 18, 24, ... since 6 divides into each of the numbers.
Common Multiples and Lowest Common Multiple

10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, ...
15, 30, 45, 6075, 90, 105, ...
are all multiples of 10, and
are all multiples of 15.
Notice that 30, 60, 90, ... are multiples of both 10 and 15 and are called common multiples of 10 and
15.
30 is the smallest common multiple of both 10 and 15 and is called the Lowest Common Multiple, or
L.C.M. of 10 and 15.
For larger numbers it is usually helpful to write each one as a product of its prime factors: so to find
the L.C.M. of 48 and 140 we first write
48 = 2 2 2 2 3
and
140 = 2 2 5 7.
To find the L.C.M. write down all the factors of one number
140 = 2 2 5 7
then include the factors from the other number until you just have all its factors
so L.C.M. = 2 2 5 7 2 2 3
(including another 2 would be unnecessary)
= 1680.
Square numbers
12 = 1, 22 = 4, 32 = 9, 42 = 16, 52 = 25, 62 = 36, etc. and so
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, ... are called square numbers.
Triangular numbers
Think of making triangles of balls on the snooker table
1 ball
3 balls
6 balls
add 2
add 3
10 balls
15 balls
add 4
add 5
add 6
and these numbers are called triangular numbers: the first few are
1
3
+2
6
+3
10
+4
15
+5
21
+6
28
+7
36
+8
45
+9
55
+10
...
+11
Square roots and prime factors

254016 can be expressed in prime factors as 26 34 72.
We can use these prime factors to find 254016 by halving each of the powers to give
254016 = 23 32 7 = 8 9 7 = 72 7 = 504
Indices (Powers)
1.
When multiplying, add the powers

45 47 = 45 + 7 = 412
but we cannot do anything with 43 56 because 4 and 5 are different numbers.
2.
When dividing, subtract the powers

79 74 = 79 - 4 = 75
but we cannot do anything with 137 114 because 13 and 11 are different numbers.
3.
(43)2 = 43 2 = 46 ,
4.
60 = 1,
since (43)2 = 43 43 = 43 + 3 = 43 2 = 46.
150 = 1.
Any number to the power 0 is always equal to 1.

5.
8 3
1
,
83
117
1
,
117
5 4
1
.
54
A negative power means one over or one divided by;

5 to the power of negative 4 means
6.
16 2 16 4,
27 3 3 27 3,
1 divided by 5 to the power of positive 4.
32 5 5 32 2.
A fraction one over means the square, cube, fourth etc. root of the number.
7.
Rules 1, 2 and 3 still work for negative, fraction and zero powers.
(i)
5 -3 54 = 5 -3 + 4 = 51 = 5.
7 -4 7 -2 = 7 -4 + -2 = 7 -4 - 2 = 7-6 =
(ii)
1
.
76
35 3 -2 = 35 - -2 = 35 + 2 = 37.
9 -4 96 = 9 -4 - 6 = 9-10 =
1
9 10
11 -3 11 -5 = 11 -3 - -5 = 11 -3 + 5 = 112 = 121
(iii)
(6 -3)4 = 6 -3 4 = 6 -12 =
(iv)
64
(v)
125
64 3
1
52
( 4) 2 16
1
125
=
1
.
612
since minus means turn upside down
1
,
25
since 3 on bottom of fraction is cube root,
125 5
Standard Form
6.42 105 is a number in standard form.
The number bit, 6.42, must always be between 1 and 10 (can be 1 but not 10).
56.3 109 is not in standard form since the number bit, 56.3, is not between 1 and 10.
Converting from standard form to an ordinary number.

(i)
6.42 105
= 6.42 multiplied by 10 five times = 642000.
(ii)
7.34 10 -3
= 7.34 divided by 10 three times
(negative power means divide)
= 0.00734.
Converting TO standard form

(i)
567.3 = 5.67 times 10 twice = 5.67 102.
(ii)
56.3 104
= 56.3 times 10 four times = 563000

= 5.63 times 10 five times = 5.63 105.
(iii)
0.000536
= 5.36 divided by 10 four times
(negative power means divide)
= 5.36 10 -4.
Combining numbers in standard form

1.
Multiplying: multiply the number bits together, and then the powers of 10.
4 105 3.2 103 = (4 3.2) (105 103)
= 12.8 108 = 1.28 101 108 = 1.28 109.
2.
Dividing:
divide the number bits first and then the powers of 10.
(2.7 107) (3 102) =
2.7 10 7 2.7 10 7
0.9 10 7 2
3 10 2
3 10 2
= 0.9 105 = 9 10-1 105 = 9 104 .

3.
Adding and subtracting: you must be careful - you cannot treat this the same way
as and .
First convert to ordinary numbers, then add or subtract, then convert back to
standard form.
(i)
34100
3.41 104 + 4.5 103 = 34100 + 4500 = 4500 38600

= 3.86 104.
(ii)
0.00763
7.63 10 -3 - 4.2 10-4 = 0.00763 - 0.00042 = 0.00042 0.00721

= 7.21 10 -3.
Introduction to Algebra
Substituting in formulae
Writing numbers in place of letters and working out:
note that brackets mean do what is inside first.
Find the value of
a - 3 (b - c)
when a = 4, b = 7 and c = 2.
a - 3 (b - c) = 4 - 3 (7 - 2) = 4 - 3 5 = 4 - 15 = -11.
Simplifying expressions and brackets

Simplifying 3h - 4g + 5h - 7g equals 8h - 11g.
Before removing brackets multiple every term inside by the number outside (if there is one),
but do not remove the brackets yet.
When removing brackets with a minus sign in front, change the sign of every term inside
the bracket, otherwise leave the signs unchanged.
10
Examples:
(i)
Simplify
3(2a + 5b) + 4(7a - 2b)
(ii)
Simplify 4(a - 3b) - 5(2a - 3b)
multiply by the number(s)

outside
multiply by the number(s)

outside
(6a + 15b) + (28a - 8b)

remove brackets (no minus
signs outside so leave signs
unchanged)
(4a - 12b) - (10a - 15b)

remove brackets (minus sign
outside second bracket so
change signs)
6a + 15b + 28a - 8b
4a - 12b - 10a + 15b
34a + 7b
-6a + 3b
(iii)
Simplify
5 - (3a + 7b)
there is a minus separating

the 5 and the bracket so the 5
does not multiply the bracket.
We can remove brackets
(minus outside means change
signs inside)
=
5 - 3a - 7b
and we can go no further.
Solving equations
Balancing both sides
You are allowed to
add the same number to both sides

subtract the same number from both sides
multiply both sides by the same number
divide both sides by the same number
Examples:
(i)
3k - 4 = 8
(ii)
add 4 to both sides
3k - 4 + 4 = 8 + 4
Simplify each side
3k = 12
divide both sides by 3
3k 12
3
3
5c - 7 = 13 - 3c
add 3c to both sides
5c - 7 + 3c = 13 - 3c + 3c
Simplify each side
8c - 7 = 13
add 7 to both sides
8c - 7 + 7 = 13 + 7
Simplify each side
8c = 20
11

(iii)
k=4
8c 20
8
8
c = 2.
3x 5
5
4
multiply both sides by 4
3x 5
4 5 4
4
3x - 5 = 20
add 5 to both sides
3x - 5 + 5 = 20 + 5
3x = 25
3x
25
3
3
x = 8 13 .
Re-arranging formulae
This is just like solving equations but using letters instead of numbers.
(i)
Find k if
(ii)
3k - 4m = 8m
5c - 7d = 16b - 3c
add 4m to both sides
add 3c to both sides
3k - 4m + 4m = 8m + 4m
Simplify each side
Find c if
3k = 12m
Simplify each side
3k
12m
3
3
k = 4m
5c - 7d + 3c = 16b - 3c + 3c
8c - 7d = 16b
add 7d to both sides
8c - 7d + 7d = 16b + 7d
Simplify each side
8c = 16b + 7d
12
c = 2b +
7d
8
(iii)
Find x if
ax - b = x + 3d
add b to both sides
ax - b + b = x + 3d + b
ax = x + 3d + b
subtract x from both sides
ax - x = x + 3d + b - x
factorise L.H.S. and simplify
R.H.S.
x(a - 1) = 3d + b
divide both sides by (a - 1)
x ( a 1) 3d b
a1
a1
3d b
a 1
English statements and equivalent mathematical expressions

A farmer has some bulls but we dont know how many. He has twice as many cows. How can
we write this using letters?
Suppose that b is the number of bulls and that c is the number of cows and the above means
that the number of cows is twice the number of bulls so c = 2b.
The farmer has six fewer geese than bulls.
Suppose that the number of geese is g then the number of geese is six fewer than the number
of bulls so g = b - 6.
The farmer has twice as many ducks as geese.
Suppose that the number of ducks is d then the number of ducks is twice the number of geese
so d = 2g.
If 1 bar of chocolate costs 35 pence then n bars cost 35n pence.
Forming equations
Example:
John buys 4 oranges costing 15 pence each and 5 apples.
(i)
If the cost of each apple is x pence , write down an expression for the total cost
of the apples and oranges together.
(ii)
In fact John spent 90 pence. Form an equation for x and solve it.
Solution:
(i)
Each apple costs x pence so 5 apples cost 5x pence:
13
the oranges cost 4 15 = 60 pence

so the total cost was (5x + 60) pence.
(ii)
We know that the total cost was (5x + 60) pence and also 90 pence
so
(5x + 60) = 90
5x + 60 - 60 = 90 - 60
5x = 30
5x
30
5
5
x = 6.
Answer each apple cost 6 p.
Inequalities
Solving algebraic inequalities is just like solving equations, add, subtract, multiply or divide
the same number to, from, etc. BOTH SIDES
EXCEPT - if you multiply or divide both sides by a NEGATIVE number then you must
TURN THE INEQUALITY SIGN ROUND.
Example:
Solve
3 + 2x < 8 + 4x
Solution:
sub 3 from B.S. 2x < 5 + 4x

sub 4x from B.S. -2x < 5
divide B.S. by -2 and turn the inequality sign round
x > - 2.5.
Example:
Solve x2 > 16
Solution:
We must be careful here since the square of a negative number is positive giving
the full range of solutions as
x < -4 or x > +4.
Miscellaneous Number
Long Multiplication
Example:
Multiply 324 by 162
Solution:
324
162
648
19440
32400
2 324
60 324
100 324
52488
14
Long Division
Example:
Divide 925 by 27 and give the remainder.
Solution:
34
27 925
81
3 27
92 - 81 = 11 and bring down the 5
4 27
115
108
115 - 108
so 925 divided by 27 equals 34 with remainder 7.
Fractions - proper, mixed, and improper fractions

Examples:
3
8
13
47
7
8
are proper fractions since the numerator (top) is less than the
denominator (bottom).
4 53 , 17 1529 are mixed numbers - a whole number part and a fraction part.
23
9
17
5
are improper, or top heavy, fractions since the numerator (top) is

greater than the denominator (bottom).
Converting from mixed fractions to top heavy fractions.

Example:
Convert 4
Solution:
7 4 = 28 then 28 + 3 = 31 so 4
3
7
to a top heavy fraction.

3
7
31
7
Converting from top heavy fractions to mixed fractions.

39
5
Example:
Convert
to a mixed fraction.
Solution:
5 goes into 39
7 times with remainder 4, so
39
5
= 7 45 .
Adding and subtracting fractions

1)
2)
3)
4)
Deal with the whole numbers first.

Find the Lowest Common Denominator (L.C.D.)
Convert all fractions to have the same denominator (L.C.D.)
Simplify and cancel down if possible.
Example:
Express
2 43 5 16 3 95
a simple mixed fraction

15
Solution:
1)
2)
3)
4)
2 43 5 16 3 95 = 4 + 43 16
5
9
since 2 + 5 3 = 4
The L.C.D. of 4, 6 and 9 is 36

6
20
4 + 43 16 95 = 4 + 27
36 36 36
= 4 +
= 4 13
36 .
Reciprocals
To find the reciprocal of a fraction turn it upside down
Examples:
The reciprocal of 95 is 95 , the reciprocal of
17
32
is
To find the reciprocal of a whole number like 4, think of 4 as
4
1
Examples:
The reciprocal of 4 is
1
4
32
17
, etc.
and turn it upside down
, the reciprocal of 23 is
1
23
, etc.
Multiplying and dividing fractions

1)
2)
3)
4)
Mixed numbers must be converted into top-heavy fractions

When dividing by a fraction, turn it upside down and multiply
Cancel common factors by dividing top and bottom by the same number(s)
Multiply out and simplify.
Example:
Simplify 2 58 1 57 .
Solution:
1)
2 58 1 57
3)
=
=
21
8
3
8
3
2
by 4
4)
Example:
Simplify 3 112
Solution:
1)
3 112
9
14
9
14
9
2
12
7
12
1
3
1
make all top heavy

dividing top and bottom by 7
dividing top and bottom
4 21
1 15 .
1 15 =
35
11
9
14
65 . make all top heavy
35
11
9
14
5
11
5
11
9
2
3
2
2)
3)
=
=
4)
75
44
5
6
5
6
5
2
turn
6
5
upside down and

1 449
Converting a decimal to a fraction

(i)
To convert 0.345 to a fraction first notice that there are 3 decimal places so we write
0.345
16
345
69
and then cancel 5 to give
.
1000
200
(ii)
0.6428 =
6428
1607
.
10000 2500
Fractions and recurring decimals

If we calculate
7
9
7
9
as a decimal fraction we get
= 0.7777777777777 . . . . .
which we read as
If we calculate
4
7
4
7
= 0.7
nought point seven recurring
as a decimal fraction we get
= 0.571428571428571428571428571428 . . . . . . = 0.571428
which we read as
nought point 571428 recurring.
Some fractions do not recur when written as decimals:

Example:
3
4
0.75 which ends after 2 decimal places.
All fractions either make recurring decimal fractions or decimal fractions which end.
All recurring decimals can be written as fractions.
Negative numbers
-4 - 7 means take away 4 then take away 7 so the result is take away 11 giving
-4 - 7 = -11
(-4) (-6) = +24
since minus times minus = plus
(-3) 7 = -21
since minus times plus = minus
(-12) (-3) = +4
since minus divided by minus = plus
(-15) 5 = -3
since minus divided by plus = minus
18 (-2) = -9
since plus divided by minus = minus.
Rounding off to the nearest .....

To round 43 to the nearest 10, first think of the tens around 43 which are
20, 30, 40, 50, 60 and the one closest to 43 is 40.
Note that 45 is exactly half way between 40 and 50 and mathematicians always put 5s up so
45 rounded to the nearest 10 is 50.
To round 77 to the nearest 5, first think of the fives around 77 which are
65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90 and the one closest to 77 is 75.
Rough approximations
To find a rough approximation first approximate every number to just 1 figure then do the
calculation.
17
67.3 410 70 400 10 400
4000 .
7.3
7
1
Sequences
A sequence is a list of numbers. Sometimes there is an easy pattern to spot which will let you find the
next two terms of the sequence.
Finding a pattern can be tricky but a good idea is to look at the differences between terms
Examples:
1)
term
10
13
16
...
...
add 3
add 3
add 3
add 3
add 3
add 3
and so the 6th and 7th terms are 19 (= 16 + 3) and 22 (= 19 + 3)

2)
term
12
24
48
...
...
times 2
times 2
times 2
times 2
times 2
times 2
and so the 6th and 7th terms are 96 (= 48 2) and 192 (= 96 2)

3)
term
10
14
19
...
...
add 2
add 3
add 4
add 5
add 6
add ??
and so the 6th and 7th terms are 25 (= 19 + 6) and 32 (= 25 + 7)
Sequences from rules

Examples:
1)
Rule
2n + 3
term
...
...
...
...
...
when n is 3 the 3rd term is 2 3 + 3 = 9,

when n is 4 the 4th term is 2 4 + 3 = 11, etc.
2)
Rule
n2 - n
term
...
...
...
...
...
when n is 3 the 3rd term is

18
32 - 3 = 6,
when n is 4 the 4th term is

when n is 5 the term is
42 - 4 = 12,
52 - 5 = 20, etc.
Standard sequences
You are expected to recognise some standard sequences
formula
1)
Natural numbers
2)
Even numbers:
10
12
...
...
2n
3)
Odd numbers
11
...
...
2n + 1
4)
Square numbers
16
25
36
...
...
12
22
32
42
52
62
...
...
Nearly square numbers

(i)
3
11
18
27
38
5)
n2
notice that each number is two more than the square number above
1+2
2
(ii)
4+2
2
9+2
2
16+2
2
25+2
2
36+2
2
1 +2
2 +2
3 +2
4 +2
5 +2
6 +2
12
27
48
75
108
n2+2
notice that each number is three times the square number above
6)
Cube numbers
=
7)
Triangular numbers
(snooker balls in triangle)
31
34
39
316
325
336
312
322
332
342
352
362
3n2
27
64
125
216
...
...
n3
13
23
33
43
53
63
...
...
10
15
21
...
...
+2
+3
+4
+5
+6
+7
1
2
n(n 1)
+??
Perimeters and Areas

Perimeter
The perimeter is the distance round the outside of a figure so just add up all the lengths.
19
The perimeter of a circle is also called the circumference and C = 2r or C = d, where r is the
radius and d is the diameter.
Area
You must learn the formulae for the following basic shapes.
Rectangle
h
b
area = b h
Triangle
Parallelogram
h
b
b
area = b h
Circle
area = b h
Trapezium
a
b
area = r2
area = (a + b) h
Volumes and Surface Areas

Surface Areas
Surface area is the total of the areas of all the faces which are usually rectangles, triangles,
circles etc.
Plus the following shapes:
(i)
The area of the curved surface of a
cylinder is
area = 2 r h = 2 r h
h
(ii)
(iii)
20
The area of the curved surface of a

cone is rl where r is the radius of
the base and l is the length of the
slant height.
A cone and its net are shown
r
l
The surface area of a sphere is 4r2.

r
Volumes
You must learn the following formulae for standard shapes
Cuboid
Cylinder
h
h
w
Volume = l w h
Volume of a sphere =
r
Volume = r2 h
4 3
r .
3
Prisms
A prism is any solid which has a constant cross-section - that is, if you cut it it is the same
shape and size all the way up.
Volume of a prism = area of the base height.
A cylinder is a circular based prism with volume = r2h, since r2 is area of base.
Pyramids
A pyramid has a base of any shape and comes straight up to a point.
Volume of a pyramid =
1
area of the base height.
3
A cone is a circular based pyramid with volume =
1
r 2 h , since r2 is area of base.
3
Converting Units
Lengths
Example:
To convert 5 km into cm we multiply by 1000 to convert to metres and then by 100 to
convert to cm
5 km = 5000 m = 500000 cm.
21
Areas
Examples:
(i)
To convert 4.3 km2 into m2

we must first think of a 1 km 1 km square as a 1000 m 1000 m square and so
1 km2 = 1000 1000 m2 = 1 000 000 m2
(ii)
4.3 km2 = 4.3 1 000 000 m2 = 4 300 000 m2.
To convert 634 mm2 into cm2

we must first think of a 1 cm 1 cm square as a 10 mm 10 mm square and so
1 cm2 = 10 10 mm2 = 100 mm2
634 mm2 = 634 100 cm2 = 6.34 cm2.
Volumes
Examples:
(i)
To convert 25300 litres into m3, we need to know that 1000 litres = 1m3
(ii)
25300 litres = 25300 1000 m3 = 25.3 m3.
To convert 6.3 m3 into cm3

we must first imagine a cube 1 m 1 m 1 m = 100 cm 100 cm 100 cm
(iii)
1 m3 = 100 100 100 cm3 = 1000000 cm3
6.3 m3 = 6.3 1000000 cm3 = 6300000 cm3.
To convert 23400 mm3 into cm3

we must first imagine a cube 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm = 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm
22
1 cm3 = 10 10 10 mm3 = 1000 mm3
23400 mm3 = 23400 1000 cm3 = 23.4 cm3.
Statistics 1
Mode, median and range.
The mode is the one which occurs most often.
The range is found by subtracting the smallest value from the largest.
To find the median you must first put in order of size then find the middle one.
Note that if there are an even number of values there is no middle number so you find the
middle pair and take the middle of this pair.
Example: Find the mode, range and median of
5, 3, 8, 6, 12, 5, 18, 5, 4, 10, 13, 3.
The mode is 5, since there are three 5s, more than any other number.
The range is biggest - smallest = 18 - 3 = 15, so the range is 15.
To find the median first put in order
3, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 18.
middle pair
There are 12 numbers (even) so there is no middle number: the middle pair is 5, 6 and
the median is the middle of the middle pair which is 5.
Median, quartiles and interquartile range

The median is the middle number and divides all the numbers into two halves. The quartiles
divide all the numbers into four quarters.
Example:
Find the median and quartiles of the following ages:
5, 6, 8, 8, 9, 11, 12, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 17, 20, 21, 22, 25, 27, 27, 29, 31, 32, 35
Solution:
There are 23 ages and the quartiles will be the 6th, 12th and 18th ages.
(Note that 6th = (n+1)th, 12th = (n+1)th, 12th = (n+1)th)

and we can see the four quarters
5, 6, 8, 8, 9, 11, 12, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 17, 20, 21, 22, 25, 27, 27, 29, 31, 32, 35
Lower Quartile = 11,

Middle Quartile = 17,
Upper Quartile =
which is the same as the median
27,
The interquartile range is the Upper Quartile minus the Lower Quartile
I.Q.R. = UQ LQ =
27 11 = 16.
23
Mean
Mean is 'normal average' - treat as a bag of apples - find the total weight of the bag and divide
by the total number of apples.
Example:
The heights of 54 people are shown in the table. Find the mean.
Solution:
To find the mean we need to find the total height (as if all were lying in one
long line) and divide by the total number of people.
height (cm)
frequency
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
Totals
xf
3
10
14
11
9
5
2
420
1450
2100
1705
1440
825
340
___
____
54
8280
(420 is total height of the 3 people of height 140 cm)
total height
Thus the mean height = m total number =
8280
54
= 153.3 cm.
Frequency tables and tally charts

Example:
The marks of 200 pupils were recorded. Draw up a frequency table.
Solution:
First decide on suitable intervals (1 - 10, 11 - 20, ...., 91 - 100 marks) then
record using 'five bar gates' as shown below:
TALLY CHART
Interval
1 - 10
11 - 20
21 - 30
31 - 40
41 - 50
51 - 60
61 - 70
71 - 80
81 - 90
91 - 100
24
||||
||||
||||
||||
||||
||||
||||
||||
||||
||||
||
||||
||||
||||
||||
||||
||||
||||
||
||
||||
||||
||||
||||
||||
||||
FREQUENCY TABLE
Five bar gates
Interval
Frequency
|||
|||| |||| |||| |||| |
|||| |||| |||| ||||
|||| |||| |||| |||| |||| ||||
||||
|
1 - 10
11 - 20
21 - 30
31 - 40
41 - 50
51 - 60
61 - 70
71 - 80
81 - 90
91 - 100
7
12
18
36
35
44
20
16
7
5
Bar chartsand line graphs

Example: Draw a bar chart and line graph for the above frequency table.
Bar Chart
Line Graph
Frequency
Frequency
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
Mark
Mark
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Note that
(i)
Frequency is plotted up
(ii)
Scale on horizontal axis
is like an ordinary graph
(iii)
No gaps between bars.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Note that
the crosses are marked in the middle of the
intervals, thus for a frequency of 7 in the interval
1 - 10, a cross is marked at (5, 7) etc.
Histograms
In a histogram the frequency is represented by the area of the bar.
To draw a histogram we must first work out the width and height of each bar so that the area of
the bar equals the frequency, height =
frequency
.
width
This is shown for the frequency table of ages below:

age in years, x
frequency
width of
interval
height of
interval
0x<5
15
5 x < 10
23
4.6
10 x < 20
46
10
4.6
20 x < 30
52
10
5.2
30 x < 50
82
20
4.1
50 x < 70
73
20
3.65
25
70 x < 110
40
40
density
y
6frequency
5
4
3
2
1
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
x
100 110
Pie charts
Example:
The strength of the armed forces in 1956 is shown in the table below. Draw a pie chart to
illustrate these figures.
thousands of men
Royal Navy
Army
Royal Air Force
Total
112
380
228
720
Solution:
26
720 men in total to share 360 so each man

360
= o, giving angles
720
is equivalent to
Royal Navy
112 2
56
Army
380 2
190
Royal Air Force
228 2
114
Total (to check)
360
Finding the mode and mean from a grouped frequency table

Finding the mode is still easy - it is the most frequent class interval.
In this case we use do not have exact information so we use the mid-interval value to calculate
the mean.
Example: Find the mode and an estimate for the mean weight of people from the frequency
table below.
Solution:
The mode or modal class is the class which occurs most often and is 60 weight < 70 kg.
Note that we do not know the exact weights of the people in the 30 to 40 kg class so we take
the mid-interval value, 35 kg, as the weight for all 12 people; similarly we take the midinterval values for the other classes. Thus we cannot find an exact value for the and so we can
only estimate the mean.
Weight
kg
mid-interval
value
frequency
xf
30 weight < 40
35
12
420
40 weight < 50
45
17
765
50 weight < 60
55
20
1100
60 weight < 70
65
22
1430
70 weight < 80
75
15
1125
80 weight < 90
85
10
850
96
5690
TOTALS
27
The mean is
total weight of everybody

5690
59.3 kg ,
total number of people
96
to 1 D.P.
Surveys, questionnaires and sampling

Questionnaires should ask for precise information requiring a yes/no or a tick/cross answer:
Do not ask what colour hair but give options - black, dark, brown, fair, ginger and ask
to tick the colour which most nearly describes the colour.
Do not ask how often a person goes to shop but ask
times a week etc.
0 -3, 4 - 6, 7 - 9, more than 9
An observation sheet or data sheet is one on which you record the answers to your questions:
it will probably take the form of a tally sheet.
In selecting people to ask you must be careful to avoid bias.
Choosing people from their e-mail addresses would give a biased sample as many
people do not have an e-mail address, etc.
Random samples
To take a random sample of 22 boys from the school, list in any order and give each
boy a unique number. Use the first 22 random numbers to select the sample.
Stratified samples
In the random sample above all the boys could be from the same house, or some houses
might not be represented in the sample. To avoid this we use a stratified sample as
follows.
Divided the boys into houses and give each boy a unique number. Use random numbers
to select 2 boys from each of the 11 houses. This will ensure that each house is equally
represented.
Percentages
Percentages as fractions and decimals
45% means 45 per 100 so 45% =
45
9
100 20
37% means 37 per 100 so 37% =
37
0.37
100
5
0.625 62.5%
8
Finding a percentage of a given number.

40% of 65 =
28
40
65 26
100
Percentage increases and decreases

To increase a price by 13% we are increasing from the original of 100% by 13%
to give 100% + 13% = 113% which is
113
113
.
times what we started with,
100
so we multiply the original price by 1.13.

Original price
New price
(increase by 13%)
75 1.13
75
multiply by 1.13
= 84.75.
To decrease by 17% we would multiply by 0.83, since 100% - 17% = 83% = 0.83
Finding the original number after a percentage change

If we know that the original price has been increased by 13% we know that it has been
multiplied by 100% + 13% = 1.13.
So if the new price is 135 then we must divide by 1.13 to find the original price.
Original price
New price
(has been increased 13%)
135
divide by 1.13
so the original price was 135 1.13 = 119.47
Simple interest
If money is invested and interest paid annually but not re-invested then this is called simple
interest.
To find the simple interest paid if 600 is invested at 4.5% each year (p.a.) for 7 years.
The interest paid each year is 4.5% of 600 = 27, so over 7 years (not re-invested) the total
interest paid is 7 27 = 189.
Compound increases or decreases.

If money is invested and the interest is re-invested at the end of each year then this is called
compound interest
To find the value of 600 invested at 4.5% p.a. after 7 years.
Each year its value increases by 4.5% so we multiply the value at the beginning of each
year by 1.045 (104.5%).
After 1 year the total value is 600 1.045
29
after 2 years the total value is (600 1.045) 1.045 = 600 1.0452
after 3 years the total value is (600 1.0452) 1.045 = 600 1.0453
and so on to give the value after 7 years as 600 1.0457 = 816.52.
With compound interest the interest paid over 7 years is 216.52
which is 216.52 - 189 = 27.52 more than simple interest.
Expressing one number as a percentage of another

Rule: percentage is
first number
sec ond number
100
Example: Find 23 as a percentage of 81.

Percentage is
23
81
100 28.4 so answer is 28.4%
Example: A coat is reduced from 135 to 110 in a sale. Find the percentage reduction.
The actual reduction is 135 - 110 = 25
so the percentage reduction is 25 as a percentage of 135 (not 110)
and is
25
135
100 18.5 so answer is 18.5%
Geometry
Angle properties
Acute, obtuse and reflex angles
acute angle,
o
between 0 and 90
30
obtuse angle,
o
between 90 and 180
reflex angle,
o
between 180o and 360o
Angles on a line, vertically opposite and round a point
angles on a straight line,
angles round a point add up to 360o
vertically opposite angles are equal
a + b = 180o
a + b + c + d = 360o
a=b
Parallel lines
d
b
alternate angles are equal
corresponding angles are equal
allied angles
a=b
c=d
e + f = 180o
Bearings
Bearings are angles measured from North in a clockwise direction.
To find the bearing of P from Q, imagine that you are standing at Q and measuring the angle
from North round to P.
North
North
Y
142o
Q
305o
The bearing of P from Q is 142o
The bearing of Y from X is 305o
31
Angles of elevation and depression

The angle of elevation from your eye up to the top of a tree, say, is the angle made by the
horizontal and the line from your eye up to the top of the tree.
top of tree
eye
27o
horizontal
The angle of elevation from your eye to the top of the tree is 27o.
The angle of depression from your eye down to the base of a building, say, is the angle made
by the horizontal and the line from your eye down to the base of the building.
eye
horizontal
19o
base of building
The angle of depression from your eye to the base of the building is 19o.
Triangles
A
Angles in a triangle add up to 180o.
Proof:
In any triangle ABC draw a line through A and
parallel to BC.
ABC = DAB
alternate
ACB = EAC
alternate
DAB + BAC + EAC = 180o
ABC + BAC + ACB = 180o
angles on a straight line
Q.E.D.
Exterior angle equals sum of the two interior opposite angles

Angle sum of a triangle is 180o
a + b + c = 180
Angles on a line sum to 180o
c + d = 180
32
d Revision SDB
12/12/16 IGCSE Extension Level
c
c = a+b
i.e. exterior angle = sum of interior opposite angles. Q.E.D.
Equilateral and isosceles triangles
Equilateral triangles have all sides

equal and all angles equal to 60o.
Isosceles triangles have two equal

sides and the base angles are equal.
Congruence
Two triangles are congruent exactly the same shape and size if
(i)
SSS
all three sides are equal
(ii)
SAS Two sides and the included angle are equal

i.e. the angle between the two equal sides.
(iii)
AAS
Two angles and the corresponding
side are equal.
(iv)
RHS
A right angle, the hypotenuse
and another side.
Example:
The triangle ABC is isosceles with AB = AC. D is the midpoint of BC.
Prove that the triangles ABD and ACD are congruent and hence that AD is
perpendicular to BC.
A
Solution:
In the triangles ADB and ACD
AB = AC
(given)
33
BD = DC
(D is midpoint of BC)
AD = AD
(common)
triangles are congruent, SSS.
ADB = ADC
(corresponding angles)
but
ADB + ADC = 180o
(angles on a straight line)
ADB = ADC = 90o
AD is perpendicular to BC.
Q.E.D.
Quadrilaterals
Quadrilaterals are four sided figures.
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of parallel sides
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides (opposite sides and angles
equal and diagonals bisect each other)
A rhombus is a quadrilateral with all four sides equal a pushed over square (a
parallelogram in which the diagonals bisect each other at right angles).
Special quadrilaterals
Rectangles have all

angles equal to 90o.
A rhombus (diamond) has all four sides

equal: opposite pairs are parallel and
diagonals bisect each other at 90o
34
Squares have all sides

equal and all angles
equal to 90o.
Parallelograms have two pairs of opposite sides

parallel and equal: opposite angles are also
equal and the diagonals bisect each other.
A trapezium has one pair of

opposite sides parallel.
A kite is formed of two isosceles

triangles with equal bases, joined
at their bases.
Polygons
A polygon is a figure consisting of any
number of straight sides.
exterior
angle
The sum of all the exterior angles is 360o.

The sum of all the interior angles
interior
is (n 2) 1800,
angle
where n is the number of sides of the polygon.
Regular polygons
A regular polygon is a polygon with equal sides and equal angles.
A regular pentagon has five sides, and
the five equal exterior angles add up to
360o.
exterior
interior angle
Each exterior angle = 360 5 = 72 ,

o
angle
and so each interior angle equals

180 - 72 = 108o.
In a regular n-sided polygon
the exterior angle is 360/n
And the interior angle is 180 360/n
Example:
A regular polygon has interior angles of 150o. How many sides does it have?
Solution:
Interior angle = 1500
exterior angle = 180 150 = 300
and since 360 30 = 12 there must be 12 exterior angles and so 12 sides.
Sets
Set Notation
n(A)
the number of elements in the set A
xA
x is an element of the set A
xA
x is not an element of the set A
35
the complement of A all elements which are not in A
the empty set the set with no elements
the universal set the set of all elements
AB
A is a subset of B all elements of A are also elements of B (A could be the same

set as B)
AB
A is a proper subset of B all elements of A are also elements of B ( but A could

not be the same set as B)
AB
A is not a proper subset of B
AB
A union B all elements in A or B or both
AB
A intersection B all elements in both A and B
Venn diagrams
A
AB
AB
Functions
A function is an expression (often in terms of x) which has only one value for each value of x.
Notation
y = x2 3x + 7,
f (x) = x2 3x + 7
and
f : x x2 3x + 7
are all ways of writing the same function.
Composite functions
To find the composite function fg we must do g first.
Example:
f : x 3x 2
Solution:
Think of f and g as rules
f is
36
times by 3
and
g : x x2 + 1. Find fg and gf.
subtract 2
square
g is
giving
gf is
fg is
add 1
square
add 1
times by 3
subtract 2
(x2 + 1) 3 2 = 3x2 + 1
fg : x 3x2 + 1
fg(x) = 3x2 + 1.
or
times by 3
subtract 2
square
add 1
giving (3x 2)2 + 1 = 9x2 12x + 5
gf : x 9x2 12x + 5
or
gf (x) = 9x2 12x + 5.
Inverse functions
The inverse of f is the opposite of f:
thus the inverse of multiply by 3 is divide by 3
and the inverse of square is square root.
The inverse of f is written as f 1: note that this does not mean 1 over f .
Example:
f : x 3x2 + 1
f is
square
multiply by 3
add 1
To find the inverse we do the opposite of each box starting with the last
f 1 is
subtract 1
giving f 1: x
divide by 3
square root
x 1
3
Transformations
Translations
5
We usually describe a translation with a vector, means 5 along and 7 up

7
37
Combining translations
To combine two translations we just add their vectors.
2
Thus a translation through

5
translation through
+
7
followed by a translation through

7
is equivalent to a
.
=
12
Rotations
To describe a rotation you must always give the centre and the angle of rotation
Angles of rotation are measured anticlockwise.
A half turn is a rotation through 180o, and a quarter turn is a rotation through 90o.
Finding the centre of rotation

When the diagram is drawn on squared paper you can usually spot the centre of rotation by
inspection.
Otherwise:
to find the centre of rotation when
triangle ABC has been rotated onto
A'B'C', draw the perpendicular bisectors
of AA' , BB' and CC' ; the centre, O, is
where these lines meet.
C
B'
A'
C'
O
Reflections
When describing a reflection you must give the

mirror line.
mirror line
To reflect A onto its image, A', go straight (at 90o) to

mirror and the same distance the other side.
the
B'
If A has been reflected onto A', you can find the

mirror line by drawing the perpendicular bisector of
AA'. Check by drawing the perp. bisector of BB as
well.
Enlargements
A'
Positive scale factor
B'
To describe an enlargement you must give

centre and scale factor.
38
A 12/12/16
IGCSE Extension Level Revision SDB

5
A'
10
To find the image of A under an enlargement, centre X, (2, 3), and factor 3.
3
, and for factor 3, just multiply all by 3 to give from
1
From X to A go along 3 and down 1,

9
, to give A'.
X to A go along 9 and down 3,
3
Other points can be found similarly.
Fraction scale factor

To enlarge a point A
centre X and factor
, measure XA and
halve it to give XA'.
A
A'
X
Similarly for all other

points.
Note that the image is smaller than the original.
Negative scale factor

Similar to positive factors except that you
go to the other side of the centre.
A'
X
So to enlarge A centre X factor 2,

measure XA, double it to give the length
of XA', measured on the other side of the
centre, X.
Similarly for the other points.
Pythagoras
Pythogorass theorem states that in a right
angled triangle,
a2 + b2 = h2,
where h is the hypotenuse (the longest side)
a
Examples :
6
(i) Find x.
12/12/16
x
IGCSE Extension Level Revision
(ii) Find x.
8
13
39
SDB
12
62 + 82 = x2
36 + 64 = x2
Notice that x is not

the hypotenuse so be
careful!!
100 = x2
x2 + 122 = 132
x = 10.
x2 + 144 = 169
x2 = 25
x = 5.
Ratio
Sharing in the ratio of two numbers
Example:
Share 32 sweets between George, aged 5, and David, aged 3, in the ratio of their
ages.
Solution:
Sharing in the ratio 5 : 3, so for every 5 + 3 = 8 sweets George has 5 and David
has 3.
Now 8 divides into 32 four times
so we multiply 5 : 3 by 4 to give 20 : 12.
George has 20 sweets and David 12.
Sharing in the ratio of three numbers

Example:
Share 96 in the ratio 7 : 3 : 2..
Solution:
7 + 3 + 2 = 12 and 12 divides into 96 eight times so we multiply everything

by 8 to give
56 : 24 : 16.
Map Scales
Map scales are often given in as a ratio such as 1 : 50 000. This means that 1 cm on the map
represents 50 000 cm on the ground; or that 1 mm on the map represents 50 000 mm on the
ground.
Examples:
(i)
The distance between two towns measured on a map is 13.5 cm. What is the actual
distance between the towns in km?
=
=
(ii)
13.5 cm on the map 13.5 50000 = 675000 cm on the ground

675000 100 m = 6750 m
6750 1000 km = 6.75 km
The actual distance between two houses is 850 m. Find the distance on the map
between these houses in mm.
We first need the actual distance in mm.
40
850 m = 850 1000 mm = 850 000 mm on the ground
850 000 50 000 mm = 17 mm on the map.
The area of a lake on a map is given as 2.4 cm2. Find the actual area of the lake in m2.
(iii)
1 cm on the map = 50000 cm = 50000 100 m = 500 m on the ground

A square 1 cm by 1 cm = 1 cm2 on the map
is a square 500 m by 500 m = 250 000 m2 on the ground
the area of the lake is 2.4 250 000 m2
600 000 m2.
Trigonometry 1
SOH CAH TOA
opp
adj
sin A = hyp ,
opp
cos A = hyp ,
tan A = adj
hyp
opp
A
adj
N.B. you must know two things before you can find a third.
If
sin A = 0.334 you must press
shift sin 0.334'
on your calculator to find A = 19.5
Example:
We know the angle
= 57
We know the hyp
= 17 cm
We want the opp
= x cm
x cm opp
57o
Using
SOH CAH TOA

17 cm hyp
we see that we need to use sin

sin 57 =
opp
hyp
x
17
0.83867
x
17
x = 0.83867 17 = 14.25739 = 14.3 cm to 3 S.F.
41
The awkward case, x on the denominator

We know the angle
= 42
We know the opp
= 12
opp
We want the adj
= x
12
42o
adj x
SOH CAH TOA
Using
we see that we need to use tan

12
x
tan 42
0.900404...
0. 900404 x = 12
12
x
x=
12
0.900404...
13.3 , to 3 S.F.
Quadratic functions & factorising

Multiplying out two brackets - F O I L
To multiply out two brackets we use F O I L which stands for
First Outside Inside Last

as shown below:
First
(2x - 3)(4x + 5)
= 2x 4x = 8x2
Outside = 2x 5 = 10x
Inside
(2x - 3)(4x + 5)
Last
= -3 4x = 12x
= 3 5 = 15
8x2 + (10x 12x) - 15 = 8x2 2x 15
giving
Factorising
To factorise a quadratic use inspired guess work and check by multiplying out.
A few tips:
If the quadratic has only integers, only use integers when factorising.
The first terms in each bracket must multiply to give the x2 term
The last terms in each bracket must multiply to give the constant term.
ax2 + bx + c
( ?x
? ) ( ?x
?)
+ & + means
both brackets +
42
ax2 bx - c
- means
( ?x
? ) ( ?x
?)
one bracket +
& one bracket -
General examples of factorising

2ab + 6ac2 = 2a(b + 3c2)
x2 - 5x + 6 = (x - 2)(x - 3)
x2 - 6x = x(x - 6)
6x2 - 11x - 10 = (3x + 2)(2x - 5)
Learn the last three
x2 - y2 = (x - y)(x + y)
(x + y)2 = (x + y) (x + y) = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x - y)2 = (x - y) (x - y) = x2 - 2xy + y2
Algebraic fractions
Factorise numerator and denominator fully and then cancel factors.
Example:
Solution:
Example:
Solution:
2x 6
x 4x 3
2( x 3)
2
2x 6
= ( x 1)( x 3) x 1
2
x 4x 3
Simplify
x 2 25
x2 x 2
.
x 2 2x
x 2 7 x 10
( x 5)( x 5)
( x 2)( x 1)
x 2 25
x2 x 2
=
2
2
x ( x 2)
( x 5)( x 2)
x 2x
x 7 x 10
( x 5)( x 1)
=
.
x ( x 2)
Simplify
Quadratic equations
Solution by factorising
(i)
To solve 6x2 - 11x - 10 = 0

first factorise to give (3x + 2)(2x - 5) = 0
If two numbers multiplied together give 0 then one (or both) of the numbers must be 0
(3x + 2) = 0 or (2x - 5) = 0
(ii)
Solve
x 23
or
x 25 2 21
3x2 + 7x = 0
43
x(3x + 7) = 0
x = 0
or
x=
7
3
Solution by completing the square

Rule for completing the square:
(i)
(ii)
Coefficient of x2 must be 1,
Halve the coefficient of x, square it and add this number to both sides
Example:
Solve 3x2 18x + 8 = 0 by completing the square.
Solution:
3x2 18x + 8 = 0
2
3x 18x = 8
x2 6x = 8/3
x2 6x + 9 = 8/3 + 9 =
(x 3)2 = 19/3
x 3 = 193
x =3
19
3
dividing both sides by 3 to make coefficient of x2 equal 1

19
/3
halve coefficient of x (6/2), square it (9) add to both sides
= 0.48 or 5.52.
Quadratic equation formula

If the expression will not factorise, use the formula:
ax2 + bx + c = 0
b 2 4ac
2a
To solve 3x2 - 6x + 2 = 0
This will not factorise so use the formula, a = 3, b = -6, c = 2
6 ( 6) 2 4 3 2
23
6 36 24
6 12
x
6
6
6 12
6 12
x
or
6
6
giving x
x = 1.58 or 0.423
to 3 S.F.
Simultaneous equations
Solving by elimination
If we use algebra to solve the equations
we notice that if we add the LHS of each equation the term in y
3x + 5y = 1
disappears, so we add the two LHSs together and the two RHSs
7x 5y = 19 add
10x
= 20
x = 2.
To find y we use the first equation and put x = 2
44

6 + 5y = 1
y = 1.
Solutions are x = 2 and y = 1.

Examples:
[1]
5x + 3y = 9
[2]
5x + y = 13
2y = 4
subtract
[1]
[2]
y = 2
in [1] 5x + 6 = 9
5x = 15
x = 3.
Check in [2]
LHS = 15 2 = 13 = RHS
Solutions are x = 3, y = 2
3x + 4y = 7
3x 2y = 19
6y = 12
subtract
remember 4 subtract
2
y = 2
in [1] 3x + 8 = 7
3x = 15
= 4 2 = 4 + 2 = 6
x = 5.
Check in [2]
LHS = 15 4 = 19 = RHS
Solutions are x = 5, y = 2.
Sometimes the coefficients (numbers multiplying x and y) of neither of the variables are the same. In
this case we can multiply one or both of the equations to give the same coefficients for one variable.
Examples:
[1]
[2]
x y =2
4x + 3y = 29
[1]
[2]
Multiplying both sides of equation [1] by

3 will make the coefficients of y equal in
size.
3 [1]
[2]
3x 3y = 6
4x + 3y = 29
7x = 35
x=5
add
in [1]
5 y = 2 y = 3.
Check in [2]
LHS = 20 + 9 = 29 = RHS
2x + 5y = 3
3x 2y = 14
Multiplying both sides of equation [1] by

3
and both sides of equation [2] by 2
will make the coefficients of x equal in
size.
3 [1]
2 [2]
6x + 15y = 9 subtract
6x 4y = 28
19y = 19
y = 1
in [1]
2x 5 = 3 x = 4
Check in [2]
LHS = 12 2 = 14 = RHS
45
Graphs 1
Distance between two points
The distance between two points, X (a, b) and Y (c, d) is
Y (c, d)
XY =
(c a )
( d b)
db
X (a, b)
Gradient
Gradient is
increase in y
increase in x
ca
(The 'increase' may be negative.)
The gradient is the rate at which y is changing.

In the diagram above
d b
the gradient of the line XY is c a .

To find the gradient of a curve at a point draw the tangent at that point and find the gradient of
the tangent by drawing a large triangle.
Mid-point
The mid-point, M, of the line XY in the above diagram is
M is ( (a + c), (b + d))
Straight lines, y = mx + c
y = mx + c is a straight line with gradient m and intercept on the y-axis at (0, c).
Example:
Find the equation of the line through (1, 3) and (5, 15)
Solution:
The gradient of the line is
d b 15 3 12
2
c a 5 1 6
the equation is of the form y = 2x + c, since m = 2.

To find c we use the fact that the line passes through (1, 3) which tells us that y = 3
when x = 1
3 = 2 (1) + c
c=5
46
y = 2x + 5 is the equation of the line.
Example:
Find gradient and y-intercept of 3x + 2y = 8.
Solution:
First re-arrange to find y


2y = 3x + 8
y = 1.5x + 4
and so the gradient is 1.5 and the intercept on y-axis is (0, 4).
Parallel lines
Parallel lines have the same gradient
Example:
Find the equation of the line which passes through (7, 3) and which is parallel
to y = 2x 5.
Solution:
y = 2x 5 has gradient 2, and so any line parallel to y = 2x 5 must also
have gradient 2 and so must have an equation of the form
y = 2x + c.
But the line we want passes through (7, 3) so y = 3 when x = 7
3=27+c
c = 11
the equation of the line is y = 2x 11
Plotting curves
To draw a graph form a table of values, plot the points with a cross and join up with a smooth curve.
Example:
a)
Draw up a table of values and draw the graph of y = x3 - 6x - 1.
b)
Using the graph solve the equations

(i) x3 - 6x - 1 = 2;
(ii) x3 - 6x = -2
Solution:
x
x3
-6x
-1
y
-3
-27
18
-1
-10
-2
-8
12
-1
3
-1
-1
6
-1
4
0
0
0
-1
-1
1
1
-6
-1
-6
2
8
-12
-1
-5
3
27
-18
-1
8
giving the graph below
47
8y
6
4
2
-3
-2
-1
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
b)
(i) to solve x3 - 6x - 1= 2 we need the values of x to give y = 2.

We see that there are three points with y-coordinate 2 for which
x = -2.1, -0.5 and +2.7.
(ii) to solve x3 - 6x = -2 we must first re-arrange the equation so that the left hand
side is x3 - 6x - 1 by subtracting 1 from each side to give
x3 - 6x - 1 = -3 and we now need the x values which give a y-coordinate of -3:
these are x = -2.6, 0.3 or 2.3.
Example:
Draw the graphs of y = x2 - 3x + 2
the equation x2 - 3x + 2 = x + 1.
and y = x + 1. Use your graphs to solve
Solution:
The solution of this equation will be the x-coordinates of the points of
intersection of the two graphs.
6y
5
4
3
2
1
48
x = 0.7 or 4.3
Standard graphs
-4
-3
-2
3y
3y
3y
-1
x
5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-3
-2
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-1
-1
-2
-2
-2
-3
-3
-3
y = -x
y=x
-4
1
x
3y
3y
1
1
x
5
-4
-3
-2
x
5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-1
-2
-2
-2
-3
-3
-3
x
5
y = 1/x2
y=
1/x
x
5
-1
-1
y = x3
y = x2
3y
-1
y
20
-4
10
-2
x
-4 -3 -2 -1
x
9 10
The exponential curve

y =2x
x+y=3
y =3x2 is like y = x2 but steeper:

similarly for y = 5x3 like y = x3 but steeper
and y = 7/ x like y = 1/x but steeper, etc.
Probability
Possible outcomes
Equally likely outcomes
If all possible outcomes have the same chance of happening (are equally likely) then the
probability is easily found
Example:
In a normal pack of well shuffled cards,
p(king) =
4
52
since there are 4 kings and 52 cards
and all cards are equally likely.

Example:
A fair die has equal chances of any score from 1 to 6 so
49
p(prime) =
3
6
since there are 3 primes (2, 3 and 5) and 6 possible scores.
Probability and relative frequency

If we spin a biased coin 3000 times and it lands Heads 2000 times then
the frequency of Heads is 2000
but the relative frequency of Heads is
2000 2
3000 3
and we would say that the probability of this coin landing Heads is 2/3.
Two or three coins

1)
For two coins we can consider HH, HT, TH, TT as a set of equally likely outcomes
so that p( exactly one Head) = 2/4 =
2)
For three coins we can consider

HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT as equally likely outcomes
so that p( exactly one Head) = 3/8 .
Two dice
Example:
The total when two dice are thrown can be 2 ,3, 4, ..., 11 or 12. BUT be
careful since these are NOT equally likely.
For two dice (red and green) the best approach is to make a table of 36 crosses to show
all of the equally likely outcomes.
green
To find the probability of a total of 10, we see that 10 can

happen in only three ways of the 36 crosses shown
at the points (4, 6), (5, 5), (6, 4)
(marked by the larger crosses)
and so p(total 10) =
3
1
.
36 12
6
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3
Coin and spinner

We can make a similar table for a coin (Heads or
Tails) and a five sided spinner with outcomes
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 as shown.
P(H and even number) = 2/10 = 1/5.
50
red
4 5 6
H
T
1
Tree diagrams
The rule for tree diagrams is
Select which branches you need
Multiply along each branch
Add the results of each branch needed.
With replacement
A bag contains 5 red pens and 7 blue pens. One pen is removed and returned to the bag and a second
pen is then taken. Find the probability that exactly one of the pens is blue.
p(red) = 5/12 and p(blue) = 7/12 and we can draw a tree diagram as shown
Red
1 Red Red
Blue
Red Blue
Red
Blue Red
Blue
Blue Blue
/12
/12
Red
7
/12
/12
/12
Blue
/12
Exactly one Blue means that we need lines

giving
p(one of each)
and
= p(RB or BR)
= 5/12 7/12 + 7/12 5/12 =
=
35
/144 + 35/144 =
70
/144
35
/72.
Without replacement
A bag contains 5 red pens and 7 blue pens. One pen is removed and not returned to the bag and a
second pen is then taken. Find the probability that exactly one of the pens was blue.
For the first pen drawn from the bag
p(red) = 5/12 and p(blue) = 7/12
But for the second pen
p(red) = 4/11 and p(blue) = 7/11 if the first pen was RED
p(red) = 5/11 and p(blue) = 6/11 if the first pen was BLUE
1 Red Red
Red
and we can draw a tree diagram as shown
4
/11
Red
5
/12
7
2 Red Blue
Blue
/
11
Red
7
12
12/12/16 IGCSE Extension
Level Revision
BlueSDB
Blue Red
/11
6
/11
51
Blue
Blue Blue
Exactly one Blue means that we need lines

giving
and
p(one of each) = p(RB or BR)

= 5/12 7/11 + 7/12 5/11 =
=
35
/132 + 35/132 =
70
/132
35
/66.
Compound events
Complements (not)
if A is throwing a 4 on a die, the complement of A is not A or A and
p( not A) = p(A) = 1 p(A) = 1 1/6 = 5/6.
Exclusive,
OR
In a normal pack of cards

1)
p(Heart) = 13/52 , p(Ace) = 4/52

p(Ace or Heart) =
16
/52 since there are 13 Hearts and 3 Aces other than the ace of hearts.
In this case Aces and Hearts overlap and are not exclusive
We cannot just add p(Heart) and p(Ace) to give p(Heart or Ace).
2)
p(Picture) = 12/52 , p(Seven) = 4/52

p(Picture or Seven) = 16/52
since there are 12 picture cards and 4 sevens and
in this case Pictures and Sevens do not overlap and are called exclusive and we can add
p(Picture) and p(Seven) to give p(Picture or Seven)
Rule: For exclusive events, to find p(X or Y) add the probabilities p(X) + p(Y)
52
Independent, AND
For a fair coin and a fair die
p(Head) =
and p(Six) = 1/6 and
we find p(Head and Six) by multiplying

p(Head and Six) =
p(Head) p(Six) = 1/6 = 1/12.
If there is no link between two events they are called independent.

Rule: For independent events, to find p(X and Y) multiply the probabilities p(X) p(Y).
Note that if there is a link, i.e. if the events are not independent we cannot multiply the
probabilities.
Example: Two dice, red and green, are rolled.
p(total is 10) = 3/36, p(green score is 4) = 1/6 and
p(total is 10 and green score is 4) = 1/36 , only happens for (green = 4, red = 6)
1
6
and this is not the same as multiplying the probabilities,
3
36
1
72
1
36
total is 10 and green score is 4 are linked (or dependent) since what happens to one die will
affect the total of the two dice.
Trigonometry 2
3-Dimensional problems
Lengths and angles
To find lengths and angles in 3-dimensional problems first sketch a triangle or rectangle which
shows the length or angle wanted.
F
E
5
Example:
Find the length of AG and the angle between the line AG
and the plane HGCD.
D is directly below A and so the angle AGD is the
required angle.
8
H
53
First sketch the triangle AGD which

contains both the side and the angle wanted.
In this triangle we only know the length of AD and

the angle ADG = 90.
But we can find DG if we sketch the rectangle DHGC.
Using the rectangle DHGC

Pythagoras
H
2
DG = 4 + 5 = 41
DG = 41
and using the triangle ADG

Pythagoras
AG2 = DG2 + 82 = 41 + 64 = 105
AG = 105 = 10.2 to 3 S.F.
C
4
and also
sin AGD =
opp
hyp
8
105
0.780720058359
AGD = 51.3 to the nearest 0.1.
Sine & cosine for angles between 90o and 180o

Graphs
sin x
cos x
1
1
30
30
54
60
90
120
150
x
180
60
90
120
150
x
180
-1
Solving equations
Example:
Solution:
Solve sin x = 0.821 giving your answers to the nearest tenth of a degree.
From the calculator x = sin-1 0.821) = 55.2 to the nearest tenth of a degree.
Sketch the graph of y = sin x; mark 55.2 on graph and all other angles with a sine of 0.821
sin x
0.821
30
60
90
120
55.2o
150
x
180
124.8o
From the graph we can see that there are two answers between 0 and 180
x = 55.2
or
x = 55.2
180 55.2
or
124.8.
Note that for equations involving cos x there is only one solution between 0o and 180o.
Examples:
x = 71.1o; from the graph we can see that there is only one answer.
(i)
cos x = 0.324
(ii)
cos x = 0.693 x = 133.9o; from the graph we can see that there is only one answer.
Sine and Cosine rules,area of a triangle

Sine rule
A
For ANY triangle
c
b
a
b
c
sin A
sin B
sin C
C
Example:
Find x in the triangle shown.

13
35
x
81
55
From the sine rule,
x =
x
13
sin 35
sin 81
13 sin 35
sin 81
= 7.54943980413 = 7.55 to 3 S.F.
Note: if you want to find an angle you might find it useful to turn each fraction upside down.
sin A sin B sin C
a
b
c
Cosine Rule
or
or
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A,
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B,
c2 = b2 + a2 - 2ba cos C.
Finding a side
Example: Find x in the triangle shown.
From the cosine rule
x2
= 112 + 142 2 11 14 cos 56
x2
= 121 + 196 172.231414269
= 144.768585731
x
= 12.0 to 3 S.F.
11
56
14
Use the cosine rule when you know two sides and the angle between them, otherwise you
should be able to use the sine rule.
Finding an angle
Example: Find X in the triangle shown
From the cosine rule
252 = 152 + 172 2 15 17 cos X
625 = 225 + 289 510 cos X
625 = 514 510 cos X
111 = 510 cos X
cos X = 111/510 = 0.217647058824
X
= 102.6 to the nearest 0.1.
25
15
X
17
N.B. Sometimes you might need ordinary trigonometry or Pythagoras!!!

56
Area of a triangle
The area of a triangle is ab sin C or bc sin A or ac sin B.
Example: Find the area of the triangle shown.
39
Note that the angle used must be between the

two known sides, which is so in this case.
Area
12
= 9 12 sin 39
= 33.9833011167... = 34.0 to 3 S.F.
Proportion
Golden rule!
The words
proportional to ...,
varies as ...,
all mean the same thing and should be replaced by
and the symbol
....
= k ... .
Then use two given values to find k and write down an equation using this value of k.
Direct proportion
Example:
y is directly proportional to the square of x.

y = 6 when x = 2. Find y when x = 4, and find x when y = 54.
First re-write using = k instead of proportional to give y = k x2 or y = kx2.

We know that y = 6 when x = 2 and so 6 = k 22 k = 1.5
57
and we can write down an equation in x and y
y = 1.5x2.
When
x = 4, y = 1.5 42 = 24;
and when
y = 54, 54 = 1.5 x2 x2 = 36 x = 6.
Inverse proportion
Inverse means 1 divided by ....
Example:
P varies inversely as the square root of t.

When t = 9, P = 20. Find P when t = 1, and find t when P = 40.
First re-write using

to give P =
= k 1 divided by ....
We know that P = 20 when t = 9 20 =
P=
60
t
instead of varies inversely with
k
9
k = 3 20 = 60
When t = 1, P = 60/1 = 60
and when P = 40, 40 =
58
t = 3/2
60
t
40 t 60
t = 9/4 .
Similar figures
Similarity
Two figures are similar if they have the same shape: i.e. if they have equal angles at
corresponding vertices.
G
II
I is similar to II since
A = E, B = F, C = G, D = H
N
J
O
III
I
IV
I is NOT similar to III since, although
A = I, B = J, C = L, D = K the angles
are not in corresponding places.
I is similar to IV since
A = M, B = N, C = O, D = P, note that the figure has

been turned over and the angles do not appear to be in corresponding places.
59
Corresponding sides and enlargement

Corresponding sides factor
In the triangles ABC and PQR, A = Q, B = P and C = R.
D
C
Q
E7
12
8
4
9
A
5P
x
R
B
BC is opposite A, and PR is opposite Q (=A)

so BC and PR are called corresponding sides.
AB and PQ are corresponding sides; and AC and RQ are corresponding sides.
Enlargement factor
If two figures are similar then one figure is and enlargement of the other.
In the above diagram AC and RQ are corresponding sides of lengths 6 and 8 and so the
enlargement factor from ABC to PQR is 8/6 = 4/3 .
BC corresponds to PR
and BC = 9
Also
PR = x = 4/3 9 = 12.
AB corresponds to QP
and QP = 7
AB = 7 4/3 = 7 = 5 .
Thus using similar figures and the enlargement factor we can find unknown lengths.
Example: Find x (BC) in the figure below.
60
Solution:
First show that the triangles ABE and ACD are similar.
B = 90 = C
A is in both triangles
triangles are similar (two pairs of angles equal means that the third must be equal).
Corresponding pairs of sides are AB, AC and BE, CD and AE, AD.
As EB = 4 and DC = 12 the enlargement factor is
/4 = 3
AC = 3 AB
Note that AC = x + 5 and AB = 5
12
x + 5 = 3 5 = 15
x = 10.
Areas and volumes of similar figures

For a scale factor k, (or ratio of corresponding sides = k)
The sides of the image are k times bigger,
the area of the image is k2 times bigger
and the volume of the image is k3 times bigger.
Example:
A balloon in the shape of a cat has volume 120 cm3.
It is blown up until the cat is twice as long as it was and the balloon is similar to its
original shape. Find the volume of the inflated balloon.
Solution:
The inflated balloon is an enlargement of the original shape of scale factor 2.
The volume factor is 23 so the new volume is 23 120 = 960 cm3.
Example:
A miniature glass of height 5 cm holds 10 ml. Find the height of a similar glass
which holds 640 ml.
Solution:
The volume factor is 640 10 = 64 = 43
the length factor is 4

the height of the larger glass is 4 5 = 20 cm.
61
Statistics 2
Scatter graphs and lines of best fit
We expect taller people to be heavier than smaller people.. The graph below shows the heights
and weights of several adults.
weight kg
100
90
80
50
70
60
50
44
line of
best fit
150
160
170
height cm
180
190
200
There is some evidence of 'positive correlation' - taller people are in general heavier.
To find the weight of a boy whose height is 176 cm, use the line of best fit for h = 176
to give his weight as 78 kg..
It would not be suitable to use the graph to find the weight of a boy whose height is 210 cm,
since this is outside the range of those measured.
Correlation
strong negative
correlation
62
moderate negative
correlation
little or no
correlation
moderate positive
correlation
strong positive
correlation
Cumulative frequency graphs

The cumulative frequency is the total number less than a particular value.
Example:
The marks of 200 pupils were recorded in the frequency table below. Make a cumulative
frequency table, draw a cumulative frequency graph and find the median, quartiles and inter
quartile range.
Solution:
Frequency Table
Interval
Frequency
1 - 10
11 - 20
21 - 30
31 - 40
41 - 50
51 - 60
61 - 70
71 - 80
81 - 90
91 - 100
7
12
18
36
35
44
20
16
7
5
Cumulative Frequency Table
Number who scored

Number who scored
Number who scored
Number who scored
Number who scored
Number who scored
Number who scored
Number who scored
Number who scored
Number who scored
10 marks
20 marks
30 marks
40 marks
50 marks
60 marks
70 marks
80 marks
90 marks
100 marks
Cumulative
Frequency
7
19
37
73
108
152
172
188
195
200
The cumulative frequencies of 19 and 37 were found as follows:

7 pupils scored between 1 and 10 marks, and 12 pupils scored between 11 and 20 marks
7 + 12 = 19 pupils scored less than or equal to 20 marks
also 18 pupils scored between 21 and 30 marks
7 + 12 + 18 = 37 pupils scored less than or equal to 30 marks
and we mark points on the cumulative frequency curve at (20, 19) and (30, 37).
that is at the end of each interval.
63
Finding median and quartiles from a cumulative frequency graph.

For 200 people the rank of the median is N = 100 and
so we draw a horizontal line on the graph at 100 on the vertical scale and read off the value of
the median as 48.
Similarly for the quartiles with ranks N = 50 and N = 150 we read the values of the
quartiles as 34 and 59.
Graph on next page.
Cumulative Frequency Graph
The median divides the group into two equal parts. There are 200 pupils altogether and if
standing in a line (in order of mark) the median would be the 100th pupil giving a median of 48
marks (see graph).
The quartiles divide the group into four equal parts so would be the 50th, 100th (the median) and
the 150th pupils, giving quartiles of 34, (48 - the median) and 59.
The inter-quartile range is the difference between the quartiles = 59 - 34 = 25.
Percentiles
Percentiles are similar to quartiles but in hundredths; so the lower 15th percentile would be
found by drawing a line at 15% of 200 = 30 on the c.f. scale of the above graph to give
lower 15th percentile is 26.
64
Kinematics
Distance, speed and time.
Basic results
speed
distance
,
time
time
distance
,
speed
distance speed time
Gradient of a distance time curve

Gradient of a distance time curve is speed (=
In the distance time curve shown d
represents distance in metres and t time in
seconds.
the speed is found by calculating the gradient
of the line
speed =
=
distance
time
)
ds
10
increase in d
increase in t
9
3
9
3
3
and so the speed is 3 ms-1
Gradient of a speed time curve

Gradient of tangent at a point on a speed time curve is acceleration (=
velocity
time
This is found in the same way as above for distance time curves.
Area under a speed time curve

The area under a speed time curve is the distance travelled.
In the speed time curve shown v represents
distance in m s -1 and t time in seconds.
the distance is found by calculating the area
under the line
10
distance = area of trapezium

= (5 + 13) 2 = 18
13
5
3
65
and so distance travelled between t = 1 and

t = 3 is 18 m.
Converting units - speeds

To convert from one set of units to another we must consider both the distance and the time.
Example:
Convert 72 km h -1 into m s 1.
Solution:
We first write the speed as

72 kilometres in 1 hour
72000 metres in 1 hour
72000 60 metres in 1 minute
1200 metres in 1 minute
1200 60 metres in 1 secondas there are 60 seconds in 1 minute
20 metres in 1 second
multiplying by 1000 to convert to
metres
as there are 60 minutes in 1 hour
72 km h -1 20 m s 1.
Further examples:
(i)
To convert 45 cm/sec into km/hour, go stage by stage

45 cm
in
1 sec
= 45 60 60 cm in
1 hour
= 162000 cm
in
1 hour
= 162000 100 m in
1 hour
= 1620 m
in
1 hour
= 1620 1000 km in
1 hour
change secs to hours
change cm to m
change m to km
= 1.62 km/hour
(ii)
To convert 63 cm/min into mm/sec, go stage by stage

63 cm
in 1 min
change cm to mm
= 63 10 = 630 mm in 1 min
change min to sec
= 630 60
= 10.5 mm/sec
66
in
1 sec
Accuracy
Decimal places and significant figures
The limits of accuracy or bounds for a number 43.7 given to one decimal place are
43.65 number < 43.75.
The limits of accuracy or bounds for a number 14.23 given to four significant figures are
14.225 number < 14.235.
N.B. The limits for 19.0 to one decimal place (or three significant figures) are
18.95 number < 19.05
To nearest 5 or nearest 10 etc.

To find the limits of accuracy or bounds in giving 83 to the nearest 5, first think of the
multiples of 5 near 83, which are ..., 75, 80, 85, 90, ... and choose the closest which is
85.
Limits of accuracy in calculations

Example:
A bicycle travels at 14 m s-1 for 95 m. Assuming that both figures are given to
2 S.F., find an upper limit for the time taken.
time taken
distance
and so the upper limit for the time will come
speed
from dividing the upper limit for the distance by the lower limit for the speed.
The limits for the distance are 94.5 and 95.5, and. for the speed are 13.5 and 14.5
upper limit for time =
UPPER limit for distance

LOWER limit for speed
95.5
= 7.074074074074...
13.5
7.07
to a sensible number of figures.
67
Graphical Inequalities
Inequalities in one variable
Lines and points
All points on the line x = 2 satisfy the equation, i.e. they all have x-coordinate 2, for example
(2, 5), (2, 9), (2, 0), (2, -4) etc.
Inequalities
Example:
All points to the left of x = 2 have
x-coordinate less than 2 so satisfy x < 2.
3y
2
We shade out the area not wanted, i.e. the area

to the right of the line.
1
-4
-3
-2
-1
x
5
-1
As the points on the line are not included

in x < 2 we draw the line x = 2 as a dotted
line.
-2
-3
Example:
3y
All the points which satisfy x 2

either lie on the line x = 2 or to the right of it.
2
1
In this case we shade on the left of the line

(shading out all unwanted points).
-4
-3
-2
-1
x
5
-1
-2
Because all points on the line are included we

draw a solid line.
68
-3
Inequalities in two variables

Lines and points
All points on the line x + 2y = 4 satisfy the equation,
for example (2, 1), (4, 0), (0, 2), (-2, 3) all lie on the line.
Inequalities
To draw the inequality x + 2y < 4
we first draw the line x + 2y = 4 by drawing up a table of values of three points.
x
Then points on one side of the line satisfy x + 2y < 4 and on the other side satisfy x + 2y > 4.
To decide which side we want, choose a point
not on the line - (0, 0) is usually the easiest
-and try it.
The left hand side is 0 + 2 0 = 0 which is
less than 4 and so (0, 0) satisfies the inequality
x + 2y < 4 and we shade out the other side
(the unwanted side).
Points on the line are not included so the line
is dotted
3y
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1
x
5
-1
-2
-3
x + 2y 4 would be exactly the same except that the line would be solid as points on the line
are included.
69
Practical situations
Translating english statements into mathematics
Example:
Paul buys some pens and pencils. Pens cost 60 pence each and pencils cost 40 pence each. Let
x be the number of pens and y be the number of pencils that he buys.
(a)
Find an expression in x and y for the total cost.

Each pen costs 60 pence
so x pens cost
60x pence
each pencil costs 40 pence
so y pencils cost
40y pence
so total cost of x pens and y pencils is

(b)
60x + 40y pence.
Paul has 6 to spend. Write down an inequality involving x and y.

Total cost is 60x + 40y pence and he has 6 = 600 pence
(c)
60x + 40y 600
3x + 2y 30
(dividing both sides by 20)
Pauls mother has told him to buy more than 3 pencils. Write down and inequality to
show this.
The number of pencils (y) must be more than 3
(d)
y > 3.
Paul decides to buy at least twice as many pencils as pens. Write down another
inequality involving x and y.
This means that the number of pencils (y) must be twice the number of pens (x)
or more
(e)
y 2x.
Draw a graph to show the purchases that Paul can make.

x 0 and y 0 must be true as x and y cannot be negaative.
Draw up tables of values for each inequality, plot on graph and shade out those
areas which are not wanted and the unshaded region will show Pauls possible
purchases.
70
3x + 2y 30
y 2x
10
15
7.5
10
y > 3, x 0 and y 0 are easy to draw with out a table of values.
and the area satisfied by all the conditions is labelled A.

y 2x
y
15
10
y>3
10
x
3x + 2y 30
71
Types of number
Natural numbers, integers and rational numbers
Natural numbers are the counting numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . .
Integers are whole numbers, positive, negative or zero:
. . . . , -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
Rational numbers (ratio means fraction) are numbers which can be written as a fraction
e.g.
3
,
4
5
7 21
0
, 7 (because 7
, etc.), 0 (because 0 , etc.) ,
3
1
3
5
2.34,
a
:
b
5.6
All whole numbers are rational.
Irrational numbers
2, 6,
9 , or any nasty root cannot be written as a fraction and is called irrational.
Also, cannot be written as a fraction and so is irrational.

Numbers like 2 - 2, 3 + , 5, 1/, 7 - 56 are all irrational.
Note that we can find two irrational numbers which add to give a rational number
(3 - 22) + (17 + 22) = 20 which is rational;
and in the same way for multiplication
7
7
5 3
15
which is rational.
Real numbers
The rational numbers and irrationals together form the real numbers.
A real number is any number on the number line - whole number, fraction or irrational.
Converting fraction to decimal

Any terminating decimal can be written as a fraction and so is rational.
Example: 3.45 =
345 69
, any terminating decimal can be converted to a fraction.

100 20
Converting recurring decimal to fration

Any recurring decimal can be written as a fraction as so is rational
Example:
25
= 1.225225225225225225225225 ...
Let n = 1.2
This recurring decimal has 3 recurring digits so look at 1000n

1000n = 1225. 225225225225225225 ...
n =
1. 225225225225225225 ...
and subtract n
to give
999n = 1224
72
1224 136
999 111
25
is a rational number.
which is a fraction, so 1.2
Circle Geometry
Segments and sectors
The points A and B divide the circle into two arcs,

the longer one, AFEB, is called the major arc and
the shorter is called the minor arc.
minor
arc D
The line AB is called a chord, and it divides the

circle into two segments
O
G
The line joining the centre, O, to the midpoint, D,

of the chord AB is perpendicular to AB
Two equal chords are the same distance from the centre,
OD = OG.
Two radii divide a circle into two sectors
(Pieces of cake.)
Length of arc and area of sector

Example:
Find the length of the arc AB, and the area of the
sector AOB.
A
7 cm
80o
Solution:
The circumference of the whole circle is
C = 2r = 2 7 = 14
So each degree at the centre would give an arc length of
arc AB = 80
14
28
=
360
9
14
360
or 9.77 cm.
Similarly the area of the whole circle is A = r2 = 72 = 49

So each degree at the centre would give an area of
area of sector AOB = 80
98
49
=
360
9
49
360
or 34.2 cm2.
73
Tangents
Angle between radius of circle and tangent
is 90
Two tangents from a point are of equal

length AP = BP
P
B
The figure is symmetrical about OP.
Angle properties
Angle at the centre is twice the angle at
the circumference
Angles in the same segment are equal
You are expected to know the proofs of the above theorems:

Proof:
The three radii are all equal so we have two
isosceles triangles
a b
a = a and b = b
and the exterior angle of a triangle equals the sum

of the two interior opposite angles
74
c = a + a and d = b + b
c = 2a and d = 2b
c + d = 2a + 2b = 2(a + b)
angle at the centre is twice the angle at the

circumference
and
any two angles in the same segment are both half the angle at the centre
any two angles in the same segment are equal.
Angle in a semi-circle is 90
Angle with tangent = angle in alternate

segment
90o
A cyclic quadrilateral is one which lies in a circle.

The opposite angles of a cyclic
quadrilateral add up to 180o.
i.e. + = 180.
Constructions with compass and ruler
perpendicular
bisector
Perpendicular bisector
To draw the perpendicular bisector of the line joining
A and B,
place compass point at A and make two arcs as
shown then repeat with compass point at B without
changing the compass.
Join the points where these pairs of arcs meet.
75
Angle bisector
To construct angle bisector of BAC, use

compass to mark two points P, Q on AB, AC
equidistant from A.
P
Then use compass to mark a point R

equidistant from P and Q.
angle
bisector
A
Q
Join AR; this is the angle bisector.
Dropping a perpendicular from a point to a line

To drop a perpendicular from P to the line l
First mark any two points X and Y on l .

Then put compass point at X and with radius XP
draw an arc below the line.
Then put compass point at Y and with radius YP

draw an arc below the line to intersect the previous
arc at Z.
Z
Join PZ, this is the perpendicular from P to l
Constructing a 60o angle

To construct a 60o angle to a line at the point A.
First mark a point P on line using compass.

Then, without changing the compass mark two
arcs from A and P to meet at a point Q.
The triangle APQ is equilateral and so the
angle at A is 60o.
60
P
76
Loci
The word locus means place or position.
To find a locus of a point P mark several possible positions for P and then join up (use a ruler or
compass if suitable)
Example: Find the locus of P, where P is equidistant from two fixed points A and B.
First mark several possible positions of P,
shown by the crosses
The join up the crosses with a ruler to show

the locus of P
locus of P
Common loci
(a)
The locus of all points which are 3 cm from a fixed point A, is a circle with centre A
and radius 3 cm.
(b)
The locus of all points which are equidistant from two fixed points A and B is the
perpendicular bisector of the line AB see above example.
(c)
The locus of all points which are

equidistant from two fixed lines
which meet at the point A is the
angle bisector of the angle A.
(d)
The locus of a point P which is 4 cm

from a fixed line l, is a sausage
shaped locus with semi-circular ends
locus
locus
77
Matrices
Size
The size of a matrix is given as r c where r is the number of rows and c is the number of
columns.
A 2 3 matrix has 2 rows and 3 columns as shown below:
3
1
7
Adding matrices
Add two matrices by adding the corresponding numbers in each matrix; two matrices can only
be added if they are the same size.
3
Example:
=
7
5
10
8
10
+
6
10
3 5
=
46
1 8
72
0 10
2 3
Multiplying matrices by a number

To multiply a matrix, A, by a number, k, multiply each number in the matrix by k.
5
Example: 5
6
10
25
=
30
40
10
50
15
Multiplying matrices
Two matrices A and B can only be multiplied, A B,
if
the number of columns of A = the number of rows of B.
Thus we can multiply a 2 3 matrix (3 columns) by a 3 2 matrix (3 rows)

but we cannot multiply a 4 2 matrix (2 columns) by a 4 3 matrix (4 rows)
Example:
3
1
7
0
6
(3 2) (1 0) (0 6)
( 4 2) (7 0) ( 2 6)
78
3
1
(3 5) ( 1 3) (0 1)
( 4 5) (7 3) (2 1)
18
.
1
Data matrices
Matrices can be used to store information. Suppose that two cafs sell pizzas, burgers and hot
dogs. The number sold in one evening is shown in the 2 3 matrix:
P
25
Caf Johnson 20
Caf Baxter
B
32
31
HD
40
50
The prices of Pizzas, Burgers and Hot Dogs are 2.50, 2 and 1 and are shown in the 3 1
matrix:
2.5

2 .
1

The product
2 .5
25 32 40 16 .5
2
20 31 50 1 162
shows the total income in each caf during the evening:

Caf Baxter 166.50 and Caf Johnson 162.
2 2 matrices
Identity matrix
1
The matrix I =
0 1
is called the identity matrix.
79
=
c
and
c

0 1
=
c
Determinant
a
The determinant of
c
Example:
is written
= ad bc.
= 3 2 4 5 = 26
Inverse matrices
The inverse of A is written A 1 and
A A 1 = A 1 A = I.
To find the inverse:
(i)
find the determinant (if the determinant is 0, stop as the matrix has no inverse)
(ii)
swap a and d
(iii)
change the signs of b and c.
(iv)
divide all numbers by the determinant.
Find the inverse of A =

4
Example:
Solution:
(i)
the determinant = (3 2) (1 4) = 10
(ii)
swap a and d to give
(iii)
change the sign of b and c to give

4
(iv)
3
2
divide every number by the determinant to give A
1
10
2 1
.
4 3
We can check that we have the correct answer by finding

A 1 A =
80
1
10
2 1
3 1
4 2 =
4 3
1
10
10 0
0 10
=
0
= I which it should!
a

4
c
11

8
Example:
Solution:
Remembering that A 1 A = I we first find the inverse of

2
. Find the values of a, b, c and d.
(i)
3

3
2
a

1
c
inverse matrix is
2
(ii), (iii), (iv)
2

1
a

4
c
1
5 11

3 8
.
0
Transformations and 2 2 Matrices

Matrices as transformations
a
To find the image of a point (x, y) using the matrix M =

c
x

y
we must multiply the vector
by the matrix
81
so the image of
x

y
is M
x

y
=
c
x

y
ax by

cx dy
When asked to describe the transformation defined by a matrix it is often best to start by
finding the image of the unit square, O (0, 0), A (1,0), B (1, 1), C (0,1).
1
.
0
Example:
Describe the transformation defined by the matrix

1
Solution:
First find the image of the unit square O (0, 0), A (1,0), B (1, 1), C (0,1).
O
O A
B C
=
0 1 1
0
O does not move, A is (0, 1), B is (1, 1) and C is (1, 0).
Then draw a diagram with BOTH the original square and its image.
y
2
A1 C
-2
A
-1
At first glance this might look like a reflection but looking at the letters A, B and C and
their images we can see that the transformation is a rotation about the origin through
90o anti-clockwise.
82
, where
Find the image of the unit square OABC under the matrix M =
2
1
O is the origin and A, B and C are (1, 0), (1, 1) and (0, 1). Describe the transformation
fully.
Example:
Solution:
We first find the images of O, A, B and C.

O
O A B
B C
=
0 1 1
0
O does not move, A is (2, 1), B is (1, 3) and C is (1, 2).
Then draw a diagram with BOTH the original square and its image.
y
3
-1
1A
A
2
x
3
We can see that the transformation is an enlargement and rotation combined; measuring
gives the scale factor of the enlargement as 2.24 with centre (0, 0), and the angle of
rotation as 26.5o with centre (0, 0).
Base vectors
The vectors
1

0
and
0

1
are called base vectors.
83
For any matrix M =

c
1

0
a
=
c
0

1
a
=
c
matrix,
and
matrix.
notice that
1

0
so if we know the images of
0

1
1

0
a

c
b

d
and
1

0
is mapped to the first column of the
0

1
is mapped to the second column of the
0

1
we know the first and second columns of the
matrix and so can write down the matrix.
Example:
4

5
84
In a transformation
1

0
is mapped onto
2

3
and
0

1
is mapped onto
. Find the matrix of the transformation.
Solution:
We know that
and we know that
1

0
0

1
is mapped onto
is mapped onto
2

3
4

5
and so the first column is
and so the second column is
2

3
4

5
.
the matrix is
3 5
Example:
Find the matrix for a rotation about the origin through 180o.
Solution:
1

0
We first find the images of
and
0

1
which will then tell us the first and
second columns of the matrix. We can find these images by drawing a diagram:
y
-2
A
-1
From the diagram we see that
O
-1
OA
1

0
is mapped onto OA
1

0
, first column,
85
and
OC
0

1
is mapped onto OC
0

1
, second column.
1
0
matrix of a rotation though 180o about the origin is
.
1
Common transformations
1
0
0
1
1
Identity
leaves all points unchanged
Rotation about (0, 0) through

90o anti-clockwise

180o

270o anti-clockwise,
or 90o clockwise
1
1
Reflection in x-axis, or y = 0
Reflection in y = x
0
Reflection in y-axis, or x = 0
Reflection in y = x or x+y=0
Enlargements, stretches and shears

Enlargements
In an enlargement centre (0, 0) of factor 3 both x and y-coordinates are multiplied by 3.
(2, 4) (6, 12),
and in particular A
column)
86
1

0
(3, 5) (9, 15)
3

0
(first column), and C
0

1
0

3
(second
y
3
C
A
A
-1
matrix is
0
3
k
In general the matrix for an enlargement centre (0, 0) with factor k is

0
Stretches
In a one-way stretch of factor 4 with x = 0 (or the y-axis) as the invariant line only the
x-coordinates are multiplied by 4.
(2, 4) (8, 4),
and in particular A
column)
(3, 5) (12, 5)
1

0
4

0
0

1
0

1
(second
y
3
C C
1
A
-1
matrix is
0
A x
In general the matrix for a one-way stretch of factor k with x = 0 (or the y-axis) as the invariant
k
line is
0
Similarly for a one-way stretch of factor k with y = 0 (or the x-axis) as the invariant line only
1
the y-coordinates are multiplied by k and the matrix is

0
87
Shears
In a shear of factor 2 with y = 0 (or the x-axis) as the invariant line a point is moved in the
x-direction by (2 its y-coordinate).
(1, 4) is moved in the x-direction by 2 4 (1+8, 4) (9, 4),
and
(3, 5) is moved in the x-direction by 2 5 (310, 5) (7, 5).
Note that if a point above the x-axis moves to the right then a point below will move to the left,
and vice-versa.
In particular A
1

0
1

0
0

1
2

1
(second column)
y
3
A 1A
-1
matrix is
0
In general the matrix for a one-way stretch of factor k with y = 0 (or the x-axis) as the invariant
1
line is
0
y
3
Similarly for a one-way stretch of factor k with

x = 0 (or the y-axis) as the invariant line a point is
moved in the y-direction by (k its x-coordinate).
C C
1
88
A
-1
Note that if a point to the right of the y-axis moves up then a point to the left will move down,
and vice-versa.
1
The matrix is
k
Vectors
Position vector
The vector joining the origin to the point P (2, 3) is called the position vector of the point and
is written
2
OP
3
Adding, multiplying.
Always think of vectors as translations
4
1
3
5 8 13

Adding
Multiplying
4 20
5
3 15
Magnitude
The magnitude of a vector is its length: so using Pythagoras
magnitude of
5
3 =
52 ( 3) 2
34 = 5.83
89
Adding vectors in a diagram.

Always think of vectors as translations
Geometrically this can be done using a triangle (or a parallelogram):
a
a+b
a+b
Example:
OA a, OB b, find
terms of a and b.
Think of the vector
from A to B.
AB
AB
in
A
First go from A to O (which is minus a)

then from O to B (which is b)
so
AB
as a translation
O
B
= a + b or b a
Example:
In a triangle OBC let M and N be the midpoints of OB and OC. Use vector
geometry to prove that BC = 2MN and that BC is parallel to MN.
Write the vectors
OB
as b, and
OC
as c.
Then OM = OB = b
and ON = OC = c.
To find MN go from M to O using b and

then from O to N using c
and so
MN
= b + c
N
c
Also, to find BC go from B to O using = b

and then from O to C using c
But
90
BC
MN
BC
= b + c
= b + c
= 2
MN
BC is parallel to MN
and BC is twice as long as MN.
Index
Accuracy, 65
Accuracy in calculations, 65
To nearest 5 or nearest 10, 65
Algebra
Brackets, 9
Difference of two squares, 41
Squaring brackets, 41
Algebraic fractions, 42
Angles
Acute, 29
At a point, 29
Obtuse, 29
On a line, 29
Parallel lines, 30
Reflex, 29
Vertically opposite, 29
Area, 19
Circle, 19
Parallelogram, 19
Rectangle, 19
Trapezium, 19
Triangle, 19
Bar charts, 24
Bearings, 30
Brackets, 9
Circles
Angle at centre, 72
Angle in alternate segment, 73
Angle in semi-circle, 73
Angles in same segment, 72
Arcs, 71
Chords, 71
Cyclic quadrilaterals, 73
Sectors, 71
Segments, 71
Tangents, 72
Cone, 20
Constructions
Angle bisector, 74
Compass and ruler, 73
Perpendicular bisector, 73
Perpendicular from point to line, 74
Converting units
Area, 21
Length, 20
Speed, 64
Volume, 21
Cosine rule, 54
Cumulative frequency graphs, 61
Decimal places, 65
Depression
Angle of depression, 31
Distance - time curves, 63

Gradient, 63
Division
Long division, 14
Elevation
Angle of elevation, 30
Enlargements, 37
Negative factor, 38
Positive factor, 37
Enlargments
Fractional factor, 38
Equations
Forming equations, 12
Solving equations, 10
Factorising, 41
Factors, 5
Common factors, 6
H.C.F., 6
Prime factors, 5
Square roots, 7
Formulae
Re-arranging, 11
Fractions, 14
Converting decimal to fraction, 15
Converting fraction to decimal-, 70
Converting recurring decimal to fraction, 70
Frequency tables, 23
Functions
Combining functions, 35
Inverse functions, 36
Gradient, 44
Graphs, 44
Distance between two points, 44
Mid-point, 45
Plotting curves, 46
Solving equations from graphs, 46
Standard graphs, 47
Histograms, 24
Indices, 7
Inequalities, 13
In two variables, x and y, 66
Integers, 70
Interest
Compound interest, 28
Simple interest, 28
91
Irrational numbers, 70
Line graphs, 24
Locus, 75
Map scales, 39
Matrices
Addition, 76
Base vectors, 81
Common transformations, 82
Data matrices, 77
Determinant, 77
Enlargements, 83
Identity, 77
Inverse, 78
Multiplication, 76
Multiplying by a number, 76
Shears, 84
Size, 76
Stretches, 83
Transformations, 79
Mean, 23
Grouped frequency table, 26
Median, 22
Mid-point, 45
Mode, 22
Multiples, 6
Common multiples, 6
L.C.M., 6
Multiplication
Long multiplication, 13
Natural numbers, 70
Negative numbers, 16
Parallelogram, 33
Percentages, 27
Percentiles, 62
Perimeter, 18
Pie charts, 25
Polygons
Exterior angles, 33
Interior angles, 33
Regular polygons, 34
Prime numbers, 5
Prism, 20
Probability, 48
Complements, 50
Equally likely outcomes, 48
Exclusive events, 51
Independent events, 51
Tree diagrams, 49
Two dice, 48
Two or three coins, 48
Proportion
Direct, 56
Inverse, 56
Pyramid, 20
Pythagoras, 38
Quadratic equations, 42
Formula, 43
Solution by completing the square, 42
Solution by factorising, 42
92
Quadratics
F O I L, 41
Factorising, 41
Quadrilaterals, 33
Cyclic quadrilateral, 73
Quartiles, 22
Cumulative frequency graphs, 61
Interquartile range, 22
Questionnaires, 26
Range, 22
Ratio, 39
Rational numbers, 70
Real numbers, 70
Reciprocals, 15
Recurring decimal, 70
Recurring decimals, 16
Reflections, 37
Relative frequency, 48
Rhombus, 33
Rotations, 36
Finding centre, 37
Rough approximations, 16
Rounding off to the nearest ....., 16
Samples
Bias, 26
Random samples, 27
Stratified samples, 27
Sampling, 26
Scatter graphs, 60
Sequences, 17
Linear sequences, 17
Standard sequences, 18
Significant figures, 65
Similar figures, 57
Areas, 59
Corresponding sides, 58
Enlargement factor, 58
Volumes, 59
Simultaneous equations, 43
Sine rule, 54
Speed - time curves
Area under curve, 63
Gradient acceleration, 63
Square numbers, 6
Standard Form, 8
Straight lines, 45
Gradient and y-intercept, 45
Parallel lines, equations, 45
y = mx + c, 45
Substituting in formulae, 9
Surface area, 19
Cone, 19
Cylinder, 19
Sphere, 19
Surveys, 26
Tally charts, 23
Three dimensional problems, 52

Translations, 36
Trapezium, 33
Triangle
Area ab sin C, 55
Triangles
Angle sum equals 180o, 31
Congruence, 32
Equilateral, 31
Exterior angle = sum of interior opposite angles, 31
Isosceles, 31
Vectors
Adding, 85
In diagrams, 85
Length, 85
Magnitude, 85
Multiplying, 85
Position vector, 85
Proof using vectors, 86
Volume
Prism, 20
Pyramid, 20
Triangular numbers, 7
Trigonometry, 40
Equations with angles from 0o to 180o, 53
sin & cos for angles between 90o and 180o, 53
93

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I.G.C.S.E.

Primes, Factors, Powers and Standard Form..................................................................................5

Perimeters and Areas....................................................................................................................... 18

Volumes and Surface Areas............................................................................................................ 19

12/12/16 IGCSE Extension Level Revision SDB

The awkward case, x on the denominator........................................................................................................................40

Quadratic functions & factorising...................................................................................................41

Probability and relative frequency......................................................................................................................................48

Sine & cosine for angles between 90o and 180o.................................................................................................................53

Sine and Cosine rules,area of a triangle.............................................................................................................................54

Areas and volumes of similar figures.................................................................................................................................59

Converting units - speeds...................................................................................................................................................64

12/12/16 IGCSE Extension Level Revision SDB

Inequalities in two variables...............................................................................................................................................67

Constructions with compass and ruler..........................................................................................73

12/12/16 IGCSE Extension Level Revision SDB

Primes, Factors, Powers and Standard Form

and we can see easily that it is now time to stop!

writing factors in ascending order

12/12/16 IGCSE Extension Level Revision SDB

Common Factors and Highest Common Factor

Common Multiples and Lowest Common Multiple

are all multiples of 10, and

are all multiples of 15.

(including another 2 would be unnecessary)

12/12/16 IGCSE Extension Level Revision SDB

Square roots and prime factors

When multiplying, add the powers

When dividing, subtract the powers

since (43)2 = 43 43 = 43 + 3 = 43 2 = 46.

Any number to the power 0 is always equal to 1.

A negative power means one over or one divided by;

1 divided by 5 to the power of positive 4.

since minus means turn upside down

since 3 on bottom of fraction is cube root,

Converting from standard form to an ordinary number.

= 6.42 multiplied by 10 five times = 642000.

= 7.34 divided by 10 three times

(negative power means divide)

Converting TO standard form

567.3 = 5.67 times 10 twice = 5.67 102.

= 56.3 times 10 four times = 563000

= 5.36 divided by 10 four times

(negative power means divide)

Combining numbers in standard form

(2.7 107) (3 102) =

= 0.9 105 = 9 10-1 105 = 9 104 .

3.41 104 + 4.5 103 = 34100 + 4500 = 4500 38600

7.63 10 -3 - 4.2 10-4 = 0.00763 - 0.00042 = 0.00042 0.00721

Simplifying expressions and brackets

12/12/16 IGCSE Extension Level Revision SDB

3(2a + 5b) + 4(7a - 2b)

Simplify 4(a - 3b) - 5(2a - 3b)

multiply by the number(s)

multiply by the number(s)

(6a + 15b) + (28a - 8b)

(4a - 12b) - (10a - 15b)

4a - 12b - 10a + 15b

there is a minus separating

add the same number to both sides

add 4 to both sides

divide both sides by 3

12/12/16 IGCSE Extension Level Revision SDB