Symposium

MUSEOLOGY AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

- HELP OR MANIPULATION?

MUSEOLOGIE ET PAYS EN VOIE DE DEVELOPPEMENT

- AIDE OU MANIPULATION?

Hyderabad - Varanasi - New Delhi, November/novembre 1988

Contents

The developed. the developing. development and museology

by Vincs Sofka

Symposium 1988: Tapie and method

The tapie and ils framewOlk
Guidelines by Vinos Sofka

13

Symposlum 1988 : BasIc papers

List of the contributors to the symposium
Contributions to the symposium

_
_

27

31

Araujo, Marcelo M & Bruno, Maria C Oliveira - Sao Paulo, Brazil 31

Barblan, Marc-A - Geneva, Switzerland 47

Barretto, Maria de Lourdes Horta - Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 61

Barros de Taramasco, Isabel - Bahia Blanca, Argentina 75

Bedekar, Vasanl H - Baroda, India 81

Benes, Josef - Praha, Czechoslovakia 89

Calonne, Caroline & Ghafouri, Mehdi - Montreal, Quebec, Canada 97

Carlillo de San Segundo, Rosario - Madrid, Spain 105

Decarolis, Nelly; Dowling de Garro, Elisa M & Asteslano, Mariana

- Buenos Aires, Argentina 125

Desvalles, Andr - Paris, France 137

Quzinski, Wojdech - Wroclaw, Poland 139

Huchard, Ousmane Sow - Dakar, Senegal 147

Laumonier, Isabel - Buenos Aires, Argentina 171

Maranda, Lynn - Vancouver, Be, Canada 175

Mensch, Peter van - Leiden, NetherIands 181

Mey, Wolfgang - Stuttgart, FRG 187

Nicolas, Alain - Paris, France 197

Nigam, Mohan L - Hyderabad, India 203

Prosler, Martin - Tbingen, FRG 193

Rao, Manjushree - Bhopal, India 219

Rusconi de Meyer, Norrna - Bahia Blanca, Argentina 227

Scharer, Martin R - Vevey, Swllzerland 233

Spielbauer, Judith K - Oxford, Ohio, USA 249

Suler, Petr - Bmo, Czechoslovakia 257

Whitlock, John J - Carbondale, minois, USA 263

Vieregg. Hildegard - Mnchen, FRG 267

Xie, Margaret Camey - Fort Dodge, Iowa, USA 279

ICOFOM publications

287

This Issue of 155 has been prepared

by Vinos Sotka, Olairman of ICOFOM
Wlth the assistance
of the Museum of National Antiquities, Stockholm - Sweden

Oosing date: Stockholm - August 31, 1988

Sommaire

Etre dvelopp, se dvelopper,le dveloppement et la musologie

par Vinos Sofka

Colloque 1988 : Thme et mthode

Le thme et son cadre

19

Une esquisse par Vinos Sofka

CoDuque 1988: MmoiJ es de base

liste des contributeurs au colloque

Contn'butionsau colloque

27

31

Araujo, Marcelo M & Bruno, Maria C Oliveira - Sao Paulo, Brsil 39

Barblan, Marc-A - Genve, Suisse 53

Barretto, Maria de Lourdes Horta - Rio de Janeiro, Brsil 71

Barres de Taramasco, Isabel - Bahia Blanca, Argentine 75

Bedekar, Vasant H - Baroda, Inde 81

Benes, Josef - Praha, Tchcoslovaquie 93

Calonne, Caroline & Ghafouri, Mehdi - Montral, Qubec, Canada 101

Carrillo de San Segundo, Rosario - Madrid, &"pagne 115

Decarolis, Nelly; Dowling de Garre, Elisa M & Astesiano, Mariane

- Buenos Aires, Argentine 125

Desvalles, Andr - Paris, France 129

Quzinski, WOjciech - Wroclaw, Pologne 139

Huchard, Ousmane Sow - Dakar, Sngal 147

Lmmonier, Isabel - Buenos Aires, Argentine 171

Maranda, Lynn - Vancouver, Be. Canada 175

Mensch, Peter van - Leiden, Pays- Bas 181

Mey, Wolfgang - Stuttgart, RFA 187

Nicolas, Alain - Paris, France 197

Nigam, Mohan L - Hyderabad, Inde 203

l'rOsier, Martin - Tbingen, RFA 193

Rao, Manjushree - Bhopal, Inde 219

Rusconi de Meyer, Nonna - Bahia Blanca, Argentine 225

Schiirer, Martin R - Vevey, Suisse 241

Spielbauer, Judith K - Oxford, Ohio, USA 249

SuleT, Petr - Brno, Tchcoslovaqie 261

Whitlock, John j . Carbondale, Illinois, USA 263

Vieregg, Hildegard - Mnchen, RFA 273

Xie, Margaret Carney - Fort Dodge, Iowa, USA 283

Publications de l'ICOFOM,

287

Ce numro de

riss a t prepar

par Vinos Sofka, Prsident de J'ICOFOM

avec l'aide
du Muse des antiquites nationales, Stockholm - Sude
D a t achev Stockholm, le 31 aoOt 1988

The developed, the developing, development and museology

by Vinos Sofka
Panta rei . ail is flaWing. nothing is lasting. Iife shows continuai change. Sa stated almast
2,500 years ago an lonian philosopher. Heraklites of Ephesas (540 . 480 B.C) ta be exact.

Everything on the earth, ta keep ourselves in our awn sphere, is presumably evolving.
developing. Nothing is constant but change. lt seems that there is no doubt about it !
o We meet the phenomenon in our daily Iife; Techniques and products are being
developed, the market effers always "new and bette!" goods and services, whatever You
touch. Attempts are made ta develop nature plants, animais, even man himself !
o We can see the phenomenon around us in society - in our nearest neighbourhood,
in the country we live in, in the region we belong to, in the wood itself. We state that
there are different stages of development to be observed. We speak of developing
trends when looking to the future.
o We read about the phenomenon in the newspapers, Iisten to programs about it on
the radio and TV. Tracts on the topic were and still are published presenting manifold
views and approaches, not ail of them necessaJily concuning With the old author of the
"panta rei" concept.
The idea of amtinuous development has become a part of our life philosophy the more
the changes around us accelerate. We have accepted it. More or less. We don'! puzzle
our heads with il, we do nct have time to sit down and reflect on ail the intricate,
sophisticated questions which penetrating the topic brings along. Mostly, we try to keep
up With ail the changes around us. We have to if we Will keep up with progress and if
we Will not get lost.
Il is a pitYthat our hectic lite does nct allow us a Iittle meditation. There is a lot to
ponder on. Take, for example, only the concept of developmenl The New Webster
Encyclopedie Dictionary defines it as "the act or process of developing; unfolding;
unraveling the plot; a graduaI growth or advancement through progressive changes".
And speaking about developmentthemy it states that it is "the theory that plants and
animais are capable of advancing. in successive generations and through an infinite
vaJiety of stages, from a lower to a higher state of existence, and that more highly
organized forms existing at present are the descendents of lower forms". But: related
to society, what are the "progressive changes" and how to c1assify and handIe the other
ones? What is the role of man, human beings, in this process . active or passive, and
what is their responsibility? And, on the whole, what about the development of
human beings themselves, as individuals as weil as collectives, organized or not in
different forms ?

Or, think just of what the fact of development brings along with il. The need for get
ting order ln thls always moving jumble of changes becomes evident when tackling the
problem and trying find out the status quo, its roots and the trends ta be expected.
Attempts to c1assify the actors in the human society into the developed. the
developing and the mtdeveloped have been made and are applied. But: how much
do these categories correspond to reality, what are the criteria for such a classification
and are they applicable in general? Can, at ail, something be finally developed, when
development is permanently ongoing? And could not something developed, or
7

developing. become - by any reason - undeveloped, too? Relating to sorne constant

values, in time and space, and introdudng measurements, degrees of development, is
needed, but who is authorized to do so and to follow il up? A cnJdal and complicated
problern on the international arena with little chance of being solved. No wonder that
an atternpt to find out any lIpproved international definitions or lisis of countries
conceming those, or other, categories is hopeless and without result.

ICOFOM has in ils search for the foundations of museology met again and again the pro
blern of development. Development of sodety, or sodeties, of museology and of
rnuseums in dffferent relations and inter-relations. The efforts to find out, on the
international leve~ sorne common base of the sdence of museolagy have forced upon
us worIdng out unconventionaJ worIcing methods and concentrating the work of the
Commtttee on catching up, ail over the wood, the varying states of museology as weil
as studying ils developing trends at the same time. An ali-round inventol)', deep
analysls and objective conclusions have become the corner stones of the worl<.
Especially the last ICOFOM symposia, on Museology and Identity, and on Museology
and Museums, have touched on different levels and from different points of view the
dynamlcs of museology. This yeats symposium goes one step further. The topic
"Museology and developing countries - help or manipulation ?" allows not only
discussion about problems which arise from concrete historicaJ and contemporal)'
situations of museums and museology in developing countries. Ii allows alsa a more
theoretical approach ta the problem by studying the existence of, or the possibllities for
establishing a general museology and the prospects of ils correct use - and eliminating
misuse - in different conditions in the world corresponding to the real situations and
needs.

Let us stop here and give the ward to the writers from different parts of the world. These
reflections of mine should not be a philosophical polernic with Heraldites and ail the
other thinkers who in a qualified way approached over the ages the phenomenon of
development. It should only throw forth sorne ideas, which can - or should - come to
mind when reflecting on the theme which ICOFOM dedded to taclde this time. Il
should be a reminder that before the limited penetration of the problern of the
development of soctety as weil as of museolagy and museums can be considered, one
shauld in a short meditation remember the great changes which charactel1ze the
development of manldnd on the earth.
Read these unpretentious Iines, please, in this way !
Stockholm, August 1988

Etre dvelopp, se dvelopper - dveloppement et musologie

par Vinas Sofka
Panta rei - tout coule, rien ne dure, la vie n'est que changement continu. Ainsi parlait, il y a

quelques 2.500 ans, un philosophe ionien. Hraclite d'Ephse (54G-480 avant Jsus
Q1I1st) trs exactement.
Tout sur la terre, pour ne re:.1er que dans nos plUpI es sphres, est cens voluer, se d
velopper. la seule constante est le changement. a ne laisse aucun doute, semble-Hl!
Nous rencontrons le phnomne dans notre vie quotidienne: les techniques et les
produits se dveloppent, le march nous offre toujours des marchandises et des
services "nouveaux et meilleurs", quoi qu'on touche. On essaie de dvelopper la na
ture - les plantes, les animaux, jusqu' l1lomme lui-mme !
o

o Nous voyons le phnomne dans la socit qui nous entoure - dans notre
voisinage le plus proche, dans le pays o nous habitons, dans la rgion la quelle nous
appartenons, dans le monde lui-mme. Nous eXJnstatons que nous pouvons observer
des tapes diffrentes dans le dveloppement. Nous parlons des tendances du dvelop
pement quand nous parlons de l'avenir.
o Nous lisons des articles sur le phnomne dans les journaux, entendons des
programmes la radio, et voyons des reportages la tl. Des tudes scientifiques ou
philosophiques sur le sujet taient et sont toujours publies qui prsentent des vues et
des approches diverses, dont toutes ne s'entendent pas forcment avec le vieil auteur
du prindpe "panta rei".

Le ampt du dveJoppement cOlltinu est devenu une partie intgrale de notre philo
sophie quotidienne mesure que les changements autour de nous s'acclrent. Nous
l'avons accept. Plus ou moins. Nous ne cassons pas la tte avec cette ide; nous
n'avons pas le temps de nous asseoir et de rflchir sur toutes les questions sophis
tiques et compliques qu'une tude de la question pourrait soulever. Nous essayons
avant tout de nous tenir jour des changements qui nous entourent. Nous y sommes
obligs si nous voulons tre au courant du progrs et ne pas tre perdus.
Il est dommage que notre vie bou5O.11e ne nous permet pas un peu de mditation. TI y
a beaucoup de choses considrer. Prenez, par exemple, simplement le terme
~ppe...ent. Le New Webster Encyclopedie Dictionary le dcrit (traduit en franais)
comme: " l'action ou le processus qui dveloppe, dploie, dnoue une intrigue; une
croissance progressive ou une avance travers des changements progressifs". Et
propos de la thorie du dYetoppernent le dictionnaire nous dit encore " la thorie
selon laquelle les plantes et les animaux sont capables de progresser, travers des
gnrations successives et une varit infinie d'tapes, d'un tat infrieur un tat
suprieur de l'existence, et selon laquelle des formes plus hautement organises qui
existent prsent sont les descendantes des formes infrieures". Mais: relativement
la socit, quels sont les "changements progressifs", et comment classer et manier ceux
qui n'en sont pas? Quel est le rOle de 11lomme, des tres humains, dans ce processus
actif ou passif - et quelles sont ses responsabilits? Et, dans l'ensemble, qu'en est -il du
dveloppement des tres humains eux-mmes, en tant qu'individus ou collectivits,
organises ou non en des formes diffrentes?
Ou bien, pensez simplement ce que le fait du dveloppement entraine.
9

Le besoin de mettre de l'orclre dans ce fou1lJls mouvant apparatt lorsqu'on attaque le

problme et cherche trouver le status quo, ses racines, et les tendances auxquelles on
peut s'attendre. Des tentatives de classification des acteurs de la socit humame en
dvelopps. se dveloppant et non-dvelopps sont labores et appliques. Mais:
comment ces catgOJies correspondent-elles la ralit; quels sont les critres pour une
telle classification, et sont-ils applicables en gnral? Pour finir, quelque chose peut-il
aniver au terme du dveloppement, quand le dveloppement est un tat constamment
en marche? Et quelque chose de dvelopp, ou en dveloppement, ne pourrait-il pas
aussi devenir - pour une raison quelconque - non dvelopp? Etablir des rapports
avec des valeurs constantes, dans l'espace et dans le temps, avec I~ntrocluction de
mesures et de degrs du dveloppement serait ncessaire, mais qui est autOJis le faire
et en assurer le suivi? Un problme crucial et compliqu au niveau mtemational avec
peu de chance de se voir rsolu. Il n'est pas tonnant que s'avrent sans espoir et sans
rsultat les tentatives pour trouver des dfinitions mtemationales agrS ou des listes
des pays concernant ces catgolies - voire d'autres catgOJies.
ICOFOM , dans sa recherche des fondations de la musologie, a encore et encore rencontr
le problme du dveloppement. Le dveloppement de la socit, ou des socits, de la
musologie et des muses dans des relations et mter-relations diffrentes. Les efforts
pour trouver, au niveau mtemational, une base commune la science de la muso
logie nous ont forc laborer des mthodes de travail non conventionnelles et
diliger le travail du Comit vers la mise jour, partout dans le monde, des tapes
diffrentes de la musologie, tout en tudiant paralllement les tendances du dvelop
pement venir. Un mventaire gnral, une tude en profondeur et des conclusions
objectives sont devenus les pierres d'angle de notre travail.
Ce sont surtout les derniers symposiums sur la Musologie et I~dentit, et la Muso
logie et les muses, qui ont touch, des niveaux diffrents et des points de vue
diffrents, la dynamique de la musologie. Le symposium de cette anne va encore
Le sujet "Musologie et pays en voie de dveloppement - aide ou
plus lom.
manipulation?" permet non seulement la discussion sur des problmes qui ont leurs
oligines dans des situations histoliques et contemporames concrtes des muses et de la
musologie dans les pays en voie de dveloppement. Il permet galement une
approche plus thOJique du problme par l'tude de l'existence ou des possibilits
d'tablir une musologie gnrale, et les perspectives de son juste emploi - liminant
ainSi un mauvais emploi - dans des conditions diffrentes dans le monde, qui corres
pondent aux situations et aux besoins rels.
Mais arrtons-nous ici et donnons la parole aux auteurs des diffrents pays du monde. Les
rflexions que j'ai faites ne devraient pas tre un polmique philosophique avec
Hraclite et avec tous les autres penseurs qui, d'une manire plus qualifie, se sont
penchs sur le phnomne du dveloppement au cours des ages. Elles devraient en
toute simplicit soulever quelques ides qui viennent, ou pourraient venir l'esplit
lorsqu'on rflchit sur le thme auquel l'ICOFOM a dcid de s'attaquer cette fois-ci.
Elles devraient simplement rappeler qu'avant de pntrer tant soit peu le problme du
dveloppement de la socit aussi bien que celui de la musologie et des muses, il
faudrait, dans une courte mditation, se souvenir un peu des grands changements qui
ont caractlis le dveloppement de l'humanit sur la terre.
Usez, je vous plie, ces lignes sans prtention dans cet esplit !
Stockholm, aot 1988

Traduit de l'anglais

10

Topie and method -

Thme et mthode

1 The topic and its framework

2 Breaking down the topic
3 Guidelines for the participants
1 Le thme et son cadre
2 Analyse du thme
3 Directives l'intention des participants

12

The topie and its framework

Guidelines by Vinas Safka

The tnplc
At the ICOFOM Triennial Meeting in Buenos Aires in 1986, the working programme for
the years 1987 - 1989 was approved. In its framework, a symposium on the tapie

Museology and deveJopjng muntries: help or manipulation ?

was set up as the main scientifie activity of the Committee in 1988.
Il is a chanenging and stimulating issue that has been chosen for this year's symposium.
One can probably find it sensitive, too, dealing with buming problems of the past or
present time.
The theme - next in the line of tapies studied by ICOFOM - can, or could be understood as
a relatively limiled one, by the way il ts expressed, or by the associations It wakes at the
first sight
On second thought, however, when reflecting on ils purport more deeply, the field
becomes suddenly very wide and the possibDity of conduslons of general museological
significance evident.
A study approaching and analyzing the theme can handle it as tauching the very concrete
experience of museum people in a spedal group of oountries, the developing countries,
and draw oondusions from this point of view. Those who do not have such experience
might approaeh the theme from a more general view and oonsider its substance as a
problem of the use or misuse of museology; as a question of whether there exists or not a
general museology and if sc, how should it be or not be appUed ta different oonditions.
Thus expressed in more concrete terms, the question
What amtnbution bas museology to offer to the developing rountries ?
being the main concem of the symposium,
the condusions on the issue
What are the 5Uppo:.itions for using a generaJ museoIogy in diffcieut amditions
and situations existing in various parts of the wortd?
are the final output the symposium should result in.
The intention, as always at ICOFOM symposia, is to give ta the writers of the papers, and
partidpants as welI, the widest possibility of expressing their own ideas on the tapie,
whatever it be. There are no limitations in advanee, the only limil being the seope of the
theme itself. The reason for making this limit is ta avoid the writers taldng up in their
papers basie museology items from scrateh that have already been dealt with earlier, as
well as making "excursions" into fields beyond the tapie. Another reason is to reeeive
papers whieh give a soUd base for a high level exehange of ideas at the symposium itsel!
An important fact ta be taken also into consideration and not forgotten is the need ta
differendate between museology and the means ta put it into effect, whether it applies ta
museums, training centres or research institutions, as they exist ail over the world.
13

There ls sorne danger that the theme as stated above, based on the ICOFOM long-term
programme and the Commlttee's triennlal programme as well, could lead to such
"beyond-tbe-scgpe" rea$Qlljng. Let us therefore look at what break-down tan be made to
trace out the 'Jame........ 01 the 1988 symposium:
1.1 Nil Il,*>>>, Ind tts PX in and by the de veIQpI:ua aNIlbtes is the very ftrst concept of
the tapic above.
The verslon lImtts the toplc to a group of countries, whlch aCCOidlng to sorne a1terla are
called, or cali themselves, deveJo.pinli countties. This very often used and heard term in
dally lite, as weil as the term "the Third Wood", are however not easy to define. The
attempt to find an offidal definition made by an intemational organization, UN or
Unesco, glves no result. There ls neither a resolution on nor a Iist of developtng coun
tties available and there are no a1tetia stated how to proceed when drawlng the Jine
between them and the "developed" ones, even if it is clear that the state of economic, and
also sodal, development appears to be decisive. Such an approach can be found in the
documents of the Confrence des Nations Unies sur le commerce et le dveloppement,
which include also a Iist of Les pays les moins avancs, since 1982 with 36 states. The ad
hoc grouping of developing counlties founded in 1967, the Group of 77, comprises sinee
1982 representatives from 125 develaping countries. The state of cultural development
does not seem to be relevant for this purpose.
Geoillphically the so-called developing countties are to be found mostly in Aftica, Asia
and Latin America, but even sorne of the European countties belong to them when
studytng ctlfferent documents ln the endeavor to find a satisfactory definltion.
Another limitation of the theme is one whieh the question ilself, in the wording of the
tapie evokes. Il comprises a limitation from point of view of hjstorical deve1opmenl.
Painting out a special phase of this development coneemed with the procedure of self
determination and independenee, mostly expressed by terms of colonization and de
colonization, it also opens the possibility that both sides who have taken part in this pro
cedure glve their views on the role of museology. However, this association of ideas,
based on an historical view, must not necessarily he Iimlled in time. The relation
museology - developing counlties can he studied until the contemporary situation.
The content of the relation museolog)' - deyeloping countries Iimited by the alternative
"help or manipulation", which mostly relies on the htstotically condttioned variable and
Ils evaluation can he enlarged to include a much wider concept:
lklp, which means the use with a positive result, does not include only museology input
trom outside ; il can be also museology input tram within the developing country.
Manipulation which means the misuse, must not necessanly he connected only with the
historicaUy and geographicaUy Iimited view and use of museology by and for the benefit
of "the others' outside the indigenous sodety; it can he a phenomenon appearing bath in
the past and present lime, tram within and from outside of the country.
Starling with these reflections, the topie Museology and developing countties - help or
manipulation? could he reformulated to comprise a dynamic and more contemporary
view on the use of museology in developlng countries :

What amtribution bas museology to offer developing countries ?

14

What is the prime purpose of museology and museological institutions Ollce

museums) in developing countries ?

What are the conditions that limil the realization of the aims of museology and of
museological programmes? How can we cope with them ?
How can the theory of museology be of help in adapting old approaches to present
needs? How can the theory of museology help in developing new models ?
Do locaL indigenous models exlst? What role do the developed world models play?
What is the role of the means of transmission of museological theory into practice
be it museums, museological training centres or research institutes - and how is the
valuable expeJience of practice converted into general theory ?

12 Seen from a general, not Iimiled view of the issue

MlIcoology and Ils lise or mmllse in tbe worId is, or could be the second concept of
the tople. Moreover, il Is, or could be the condudlng part of the ftrst concept If the Com
mittee's objective to finct the basic, general foundations of museology Is kept in mind.
There is no doubt that museology, in its wide concept as interpreted by ICOFOM, used,
consctously or not, ail over the world, can be misused anywhere, not only in the his
tolically Iimited conditions mentioned above.
This view, based on different past expetience and still Iimited, leads thoughts however to
very general reflections, which are the expression of the very basic fundamental question
behind the topie above :

ls tbere a general museology usable aBoyer tbe world, or must an abstract scien

tiflc museology, worted out on an international level and enJoying common

consensus. be adopted according to tbe various conditions every t1me Il Is used?

What are the reasons for an adaptation of general museology and in which way do,
or can, these reasons influence this adaptation, ils need and its output?
What are the posslbilities to ensure the light and just use of general museology, and
to eliminate its misuse? To guarantee an adaptation without changing the basic
ptinciples ?
What is the relation of museology to science, techniques and technology, whose
global action is decisive for the development of society? What Is their interaction.
Do they influence each other, in what relation and to what degree, and how?
Or should the science of museoJogy, abstract and general, live ils own isolated life
without consideting what happens with the basic truths it indudes in its message7
Whose is the responsibility 7

These and other questions are the nucleus problem when the important topic on museo
logy and developing countties is broken down to the core.

13 The purpose of the symposium was, at the very beginning. to take up the problems of
museology and developing countties. The scope of the tapie is, however, wider. Il
touches alllcinds of socielies, and ail peJiods too. Museology as a useful tool in the field
of human heJitage, and in the work of museums and other institutions, plays, or has to
play an important raie in the ongoing pracess of development, drawing in culture,
hetitage and identity as inevitable elements in its context.
Centered on expetiences and needs of different countJies, vaJious museological institu
tions and thousands of museum workers, this symposium can gather valuable know
ledge of general significance for museology. This is the main aim of this year's ICOFDM
action.
15

Being a logical continuation of the Helsinki-Espoo symposium of ICOfOM in 1987, and

the right building brick in the Committee's research programme when viewing the
theme of the ICOM General Conference 1989 : Museums: generators of culture, the
ICOfOM Symposium 88 seerns to he also a weil chosen contribution ta the first year of the
World Decade of Culture and Development procIaimed by Unesco.

2 The organization
The organizational scope of the symposium is built on three basic objectives :
1

ta make a real world wide inventory of concepts of and views on the topic chosen
and, by prepaling carefully the meeting itself, ensure a real djscussion on the subject

to make possible a world wide partjcipation in the symposium and ensure that ail
the regions, if possible, he represented in it

to make ail the papers to the symposium and comments on them, as weil as the
concrusions from the discussions, available for everybody interested, museums and
museum people, ail over the world.

With these basic conditions as starting point, an organizationaJ four step model has
been developed and tested duling the past years.
1

Basic papers on the topie w1itten by the members of ICOfOM and experts invited
from outside are the ground work for the symposium
They have 10 be made in balh ICOM languages and Iyped a=rdingloa recommen
ded outline in order 10 make possible direct reproduction of the papers in the
Committee's preplints, ICOFOM Sludy Selies - 155.
The papers are gathered in good time before the symposium 10 allow publishing in
15S and mailing the issue plior to the meeting itself, to ail the w1iters and parti
cipants registered for the symposium for study and comments.

Comments w1itten by the contlibutors who sent in a paper, and by the registered
participants as weil, on the ideas in the basic papers are the starting point for dis
cussing the topic at the meeting.

Discussion at the symposium on the ideas in the basic papers and views in the
comments gives the opportunity to confront the concepts presented and to reach
common conclusions on the matter. Interventions from the auditolium are ex
pected and taken into consideration.

The discussion is arranged duling two to four half-day-sessions in the form of a

hearing with the writers present, prepared and led by two to four discussion leaders
one to two for each sub -tapie (or other part of the symposium when the division
into sub-topics cannot be appliedl, and the Chairman of the Committee Eaeh part
of the discussion is introduced by an analyzing summary worked out by appointed
experts and c10sed by drawing up conclusions.
16

Later on, it is intended to publish a report on the symposium. abstracts of ail

papers received and conclusions reached, in the Commitlee's review Museological
Worldng Papers - MuWoP. In this way, the symposium and 1ts results are made
available to everybody interested in the matler. The pi epIillts ISS with the sym
posium documentation, basic papers and comments, are distributed on request, as
long as the stock remains .

3 The participants
There are two principles applied to the participation al ICOfOM scientific activities :
1

Symposia, like other scientific programmes, are open to everybody interested,

espedaDy from the field of museums and from the departments or Institutions of
museum studies. no matler whether they are or not members of ICOfOM or ICOM
The partidpation includes the right of ICOfOM members, and an invitation for the
others to atlend the activity and Iisten to the discussion or intervene in it, as weil as
to write the paper, to comment in writing the ethers' papers and to present the ideas
at the activity.
The participation is voluntary. The Committee has no available funds, and a reim
bursement of participation costs, such as travel expenses, accommodations, trans
lations of the texts etc. cannot be granted.
Taking into account the economic, practical and other limitations of the real possi-
bility to atlend international meetings, participation in persan and participation in
spirit only by writing papers and comments, are practiced in order to encourage the
members to join in the won and to increase the exchange of ideas and experience.

To ensure the wide~i possible presentation of ideas and views on the topic from ail
over the world, a caB for papers is addressed, and a personal invitation is sent, 10
eminent experts from various regions and countTies.
The more the ideas on the topic are collected, the better the result of the sym
Put into published form they represent an information bank of museo
logical knowledge available to eveTYbody in the museum profession.
po~ium.

Siockholm, April 1988

A cali for papers for the ICOfOM symposium 1988 was drculated to ail members and
collaborators of the Committee, about 600 persons in ail, in the first days of May 1988.
17

18

Le thme et son cadre

Une esquisse par Vinos Sofka

1 lB sujet
A la runion triennale de l'ICOFOM. il Buenos Aires en 1986, fut approuv le pro
gramme de travail pour les annes 1987-1989. Dans son plan de travail, un coUoque fut
mis comme la principale activit scientifique du Comit en 1988, sur le sujet:

Musologie et pays en vole de dveloppement - aide OU manipulation ?

\

Cest un sujet provocateur et stimulant qui a t choisi pour le colloque de cette anne.
On peut aussi facilement le trouver dlicat, traitant de brOlants problmes du pass et
maintenant.

Le thme - le suivant dans la suite des sujets tudis par l'ICOFOM - peut ou devrait
tre compris comme un thme relativement limit, par la manire dont il est exprim,
ou par les associations qu~1 suscite premire vue.
En y regardant de plus prs, cependant, quand on rflchit plus profondment sur son
sens, le champ devient soudain trs large et la possibilit de conclusions il signification
musologique gnrale parait vidente.
Une tude qui approche et qui analyse le thme peut le traiter comme touchant
l'exprience concrte des gens de muse dans un groupe spcial de pays, des pays en
voie de dveloppement, et tirer des conclusions de ce point de vue. Ceux qui n'ont pas
une telle exprience pourrait approcher le thme d'un point de vue plus gnrale et
considrer son contenu comme un problme du bon ou du mauvais usage de la
musologie, comme une question de savoir s~1 existe ou non une musologie gnrale
et, en ce cas, comment eUe devrait ou ne devrait pas s'appliquer diffrentes
conditions.
De cette faon, exprim en termes plus concrets, la question

Quelle amtribution la musologie a-t-elle il offrir aux pays en voie

de dveloppelllent ?
tant le sujet du colloque, les conclusions sur les consquences
Quelles sont les possibilits d'utiliser une musologie gnrale dans les diffrentes
situations et amdltions existant dans lesdiffrentes parties du monde?
sont aussi l'aboutissement final que doit attendre le coUoque.
L'intention, comme toujours aux colloques de l'ICOfOM, est de donner aux auteurs des
papiers, aussi bien qu'aux participants, la plus large possibilit d'exprimer leurs propres
ides sur le thme, quel qu'il soit. Il ny a d'avance aucune limitation, la seule rsidant
dans la porte du thme lui-mme. La raison de donner une telle limite est d'viter
que les auteurs n'abordent dans leurs mmoires de bases la question de la musologie
depuis le point de dpart, en partant de zro et en traitant des points qui ont dj t
traits auparavant, ou bien en faisant des sorties hors sujet. Un autre objectif est de
recevoir des papiers qui donnent une solide base pour un change d'ides de haut
niveau au colloque lui-mme.
19

Un fait important qui doit tre pris en considration et ne doit pas tre oubli est la
ncessit de distinguer entre la musologie et les moyens de la faire passer dans les faits,
quelque soit le champ d'action - aussi bien les muses, les centres de formation ou les
institutions de recherche, comme ils existent partout dans le monde.
11 ya quelque danger ce que le thme tel que fix plus haut, fond sur le programme
long terme de l'ICOFOM et aussi bien sur le programme triennal du Comit, puisse
conduire quelque raisonnement hors syjet. Voyons donc ce qui peut tre fait pour
esquisserle plan du thme du coDoquet988:
1.1 La musoIoBie el son 119&e dans el par les pays en voie de dveloppement est le
tout premier concept du sujet ci-dessus.

Pris au pied de la lettre, le sujet est limit un groupe de pays qui en accord avec
quelques critres sont appels, ou s'appellent eux-mme - pays en voie de dvelgp.pe
mw. Ce terme, trs souvent utilis et entendu dans la vie quotidienne, de mme que
le terme "le tiers monde" n'est cependant pas facile dfinir. La tentative pour trouver
une dfinition officielle faite par une organisation intemationale - les Nations Unies ou
l'Unesco, ne donne aucun rsultat. 11 n'existe ni rsolution ni une liste des pays en
voie de dveloppement valable et il n'y a pas de critres fixant le moyen de procder si
l'on trace la ligne de partage entre eux et ceux qui sont "dvelopps", mme s~1 est clair
que le niveau de dveloppement conomique et aussi social apparat dcisif. Une telle
approche peut tre trouve dans des documents de la Confrence des Nations Unies sur
le commerce et le dveloppement qui incluent aussi une liste des "Pays les moins
avances," avec 36 tats depuis 1982. Le groupe ad hoc des pays en voie de dveloppe
ment fond en 1967, le Groupe des 77, comprend depuis 1982 des reprsentants de 125
pays en voie de dveloppement. Le niveau du dveloppement culturel ne semble pas
tre pertinent pour ce propos.
Gographiquement les pays qu'on appelle en voie de dveloppement se trouvent
principalement en Afrique, en Asie et en Amrique Latine, mais aussi quelques pays
europens appartiennent aux pays en voie de dveloppement, lorsqu'on tudie diff
rents documents, dans l'effort fait pour trouver une dfinition satisfaisante.
Une autre limitation du thme est celle que la question elle-mme voque dans le
libell du sujet. Cela implique une limitation du point de vue du dveloppement
historiq:ue. Attirant l'attention sur une phase spciale de ce dveloppement qui
concerne le processus d'auto dtermination et d~ndpendance, surtout exprim par les
termes de colonisation et de dcolonisation, elle ouvre galement la possibilit que les
deux partie qui ont particip ce processus donnent leur avis sur le rOle de la
musologie. Pourtant, cette association d~des, base sur un point de vue historique,
ne doit pas tre ncessairement limite dans le temps. La relation musologique - pays
en voie de dveloppement, peut tre tudie jusqu' la situation contemporaine.
Le contenu de la relation rousolo&ie . pays en voie de dvelo.ppement limit l'alter
native "aide ou manipulation' qui compte essentiellement sur le variable historique
et son valuation, peut tre largie jusqu' inclure un concept plus vaste:

L'aide. qui signifie l'usage bon escient, ne doit pas inclure seulement la musologie
venue de l'extrieur, ce peut tre aussi la musologie venue de I~ntrieur du pays en
voie de dveloppement lui-mme.

2D

La manipulation. qui signifie le mauvais usage, ne doit pas ncessairement tre reli au
seul point de vue histolique et gographique et l'usage de la musologie par et pour le
bnfice des "autres" l'extlieur de la socit indigne. Ce peut tre un phnomne
qui apparat!, la fois dans le pass et dans le prsent, venant de l'intlieur du pays et de
l'extlieur.
Partant de ces rflexions le sujet "Musologie et pays en voie de dveloppement - aide
ou manipulation ?" parait tre reformul afin d'inclure une vue plus dynamique et
plus contemporaine sur l'utilisation de la musologie dans les payes en voie de dve
loppement:
QueUe conbibution la musologie peut-eUe offrir aux pays
en wie de dveloppement ?
Quel est le but premier de la musologie et des institutions musologiques (comme
les muses) dans les pays en voie de dveloppement?
Quelles sont les conditions qui limitent la ralisation des projets de musologie et
des programmes musologiques? Comment pouvons-nous nous en dbrouiller?
Comment la tholie de la musologie peut-il tre une aide l'adaptation des an
dennes manires de voir les besoins nouveaux? Comment la thorie de la muso
logie peut-t-elle aider au dveloppement de nouveaux modles? Existe-t-il locale
ment des modles indignes? Quel l'Ole les modles des pays dvelopps jouent-t
ils?
Quel est le l'Ole des moyens de la transmission de la musologie dans les faits,
quelque soit le champ d'action - aussi bien les muses, les centres de formation ou
les institutions de recherche - et comment se convertie l'explience prdeuse de la
pratique en tholie gnrale?

12 Vu d'un point de vue gnral et sans limite de la question

La musolQ&!e et son 1l9&e- bon ou mauvais. dans le monde est, ou devrait tre, la
conclusion de la premire ide, si l'on garde l'esplit que l'objectif du Comit est de
trouver les fondements gnraux de la musologie.
Il n'y a aucun doute que la musologie, dans son large concept, interprt par
l'ICOfOM, utilise consdemment ou non, travers le monde entier, peut tre mal
utilis n'importe o, pas seulement dans les conditions limites histoliquement qui
sont mentionnes au-dessus.
Ce point de vue fond sur diffrentes expliences passes et encore limites, conduit
toutefois la pense vers des rflexions qui sont l'expression de la Guestion de base
fondamentale derlire le sujet d-dessus :

y a-t-il une musologie gnrale utilisable il travers le monde entier. ou doit

elle. tant une musologie scientifique abstraite dveloppe un niveau inter
national et satisfaisant un consensus cunmlun, tre adapte selon des conditions
variables chaque fois qu'elle est ub1ise?
Quelles sont les raisons pour une adaptation d'une musologie gnrale et de
quelle manire ces raisons influencent, ou peuvent influencer, ses besoins et ses
produits?
Quelles sont les possibilits d'assurer la parfaite et juste utilisation de la musolo
gie gnrale et d'liminer ses mauvais usages '! De garantir une adaptation sans
changer les prindpes de base ?
Quelle est la relation entre la musologie et la sdences, les techniques et la techno
lOgie, dom l'actlon globale est dCISIve pour le dveloppement de la soc1t ?
21

Quelle est leur interaction? Ont-elles une influence l'une sur l'autre, quel point,
et comment?
Ou la science de la musologie, abstraite et gnrale, devrait-elle vivre sa propre
vie isolment, sans considrer ce qui aniVe aux vrits fondamentales qu'elle im
plique dans son message? A qui la responsabiHt ?

Ceci et d'autres questions sont au coeur du problme quand l'important thme sur la
musologie et les pays en voie de dveloppement est examin jusqu' son noyau.

13 L'intention du roUoque tait au tout commencement de s'occuper des problmes de la

musologie et des pays en voie de dveloppement. La porte du sujet est, pourtant,
beaucoup plus vaste. Il touche toutes les socits, et tous les poques aussi. La

musologie comme un outil utile dans le champ du patrimoine humain, et dans le

travail des muses et des autres in~iitutions, joue, ou devrait jouer, un l'Ole important
dans I~nvitable processus de dveloppement, par I~ncorporation de la culture, du
patrimoine et de J~dentit comme lments invitables dans ce contexte.
Par celte intention, centre sur les expriences et les besoins concrets de diffrents pays,
de nombreuses institutions musologiques et des millicrs de travailleurs de muse, ce
coUoque peut rassemblerdes connaissances et des expriences prcieuses d'une signifi
cation plus gnrale pour la musologie. Ceci est le but principal du colloque de
l'ICOFOM en 1988.
Etant une continuation logique du colloque d'Helsinki-Espoo de l'ICOFOM en 1987, et
ajoutant un lment constructif de plus au programme de recherche du Comit lorsque
l'on regarde le thme de la Confrence Gnrale de l'ICOM en 1988: Muses, gnra
teurs de la culture, le colloque 1988 de l'ICOFOM semble une contribution du Comit
bien choisie pour la premire anne de la Dcennie mondiale de la culture et du
dveloppement annonce par l'Unesco.

2 Principes d'organisation du roDoque

Ils sont fonds sur trois objectifs fondamentaux:
1. tenter un inventaire des ides et points de vue l'chelle mondiale sur le thme

choisi et assurer une vraie discussion de ce thme

2. pennettre la plus vaste participation intemationale possible et assurer autant que

possible la reprsentation de toutes les rgions

3. rendre acoessiblestoute personne du domaine musal mondjal1es textes, com

mentaires et conclusions du coUoque.

Dans ce but on a mis au point et exptiment ces demires annes
un processus en quatre temps :
1.

22

Des mmoires de base sur le thme du colloque en constituent la matire.

Ils sont rdigs par les membres de l'ICOFOM, et par des experts invits d'en dehors
du Comit, dans les deux langues de l'ICOM et selon les nonnes recommendes

afin de faciliter la reproduction immdiate dans les pr-rapports du Comit - 155,

ICOfOM Study Series. Cela rend possible leur envoi bien l'avance aux auteurs et
tous les participants insClits au colloque pour tude et commentaire.

2.

Des oolJunentail'es sur les ides des autres mmoires de base sont rdigs par les
auteurs, et par les participants galernent. Ces commentaires sont le point de dpart
de la discussion.

3.

Lors du colloque, la cfiscussjem de ces documents et des commentaires est l'occa

sion de confronter les points de we et de patvenir des conclusions. Les inter
ventions de l'assistance sont les bienvenues.

La discussion se droule en forme d'un "bearing' sur deux quatre sessions d'une
demi-journe, avec les auteurs prsent, et prpare et dirige par deux quatre
animateurs - un ou deux par sous-thme (ou une autre partie du colloque lorsque
la division en sous-thmes ne s'applique pas), et le Prsident du Comit. Chaque
partie de la discussion est introduite par un rsum analytique, labor par des
experts nommes, et se termine par des conclusions
4.

le i apport du ooDoque, des rsums des mmoires de base et les amclusions

sont publis dans la rewe du Comit MuWoP - Museological Working Papers.
Ainsi toute personne intresse peut avoir communication du colloque et de ses
conclusions. Les pr-rapports ISS avec la documentation du colloque, les mmoires
de base et les commentaires, seront fournis sur demande jusqu' puisement du
stock.

3 !s participants
Deux principes rgissent la participation aux activits scientifiques de l'ICOFOM :

1.

Les conoques, comme les autres activits, sont ouverts toute personne int
particulirement du domaine des muses, dpartements ou institutions
de recherche musaux, qu'elle soit ou non membre de 'ICOFOM et de l'ICOM.
~

La participation comprend le droit des membres de l'ICOFOM. et une invitation

aux autres rdiger un mmoire de base et des commentaires, assister au
colloque et suivre la discussion et d'y intervenir.
La participation est bnvole. le Comit ne disposant pas de fonds: aucun rem
boursement de frais de voyage. d'hbergement. de traduction etc., ne peut tre pris
en charge.
L'assistance effective des membres aux runions internationales tant limite
pour des raisons conomiques, pratiques et autres, tous les membres sont cepen
dant encourags se joindre aux travaux soit par une partidpation en personne
soit par une participation parl'esprit. la rdaction de mmoires de base et com
mentaires, afin d'accrotre l'change des ides et de l'exprience.
2.

Pour assurer au plan mondial le plus vaste change de wes sur le thme, un
appel pour des (X)jJlJilunications et une invitation personneDe sont lances
d'minents experts de pays divers.
23

Plus l'on rassemblera les ides sur le thme, meilleur sera le rsultat du colloque.
Une foiS publies, elles constitueront une banque d~nformations musologiques
accessibles toute personne de la profession musale.

Stockholm. avril t 988

Un appel pour les contributions au symposium de l'ICOfOM 1988 fut adress aux membres
et aux collaborateurs du Comit, envlron 600 personnes en tout, au dbut mai 1988.
24

Basic papers -

Mmoires de base

List of the contributors to the symposium

Liste de contributeurs au colloque

ARAUjO, Marcelo Maltos

Head of the Department of museology at the Museu Lasar Segall

Silo Paulo, SP, Brazil

ASTESIANO, Mariana

Museologist at the Direcci6n Nacional de Museos - Buenos Nres, Argentina

BARBlAN, MaTC-A

Historian and museologist, Cultural engineering developer

Project Director of Hydrodynamica - patrimoine hydro-electrique

Geneva, Swltzerland

BARRETTO, Maria de Lourdes Horta

Coordinator of museum collections, Fundaao Nacional proMem6ria

Rio de Janeiro, Rj, Brazil

BARROS de Taramasco, Isabel

Subsecretaria de Cultura de la Municipalidad de Bahia B1anCii
Bahia Blanca, Argentina
BEDEKAR, Vasant H
Professor of Museology at the Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Baroda
Baroda, lndia
BENES, Josef
Museologist, former Secretary of the Division of cultural heritage
at the Ministry of Culture of the CSR - Praha, Czechoslovakia
BRUNO, Maria Cristma Oliveira
Professor and museologist, Museu de Pr- Histria Paulo Duarte,
Instituto de Pr-Hist6ria da Universidade de sao Paulo - sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
CALONNE, Caroline
Montral, Qubec, Canada
CARRILLO de San Segundo, Rosario
Artist and museologist, consultant 10 Spanish museums - Madnd, Spain
DECAROLlS, Nelly
Vice Director at the Direcci6n Nacional de Museos, Secretaria de Cultura
Buenos Aires, Argentina
DESVALLEES, Andr
Conservateur en Chef, Direction des Muses de France - Paris, France
DOWLING de Gam), Elisa Maria de la Gracia
Museologlsl - Buenos Aires, Argentlna
27

GHAFOURI. Mehdi

Architeet, Lord Cultural Resources Planning and Management

Montreal, Quebec, Canada

GLUZINSKI, Wojciech

Curator at the Muzeum Narodowe - Wroclav, Poland

HUCHARD, Ousmane Sow

Directeur du Muse Dynamique - Dakar, Sngal

LAUMONIER, Isabel

Professeur d'anthropologie l'Universit de Buenos Aires

Buenos Aires, Argentine

MARANDA, Lynn
Curator of ethnology at the Vancouver Museum - Vancouver, BC, Canada
MENSCH, Peter van
Lecturer of theoretical museology, Reinwardt Academie - Leiden, Netherlands
MEY, Wolfgang
Curator at the Linden-Museum - Stuttgart, FRG
NICOLAS, Alain
Directeur du Lzard International Communication Visuelle - Paris, France
NIGAM, Mohan L
President of the Museums Association of Indla,
Director of the Salar Jung Museum - Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
PROESLER, Martin
Tbingen, FRG
RAO, ManJushree
Keeper at the Birla Museum - Bhopal, India
RUSCONI de Meyer, Norma
Directora deI Museo de historia y ciencias naturales de Bahia Blanca
Bahia Blanca, Argentine
SCHAERER Martin R
Directeur de l'Aiimentarium (Muse de l'alimentation - Food Museum)
Vevey, Suisse
SPIELBAUER, Judith K
Lecturer of anthropology and museology at Miami Univen;ity
Oxford, Ohio, USA
SULER, Petr
Museologisl al the Department of museology al the Moravsk Muzeum
Brno, Czechoslovalda

28

WHITLOCK, John)
Director of the University Museum and Museum Studies Program
al the Southem minois University - Carbondale, minois, USA
VIEREGG, Hildegard
Bayerische Staatsgemldesammlungen, Museumspdegogisches Zentrum
Mnchen, FRG
XIE, Margaret camey
Director of the Blanden Memorial Art Museum - Fort Dodge, Iowa, USA

29

30

Marcelo Mattos Araujo & Maria C Oliviera Bruno

- Sao Paulo. Brazil

NEW TRENDS IN BRAZILIAN MUSEOLOGY

1. BRAZIL WITIlIN A LATIN AMERICAN CONTEXT:

I3RIEF COMMENTS.

The last decades have witnessed,in the academic

field,a multiplicatiDn of approaches which seek an unders
standing of Brazil's past and present within a Latin Ameri
can context.
)

These endeavours seek to describe recurrent

issues of our continent's reality,pointing to new outlooks
on nDtionDl diffcrcntiDtions Dnd structural identification&
As one of the most respected Brazilian sociolo
gists,Octavio Ianni (1988) very penetratingly puts it:
"The disagreements between society and state are
permanent challenge in Latin American countries,
'
both in the continent and in the islands.Thepolitical
parties and social movements are seriously concerned
about il. Those who dedicate themselves to the thought
of democracy and dictatorship are aIl compelled
to
examine this challenge. The social classes' and groups'
pol i tical acti vi ty ,in town or in the country,are faced
with it.It is a practical and theoretical challenge'
fundamental to aIl.
Many say civil society is week and lacks organi
zation. They speek of an innate political instability,
state that structural dualities are ancient and insu
perable: archaic-modern,patrimonial-rational,Indo-Ame
rican,Afro-American,coast-sierra,seashore-backwoods,
Iberic-European,barbarism-civilization,Ariel-Caliban.
These are dualities that push forth and draw back,tra
cing a tortuos,labitinthic,magical path.The vicious
circ le of cumulative circular causation would be the
key to a history of extreme poverty,violence,authori
tarism,tyrany. In Latin American history would be
'
transversed by the precarious,provisional,unfinished,
mongrel,exotic,outplaced, out of place,folcloric.Coun
tries with no people or citizens,only individuals and
population.
This is why,they say,the state is strong,democra
cy is episodical and dictatorship recurring.The deli=
berating elites - military,civil,oligarchic,mane
gerial,technocratic - are the ones who know and migh~
There are sorne who come to the point of stating that
a learned governmental power,based on scientific kno~
ledge,or enlightned by political will,could educate
society,stirr economy,impart respectability to polit~
cal parties,set the country on the path of legality,
legitimity and democracy. The innate and recurring
authoritarism would be a contingency of the transition
from caos to order,from centuries of slavery patri
3

31

monialism to the democratic republic,from the oligar

chie to the rational power,from Iberic absolutism to
liberal democracy. Thus,civil society would be removed
from it's essencial weekness;from vice to virtue.
Many are the struggles and disputes which catch
up in the set of problems engulfed by the national
issue.
Il

In Brazil the social ,economic ,cultural-and racial

diversities are intensified by regional diversities. At pre
sent this matter is basic due to the specifie problems

of'

each region and i t' s implications for the arrengements of the

state's power.
The historical process of the forming of Latin
American countries,on the one hand,excludes huge portions of
the population - workers, peasants, artisans, among others - and
on the other hand,represses native and african cultural
heritages.
Against this scenery emerged the museum as a
colonial institution,reflecting not the society or the nation,
but the authoritarian and unitary state.
2. NEW TRENDS IN BRAZILIAN MUSEOLOGY.
Museology,a scientific disciplin that studies '
the relation between Man and Object,which takes place in

an

institutionalizes scenery named Museum (Russio, 1981), is

field of knowledge with it's own global principles and

structures.
Any reflection about it must take into conside
ration the particular contextslhistoric-socio-cultural
realitieslin which it is accomplished,and it's application
should result from this adjustment.
Even while acknowledging and supporting Museolo
gy's scientific character, we understand that due to histori
cal contingencies of it's evolution,the reintegration of the
results obtained in practical experiences back into con cep
tuaI formulations is of great importance. This mechanismdoes
not imply an alteration of the museological basic conceptual
relation,but actualy reinforces the need for a deeper know
ledge of it's components, Man and Object.

32

One of the ways open to this conceptual renewal

is deepening the discussions about practical activities
carried out regionally, and also according to the field of
knowledge which is being worked upon.
Based on the se guidelines,and being in charge
the Associao Paulista de Muselogos from 1986 to 1987,

of
and

from 1988 to the present date,we have searched to trigger

colective debates with the participation of professionals from
others areas. Among them,we would like to mention the follow
ing: 1 ENCONTRO PlIULISTlI DE MUSEOLOGII\, in 1 tu, 1986, on " The
History Nuseums' Issue"; the II ENCONTRO PAULISTA DE MUSEOLO
GIA, in Campinas, 1987, on "Museum and Intcrdisciplinarity",
and the Conference on "The Negro and the Slavery in Brazilian
MusclIms",in 55.0 Paulo,

1988.

The choices of themes for the First Meeting

was

connected to the fact that so Paulo state has very many

histoty museums. Therefore,the bordelines and reciprocities

'

between history and museology have been examined,as weIl as

the relation between national history museums and those
sponsored by regions or towns, and finally the role of history
museums in the process of formaI education.
It was found that history museums stand very far
appart from reality and hold an ideological commitment with
tradicional oligarchies.
This commitment is clearly reflected even in the
collections of these institutions,formed basically by objects
pror.eeding from the dominat classes,and often produced
specifically to illustrate or corroborte particular
historicl view-points.
It has also been stressed that there is a deep
disagreementbetween contemporary historiographie production'
and these museums,which probably constitute the most
equivocated share of Brazilian museology.
The lack of definition as to which are the goals
and ens of a history museum is stronger in the smal) museums
scattered over the country. These institutions' collections
are invariably made up of inarticulate objects of diverse
nature.

33

The lack of a conceptual plan,added to the pro

blems of inadequate premisses,limited material and human
resources,leads these institutions to neglect the role that
they would be due to them in our country, that of
supplementing formaI education.
It must be noted that efforts of renewal are
being made by sorne national musuems (Museu Historico Nacio
nal and Museu da Republica, both in Rio de Janeirol,however,
these efforts are not connected with an overview of these
museum's role face the regional and municipal museums.

The

risk exists,therefore,that these efforts remain mere isolated

experiences.
The topicsfor discussion in the Second Meeting
were drawn from the conclusions of the First,when itwasmade
clear that an interdisciplinary activicty was need in
museology. Thus,the second meeting dealt with the relations
and borderlines between museology and others fields of know
ledge present inside the museums,with special attention
drawn to conservation,education and cultural planning.
The museologist's scientific training was
acknowledged as important for proper interdisciplinarity
activities.Some of the aspects of this training should

take

into consideration our regional problems.

The need for a post gradua te level in the
training of museologists,as is being do ne at the Institutode
Museologia de Sao Paulo,from the Foundation Escola de Socio
logia e Politica de Sao Paulo,was also discussed.
In no way different from what occurs in others
areas,in Brazil this training is carried out with no

direct

relationship towards professional activity or garantee

of

employment.
Enormous difficulties in accomplishing inter
disciplinary activities have been pointed out,since

due to

it's scientific character it colides with the consecrated

structures of power.
These structures privilege and feed on
cooperativism,burocratization,nepotism and individualism.
From the conclusions of the Second Meeting were

34

drawn the topics for the next Meeting,which will deal with
"Museum: Communication/Education", and take place in Santos,
in OctC1ber 1988.
We intend to discuss issues connected specifie
ally with education and communication in museums and it's
public.
The

importance

of discussing museology and the

museological institutions within an international debate

led

us to organize the Conference "The Negro and the Slavery

in

Brazilian Museums",inside the International Congress on

Slav~

ry organized by the University of Sao Paulo. Representatives

of museums of the whole country discussed the presence

of

african and afro-brazilian material culture in our museums,the

role played by these institutions in the preservation of those
cultural heritages, and more specifically,how history museums
deal with and transmit the issues of slavery and abolition.
Tllis conference gave us the opportunity of
focusing on fundamental topics for brazilian museological
activities.
The european shnre of our cultural heritage
(formed of native,african and european cultures) has always
been imposed,leading to ignorance of principles and
fundamental concepts of the other two heritages.
Matters as corporality,orality,distiction
between sacred and profane, and a diverse relationshiptowards
the object, are something hard to handle for a great many
museologists.
The mechanical application of traditional museo
logical principles,sacralizing the object within the Museum,
was estblished as eguivocal regarding cultural heritages
with different notions of preservation.
It is interesting to note that objects helonging
to such cultures,presented in museums,and stripped of their
original meening,gain a new one;that of confirming the
colonizer's power.They are present only in their material
aspect,having lost aIl bonds with their generators, and exist
only for theirs observes.
It remained very clear that in the museums, the

35

mith of the Brazilian lack of racial prejudice is false,even

after a hundred years from the abolition of negro slavery.
The discussion of this theme led us also to con
sider the existence of others prejudices in the museums,thus
unfolding even more museology's political dimension.
These debates represent attempts towards a more
systematic assessment, an attempt of pinpointing and
distinguishing global and specific problems im Brazilian
museology.
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
The interest of this sequence of debates lies

in the fact that they provide an opportunity for reflecting

upon present Brazilian museology,based on regionalexperience
and due to the sequential order,acknowledged the role of ours
museums,dealt with these institution's structure,their ends,
and the meaning of their activity.
From the whole of these debatesmwe infer the
following considerations:
1. Museology has an irreplaceable role to play

in

the developing 'countries for it works upon a set

of codes - the language of objects - more
comprehensive than other languages,as for
example the written language,thus reducing

the

distance between those who produce culture

and

dominate, and those who learn and consume,

and

providing alternative solutions for the

educational process.
2. The nature of the museological relation,while '
envolving perception,register and memory,

can

trigger individual and collective awareness,

basic for the understanding and transformation
of social structures.
3. Ti is possible,using the nature and structure of
the museological relation,to promote a wide
socialization of knowledge,what makes the Museum
a suportive institution of the self-determination

36

process.
4. Furthermore,museology would have a wider role of
global preservation,not limiting itself to

the

guarding of oblects,but taking upon itself

the

preservation of the entire univers (ecological

systems,production techniques,social relation
shipslin which the objects are comprehended.
5. As the museological fact confirms man as knower
and known,it sets a multiple perspective that
opposes individunlism and consume.
Despite museology's potentialities,we have

seen

that the historical evolution od Brazilian society brings

to

it several problems. The mecllnnisms imposed by colonization

are responsable for a country of multiple cultural identities
in a perpetuaI struggle with it's three heritages,the native,
the european and the african.This cultural indefinition,
worsened by huge economic,social and regional discrepancies,
lead,as we have shownm to grave and complex problems for.

the

museological activity.
Those mechanisms, perpetua ted in the present power
structures,tend,furtllermore,to place preservation against
"development",isolating the museological activity inside a
conservative circle that frequently immobilizes it,and
widening the distance between it and the popular masses.
A possible solution for the overcoming of these
problems would require a proper "time"
reflection and interrelation,which

and "space"

for

actio~

colides,first,with

the

colonial tradiction of importing models,and then with the

historical fragility of our institutions, and with the also '
historical interventionism of our states.
A solution that seems advisable is,initialy,

to

strengthen the museological institution,both by it's daily

activity,through a deepening of it's institutionalcommitment,
and also by the affirmation of it's autonomy.
The second step,which opens to several
developments,would be that of a regional activity,understood
as discussion between museums sharing the same reality,

in

37

$earch of common pa tllS and joint acti vi ties.

We understand,thcrcfore,that the premisses laid
lJy tht' lCOPOM rcgarding the fllnction of muscology in
developing cOlin trics - aid or manipulation -should be
revisioncd,even because otherwise we will bc facing the risk
of secing muscology placed as Jn external factor to the
condition of Third World country. The basic museological
issue in thesc countrics should lJe focussed on the ovcrcoming
of it's mere practical activity,structuring itself as a
scientific formulation,acting interdisciplinarily based

on

the knowledge of these realities,within a comprehensive

processe of historical transformation.
It is not a matter of being aided or manipulatecl,
but of consciously ssuming the responsabilities for the
professional,the institution and the museology.

Bibliography mentioned:
IANNI, Otavio

1988 - "A questo nacional na

na" - Estudos Avanados, vol. 2, n9 1 -

Am~rica

Lati

Instituto de Estudos

Avanados da Universidade de so Paulo.

RUSSIO, Waldisa

1981 -

"La

interdisciplinaut~

en museolo

gie" - Museological Working Papers, 2:58-59, ICOFOM, Estocol

mo.

38

Marcelo Mattos Araujo & Maria C Oliviera Bruno

- So Paulo, Brsil

MUSEOLOGIE
1.LE

BR~SILIENNE:

BR~SIL

NOUVEAUX CHEMINS

DANS UNE PERSPECTIVE LATINE AMERICAINE: BREFS

COMMENTAIRES.
Dans les dernires dcades se sont multiplies,'
dans le milieu academique,des recherches qui essayent de

co~

prendre le pass et le present du Brsil dans une perspecti

ve latine americaine.
Ces travaux cherchent identifier les questions
recurrentes de la realit de notre continent,indiquant des'
nouvelles vues sur les questions nationales et idntits
structurales.
Octavio Ianni(1988) ,un des plus respectables so
ciologues brsiliens,explique avec beaucoup de prcision:
"Les divergences entre la socit et l'~tat sont
un dfit permanent dans les pays de l'Amerique Latine,'
dans le continent et dans les iles. Les partis politi _
ques et les mouvements sociaux s'en preocupent serieuse
ment.Tous ceux qui se ddient penser la democratie
et la dictature sont obligs d'examiner ce dfit.L'ac
tivit politique des groupes et des classes sociales,
dans la ville et dans la campagne,s'affronte avec lui.
C'est un dfit pra tique et torique fondamental pour tous
Beaucoup disent que la socit civile est fragi
le et peu organise.On parle d'instabilit politique
'
congnitale.On affirme que les dualits structurales
sont anciennes et insurmontables:archaique-moderne, pa
trimonial-rationnel,indien-americain,afro-americain,c_
te-montagne,littoral-serto(*) ,iberique-americain,barba
rie-civilisation,ariel-caliban.

Ces sont des dualits qui poussent vers l'avant

et tirent en arrire;elles font le chemin tordue,laby
rinthique,magique.Le circle vicieux de la cause circu
laire cumulative serait la cl d'une histoire de misre
de violence,d'autoritarisme et de tyranie.Dans l'Ameri
que Latine,l'histoire serait traverse par le precaire,
le provisoire,l'inachev,le mtis,l'exotique,le deplac
l'hors de place,le folklorique.Des nations sans peuple
ni citoyens,seulement des individues et population.
cause de a,on dit,l'~tat est fort,la democra
tie pisodique,la dictature se rpete.Ce sont les li
tes dlibrantes - militaires,civiles,oligarchiques,in
dustrieles,tecnocratiques - qui savent et peuvent.On aE
rive affirmer qu'un pouvoir d'~tat clairci,appuy
'
sur le savoir de la science,ou illumin par la volont
politique,pourra duquer la socit,dynamiser l'econo
(*) serto: rgion agreste et semi-aride du nord-est du Brsil
39

mie,confrer responsabilit aux partis,crer l'ppinion

publique,lancer le pays dans le chemin de la legalit,
legitimit,democratie.L'autoritarisme congnital et r
current serait une contingence de transition du chaos
l'ordre ,des sicles de patrimonialisme esclavagiste la
rpublique dmocratique,du pouvoir oligarchique au ra
tionnel,de l'absolutisme iberique la liberale democra
tie. Ainsi,la socit civile serait retire de sa debi=
lit essentielle,du vice pou la vertu.
La problematique contenu dans la question natio
n~le implique des nombreuses luttes et controverses."
hu Brsil,les diversits sociales,conomiques,
culturales et raciales sont agraves par les diversits regi
onales.Cette question,actuellement,est fondamentale chez nous
par les problmes specifiques de chaque rgion et leurs im
plications dans les arrangements du pouvoir

d~tat.

Le procssus his tor i'lue de construction des

~ta ts

latin-americains qui,d'un ct,vient excluire des immenses'

parcellc's de

l~

popultion - ouvriers,paysans,artisans,entre

autres-dans l'autre ct,rprime les heritages culturales'

n~tiv0S

ct

~fricaincs.

C'est dans cc scenario qu'apparait le Muse,com

me une institution coloniale qui rflte non la socit ou la
nation,mais l'tat unitaire et autoritaire.
2.

Ll\ ~IUSEOLOGIE BRSILIENNj:;:

NOUVEhUX CHEMINS.

La museologie,discipline scientifique qui tudie

la relation entre l'homme et l'objet dans un scenario insti
tucionalis dnom Muse (Russio,1981) ,est une

domainedec()~

naissance qui possde des structures et principes propres

globaux.
Sa reflxion doit tenir compte des contextes pa!
ticuliers(realits historico-socio-culturalesldans lesquels
elle se concrtise,et son application devrait tre le rsul
tat de cette adequation.
Mme reconnaissant et dfendant le caractre sci
entifique de la Museologie,nous considerons,due aux contin
gences historiques de son volution,fondamental de reincorP2
rcr

l~H

1'0sull~ts

des cxpcrienccs prtiqucs aux formulations

conceptuelles.Ce mcanisme n'implique pas une 51teration

la relation conceptuelle de base de la Museologie,mais

de

just~

ment reaffirme la necessit d'approfondir la connaissance de

ses composants,l'homme et l'objet.

40

Un des chemins pour cette ralimentation concep

tuelle est l'approfondissement des discussions des travaux'
pratiques niveau regional et aussi par domaine de connais
sance.
partir de ces premisses,nous avons procure, en

tant que responsables de l'Association Paulista(*) des Museo

logues,de 1896 1987,et de 1988 jusqu' prsent,dlancher '
des procssus collectifs de dbat,avec la participation
professionnels d'autres aires. Nous remarquerions la

PR~MI

RE RENCONTRE PAULISTA DE MUSEOLOGIE, Itu,en 1986, sur

question des Muses d'histoire"; la

DEUXI~ME

des
"La

RENCONTRE PAU

LISTA DE MUSEOLOGIE, Campinas, en 1987, sur" Muse et inter

disciplinaut ." ;et le SEMINAIRE "Le noir et l'esclavage dans
les Muses brsiliens", Sao Paulo, en 1988.
Le choix du thmc de la Prmire Rencontre Pau
lista de Museologie a t li au fait que l'tat de Sao Pau
lo possde une grande quantit des Muses d'histoire.Ainsi,
on a abord

les limites et reciprocits de la Museologie et

de l'histoire,la relation entre les Muses nationaux d'his

toire et les rgionaux ou municipaux,et la fonction des Mu
sees d'histoire dans le processus d'ducation formelle.
On a constat la profonde distance entre les Mu
sees d'histoire et la realit,et son engagement idologique
avec les oligarchies traditionelles.
Cet engagement est meme apperu dans les collec
tions des institutions,formes

par des objets provenant des

classes dominantes,alors qu'ils n'taient pas specifiquement

produits pour illustrer et corroborer des certaines visions
de l'histoire.
Il a t aussi relev la profonde disproportion
entre la production historiogra".ique contemporaine et ces Mu
ses,qui se constituent,peut-tre,dans la parcelle la plus
equivoqu dans le cadre de la Museologie brsilienne.
L'absence d'une dfinition sur les finalits et
les objectifs d'un Muse d'histoire est encore plus frappan
te dans les petits Muses dissemins l'interieur du pays.
Les collections de ces institutions

sont,invariablement,con~

titues par des objets de nature diverse,totalement inarti

culs.
(*)Paulista: de l'tat de Sao Paulo.

41

L'absence d'une proposition conceptuelle claire,

plus les problmes d'espace inadquat et le manque de capi
taux et de personnel, empchent les Muses d'histoire d'ac
complir le role complementaire, en rlation l'ducation for
melle,qu'ils devraient remplir dans notre pays.
Il faut souligner les efforts de rnovation

qui

sont en train de s'ffectuer dans certains Muses nationaux,

comme le Muse Historique National et le Muse de la

Rpubl~

que, les deux Rio de Janeiro. Cependant,ces efforts sont '

desarticuls d'une vision sur leurs roles en rlation aux Mu
ses regionaux et municipaux,et ils risquent de rester comme
des experiences isoles.
Le thme de la Deuxime Recontre Paulista de Mu
seologie est ressorti des conclusions de la Premire,

la

quelle il est rest visible le besoin du travail interdisci

plinaire dans la Museologie. Cette Rencontre a ainsi abord
les relations et les limites entre la Museologie et d'autres

domaines qui sont prsentes aux Muses, comme les sciences

de la consrvation,l'ducation et la planification culturale
On a constat l'importance de la formation
tifique du

mus~ologue

scie~

pour le travail interdisciplinaire, et

que cette formation devrait, dans certains de ses aspects,t.!':

nir compte de la problematique regionale.
On a consider aussi la pertinence de la forma
tion em Museologie a niveau post-universitaire,comme il
en train de se faire l'Institut

est

de Museologie de Sao Pau

lo, de la Fondation cole de Sociologie et Politique de Sao

Paulo.
Malheureusement, comme dans tous les autres
aires de formation au Brsil,la formation em Museologie est
faite sans relation directe avec l'exercice professionnel et
sans garantie d'emploi.
On a verifi les immenses difficults pour l'e
xercice du travail interdisciplinaire, qui, par son caractre
scientifique,se heurte les structures consacrs de

pouvoi~

Ces structures privilegient et s'alimentent du '

corporatisme,de la bureaucratie, du npotisme et de l'indivi
dualisme.

42

D'aprs les conclusions de la Deuxime Recontre,

il a t decid le thme de la Troisime Recontre Communication/~ducation, qui

Muse

sera realis Santos,en octo

bre 1988. On pretend y discuter les questions specifiques de

la communication et de l'ducation dans les Muses et le pu
blic.
L'importance et la necessit de discuter la Museo
logie et les institutions muse les dans une runion interna
tionale nous a amen l'organisation du Seminaire "Le

noir

et l'esclavage dans les Muses brsiliens", dans le cadre du

Congrs International sur l'Esclavage, realis par l'Univer
sit de so Paulo, en juin 1988. On a discut, avec des re
presentants de Muses de tout le Brsil, la prsence de la '
culture materielle africaine ct afro brsilienne dans nos
institutions,le

role de ces institutions dans la prserva

tion de ces heritages,et plus specifiquement,comme les Mu

sees h'histoire traitent et transmettent les questions de l'
esclavage et de son abolition.
Ce Seminaire nous a permis la discution es

que~

tions fondamentales pour l'exercice museologique au Brsil.

De nos trois heritages culturales - la native,la
europenne,et l'africaine - l'europenne a toujours t imp~
se ,empchant la connaissance des principes et des concepts
fondamentaux de deux autres heritages.
Ainsi, pour la grande majorit des profession
nels de Muse,il est trs difficile de traiter certains th
mes tels que le corporel,l'oral,la distinction entre le sacr
et le profane,et des relations diverses avec les objets.
L'application mcanique des principes de la

Mus~

ologie traditionelle,en sacralisant l'objet dans le Muse,

s'est montre quivoque pour les heritages culturales qui
ont des differentes notions de prservation.
Il est intressant d'obsrver que,aux Muses tra
ditionels,des objets qui appartiennent ces cultures,lors '
que presents destitus de leur signification

origina~,acqu~

rent une nouvelle signification: celle de reaffirmer le

po~

voir du colonisateur. Ils existent seulement dans leur as

pect material. Ils ont prdu la rlation avec leurs produc
teurs,et existent seulement en fonction de leurs observateur&

43

A niveau des Muses,cet vnement nous a aussi

laiss bien claire le faux mythe de l'inexistance des prju
gs raciaux dans notre pays,survenus cent ans aprs l'aboli
tion de l'esclavage noire.
Le dveloppement de ce thme nous a aussi amen
a constater l'existence d'autres prjugs, qui se rfletent
dans les travaux musologiques,ce qui a encore mis plus en '
vidence la dimnsion politique de la Museologie.
Ces Rencontres rpresentent des tentatives d'va
luation plus systmatique,dans lesqueles nous essayons de 10
caliser et de differencier les problmes globaux et circons
tanciels de la Museologie Lrsilicnne.

CONSIDERATIONS FINALES
La sucssion de ces Rencontres nous a permi

une

rflexion sur la Museologie brsilienne contemporaine,base

sur des experiences regionales,qui, partir de la valorisa
tion du role de nos Muses,a abord la structure,les finali
ts et la signification de l'action de ces institutions.
Aprs tous ces dbats, on est arriv aux conside
rations suivantes:
1. La

Museologie a un

raIe

irremplaable jouer

dans les pays en voie de dveloppement ,dans la

m~

sure ou elle travaille a partir d'un ensemble de

codes - le language des objets - plus ample que ce
lui d'autres languages - conune,par exemple,le

la~

guage crit. La Museologie diminue ainsi la dis

tance entre ceux qui produisent et dominent,
ceux qui aprennent et consonunent ,et offre des

et
ch~

mins alternatifs pour un procssus educatif.

2. La relation musele, qui part sa nature travail
le avec la perception,le registre et la mmoire,
peut soulever des procssus de conscientisation
individuel et collectif, fondamentaux pour la

co~

prhension et transformation des structures so

ciales.
3. partir de la structure et de la nature de la rf>

44

lation musele, il devient possible une ample so

cialisation de la connaissance,ce qui fait du Mu

se une institution de soutien du processus d'au

to dtermination.
4. La Museologie aurait encore un role plus large de
prserva tion globale ,dans la mesure ou elle ne se
arreterait pas sauvegarder des objets,mais que
elle se procuperait avec la prservation de tout
l 'univers (systmc cologiques, techniques de pro
duction,relations sociales) ,dans

lequel les ob

jets sont insers.

5. A la mesure que le fait musel reaffirme l'homme
comme sujet qui connait et est connu,il donne une
perspective plural qui s'oppose

l'individuali~

me et au consumisme.
Malgr les potenci.ll i ts de la Museologie,on

con~

tate que l'volution historique de la socit brsilienne lui

pose plusieurs problmes.
Les mecanismes.imposs par la colonisation

sont

responsables par un pays d'identit cultural multiple,qui se

dbat dans une eternelle confrontation entre ses trois

comp~

sants - l'heritage native,l'europenne et l'africaine. Cette

indfinition cultural, agrave par des immenses dcalages

s~

ciales,conomiques et regionales, pose au dveloppement du '

travail musologique des questions assez graves et complexe&
Les mecanismes signals ci-dessus,perpetus dans
les actuelles structures de pouvoir ,ont une tendance placer
l'action de prservation en opposition ao "developpement",
isolant l'activit muselle dalls une sphre conservatrice,oG
plusieurs fois elle reste immobilise et loigne des masses
populaires.
Pour surpasser ces questions ,on aurai t besoin d'un
"temps"

et d'un "space" pour atteindre l'action,la reflxion

et l'interrelaction.Tout cela se heurte,malheureuresement,en

premier, la tradition coloniale d'importation de modles,et
en suite, l'historique fragilit de nos institutions et aus
si a l'ilistorique intervencionisme de nos !tats.
Un chemin que nous apparait comme une possibilit<.

45

rele, serait d'abord, de fortifier l'institution

que,soit dans son travail quotidien, travers d'un

musolog~
approfo~

dissemcnt de son compromis institutionel, soit dans l'af

firmation de son autonomie.
a~

Un deuxime niveau,qui permet aussi d'autres

ticulations,serait un travail regional. cst dire,des

di~

cussions bases sur des mmes realits, la recherche des

chemins communs et d'une action d'ensemble.
Nous comprenons donc que les hypothses suge
res par l'ICOFOM sur la fonction de la Museologie dans les
pays en voie de developpcment - aide ou manipulation

de

vraient tre rvucs,mme parce' qu'elles risquent de placer

la Museologie comme un facteur externe la condition de
pays du Troisime Mondc.
Il nous semble que la question centrale de la

M~

seologie dans ces pays devrait tre de suprer l'action

pra:'i<Juc, et se structurer comme formulation scientifique
qui pourrait agir, interdisciplinairement, partir de la

co~

naissance des realits,dans un vaste procssus de transfor

mation historique.
Il ne s'agit pas d'aider ou d'tre manipul,
mais d'assumer sciemment les responsabilits de participa
tion: du professionnel,del'institution et de la Museologie.

Bibliographie cite:
IANNI, Otavio

1988 -

"A guestio nacional na Amrica Lati

na" - Estudos Avanados, vol. 2, n9 1 - Instituto de Estudos

Avanados da Universidade de sio Paulo.
RUSSIO, Waldisa
gie"

"La interdisciplinaut en museolo

- Museological Working Papers,

colmo.

46

1981 -

2:58-59, ICOFOM, Esto

MarcA Barblan -

Geneva, Switzerland

IDENTITY, MUSEOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT:

An instrumental approach fa' an inter-cultural dialogue
"The orty'w'Olth....mle erg \l'Il enl is the one about men"
Cheries de Gaulle, 25Merch 1959
"Developmenl needs roots, end one must knO'o' one's
pas! in orderto build al ulln the! is neitheren ~Iusion nor a
constreinl"
Edgerd PiWli, 1988

Preamble
Museology and development : opening such a debate inevitably leads us to think in terms
that at the same time reach back to a'igins, reach out to several poles of interest, and are
instrumental to the task.
Origins because it is necessary and it will still be necessary to p1ead for a legitimate, indi
spensable, recognition of the cultural heritage in the countries concerned. Not only its dis
semination and its enhancement, but also its real integ-ation into development policies. Re
cognizing the g-ating (aut<r)criticism when assessing the past three decades one can weil
ask - even if the retroactive effect of such questioning is dubious .. if integ-ation 01 the cultural
heritage, and the means of its management, as an authentic, even fundamental factor in
development would not have contributed strongly to redirect it in a much more satislactory
way for ail the leading actors .
Poles of interest come next because - beyond the apparent paradox .. a healthy "defense
and illustration" 01 each one's identity should be the best guarantee 01 an authentic inter
cultural dialogue. This in so far as it is true that there can never be a real meeting of Iwo
poles except be1Ween partners who are lucidly aware of where they themselves stand but
are deliberately open to each other. Who can in fact say that human g-oups, in different
layers and through the workings of time, have built their culture and their history in isolation?
An adequate reassessment would not lead to an egocentric view excluding ail influ
ences. On the contrary, it wouId bring out in the light the true evidence demonstrating to
what degee even the identity 01 each civilization is marked by an inter-connection (includ
ing those times when this inter-conneetion came trom the ta'mented periods of history), to
what degee it results in the progessive assimilation of elements 01 diverse origins (even il
this assimilation has come about in part trom conflicts).
Instrumental finally, because one must go beyond those statements which, once they take
hold, lose little by little their lorcefulness. It is not enough to establish a lundamental postu
lates .. although it may mean some arguing .. that is to say that the historical and cultural
47

heritage should be the subject 01 (Iundamental) scientilic investigation, 01 (indispensable)

conservation measures a of cultural tourism (welcome, with the reservation that it be weil
thought through, p1anned and carTied out) but that it must also constitute a "capital" la the
benefit 01 the populations concerned not only in terms 01 employment and income (certainly
welcome) but in terms of memay and of identity. This said, sening up truly operational
concepts remains to be done. That is to say, in O\J' modem societies the enhancement of
the cuhural heritage supposes that to reach its full potential it must be supported by an
appropriate effat la communication both inside and outside of the cultural area. As long
as such an approach has not become a reality, with the will, the language, the technology
and ail the appropriate means, we are doomed to making generous speculations directed
towards the happy lew, when indeed we are not preaching to the converted.
Ending this introductay note, let us consider the initial challenge: help a manipulation?
Maeover, to avoid dosing O\.I"seIves in this frustrating antinomy,would it not be mae appro
priate to add to the equation, to give it ail its significance, the term partnership? That the
interveners, nourished by a particular cuhural heritage, that of our civilization, become
actively involved in the debate and the action called la by the duality cuhure-development,
could show excellent intentions (one knows that this is what the road to hell is paved with),
but it could also show an undue interference, the last metamaphosis 01 a perverse euro
centrism (we know that certain "third-wald" champions are not exempt). This is not our
intention, which we will demonstrate with a concrete example.
When questioned about the appropriateness, indeed the possibility, of sening up a real
partnership in interpretation and communication of non-European societies, an authaized
speaker said some time ago that this seemed extremely problematic. And la the good
reason that "we" (understand "Western scientists") understand these societies from a lar
mae objective point of view, since the people concerned (that is, the home-gown resear
chers) incapaated into the view they had of their own societies certain elements (alienating
some would say) just as laeign as they were recently carted in, la the most part, by over
seas European expansion. Whatever the real difficulties of practicing an authentic partner
ship, we would nevertheless declare as false - not just the statement which is redundant
but the conclusions which one can draw.
Il would seem to us in lact that if we wish to avoid a deceptive angelic approach - that is
to say to find in traditional societies an aiginal state of "purity", we must consider the lact 01
colonialism fa exactly what it is: an episode, certainly painlul, olten tragic, of human histay
which contributed to modilying the societies cpncerned, even to inlluencing the vision which
they have 01 themselves. That is what, in O\J' opinion. justifies the partnership which we
would like to see. A partnership which would allow us to lace, in a fruitful dialogue, not only
the vision which we have 01 each other but also that which we have of O\J'selves, and to
underline the inter-penetration mentioned above. Not by standardized approaches, guided
by subjective judgments 01 value, but Ioilowing a conscious will intended bener to gasp
how, in the last analysis, mankind in our times has been famed.
You will lind on the following pages an ail too brief allusion to the determining impa
tance of the concept 01 systems and netwaks, therelae 01 reJay-civilizations. This means to
48

give the utmost importance, in a planetary perspective, to caravan civilizations. Now,

parallel to our reflections, under the aegis of Unesco, a promising plan called "Project of an
integrated study of the sille roads: roads of dialogue" was approved at the end of 1987 by
the Unesco General Conference.
A fortunate convergence appears which would argue for the approach recommended
above, that is : setting up integrated museology for global communication constituting a
cross-discipline and inter-cultll'a1 process. Which shows us, if it is necessary to do so, that
museology itself turns out to be instrumental. Combined with other elements it plays, in
subtle harmonies, a rich score which now must be interpreted.

1. The specifie tasks of cultural management consultants

The author -- who was trained as an historian, works as a
museologist and is concerned about communications -- considers
himself first and foremost a generalist, with neither the inclina
tion nor the means for claiming to substitute himself to special
ists in the various fields of study at hand.
Far from seeking to compete with others, therefore, a cultural
management consultant aims to promote research accomplishments,
widen their scope, turn them into means for strengthening a
nation's cultural identity, as well as making them accessible to a
country's visitors.
Admittedly, the results of archaeological or historical research
conducted by teams from outside the regions concerned in this
memorandum all too often fail to reach beyond a small, closed
circle.
This is so because traditional university-trained researchers
may have little interest in a wider dissemination of their work,
meant exclusively for the benefit of the scientific community.
It is also because existing divisions continue to work against a
truly cross-disciplinary approach to subjects.
Finally, the circle is closed because scientific investigation
if carried out as an end to itself fails to pay sufficient atten
tion to its possible contribution to the cultural self-awareness of
those it studies.
If scientific engineers are those who strive to apply scientific
principles, "cultural engineers" can be said to do the same with
respect to culture, with the small exception that the latter cannot
always remain limited to knowledge previously acquired (in our
case, chiefly behavioural science).
Adynamie view indeed calls for filling gaps in scientific
knowledge by encouraging further research -- into issues raised by
a cross-disciplinary approach -- or else by calling for the use of
new methods to reconcile the requirements of methodology with those
of communication.
A specialist with a cultural engineering mandate, by training
and by avocation, should be able to grasp the scope of knowledge
existing in various fields of study, extract a synthesis and
suggest appropriate ways for attaining the aim of conserving and
communicating the historical heritage under consideration, without
violating strict methodological standards (this is not a contradic
tion in terms!).
.
49

Recause the countries in Question are freQuently new political

entities (though in reality they have ancient traditions), the
general aims are many:
actively preserving and conserving the heritage as a cultural
asset
making the heritage known, both within and outside the
country in Question
enhancing native cultural awareness
promoting su ch awareness among visitors (such as by encour
aging Quality tourism) and working toward a much needed
intercultural exchange.
2. General principles
The mandate of a cultural management consultant involves a
number of successive steps which, though causally linked, may also
be considered independently for each other.
.
It ought to be noted first that, in order to effectively promote
the sought-for intercultural dialogue, work of this type cannot be
achieved through a simple theoretical investigation conducted from
a distance.
To be successful, a project reQuires instead that one be out in
the field on a regular basis, as weIl as that a genuine partnership
be established with local cultural specialists and the population
concerned.
A Key notion here is that of the "mirror". The historical and
cultural heritage indeed constitutes a mirror into which the people
of a region can look to discover, or rediscover, their identity
(along with the memory at its core), and which also offers an image
to visitors.
ln other words, "how we see ourselves" is closely linked to "how
others see us".
This principled approach also serves to counteract -- by
minimizing its impact -- the view typically expressed in su ch terms
as the following:
"Dnly the Europeans can afford the luxury of being sentimen
tal about traditional societies" (to Quote Tafaneyi David
Gweshe, a dancer from Zimbabwe, in a recent issue of Neue
Zrcher Zeitung).
---Such a statement is relevant to the extent that such societies
may be considered as from a "beyond era" and from an exclusively
European point of view.
What we suggest doing, instead, consists of considering the
heritage of traditional societies as an asset that could be of
great value for the future of countries concerned, as there is
increased awareness of the connection between a sensible approach
to development and giving due consideration to cultural roots and
to their relevancy for the present.
Modern techniques, applied carefully and correctly (that is
used as tools in the service of man and not the reverse), shouid
not inevitably lead to reducing lifestyles and cultural practices
down to a common denominator. For one of humanity's greatest as sets
probably consists of its stimulating diversity.

50

With this in mind, the initial stage of the work consists of

making an inventory of local and regional resources. From such an
inventory, combined with our own knowledge, can be inferred the
need or the advisability to safeguard and conserve those resources,
as well as to make them better known.
A number of concepts would then be brought to the fore, leading
to the outlining of draft projects and of con crete proposals.
At this stage -- once projects to be carried out have been
decided upon -- the cultural engineer would make a more thorough
evaluation of the conditions under which they can be brought to
furition. One of the tasks here would be to identify those poten
tial associates most likely to contribute toward various aspects of
the projects. After that would come, as the need arose, the
supervision of the actual work.
3. Some specifie proposals
We do not wish to put the cart before the horse and have nn
reason to favour one aspect of the heritage to the detriment nf
others. We should like to suggest, however, an approach we consider
likely to yield results.
It consists of looking upon any civilization as one element
among many that make up a broader network, rather than as a finite
whol~, which ignores one of its important facets.
In this context, we find that a number of non-industrialized
countries constitute key links -- at one time connected -- along
the trade routes of history. If attention must be given to economic
factors -- the initial impetus for developmenet of trade -- those
routes are above all those of communications, having made contacts
or even cross-fertilization possible between civilizations.
Those countries' rich historical and cultural heritage -
particularly in the southern hemisphere -- is indeed often a
byproduct of their geographical location, between the North and the
South, the Orient and the Occident.
As for the specific items to be considered, the choice would
depend on individual situations. However, in addition to tradi
tional fields of interest relating to a particular site or museum,
allow us to submit here the possibility of setting in motion an
"integrating sch~me".
Such a sheme could for instance take the form of a greatly
expanded civilization "museum", which, though having a central
administration, would not be confined to a single location but be
spread instead over several sites, based on their features and
impact.
These various factors -- logically interacting - could consti
tu te a kind of global "ecomuseum", that would integrate, in all
their possible forms, men, space and time.
Objections may be raised to the effect that tensions in certain
parts of the world may make such an approach difficult to carry
out. Allow us however to express the hope that, wherever this may
be so, the current geopolitical situation will not be the cause of
irreversible cultural changes.

51

It therefore ought to be possible to mlnlmlze, or even t~ avoid

such an obstacle, to the extent that, at the outset at least:, an
effort is made to keep away from controversial issues at the heart
of recent conflicts , so as to bring out the universal quality of
civilization factors (and, thereby, their actual universal role),
which, in any case, transcends the hazards of "current history".

4. Conservation of the heritage and development

Such projects have not only their own intrinsic value, they also
crea te added value in terms of cultural identification as well as
in the more general context of development.
Mention may be made, for example, of the growth of tourism. If
tourism depends only on the existence of hotels and of their
support sector, the danger exists that only quantitative growth may
occur in shallow tourism, whereby visitors on chartered tours
haphazardly visit this or that historic site before getting back on
the bus or plane to their next destination,
Should not some "cultural value" be added to the hotels, as
indispensable as they may be? Would it not be advisable to develop
an integrated approach to the genuine conservation of sites, for a
greater understanding of the nature, wealth and impact of the
civilization which accounts for their existence? In other words,
should not the preservation and conservation of tangible elements
be linked to an on-location experiencing of the sites in question?
Of course, not all visitors would respond positively, as can be
expected, although demand for this type of service is becoming more
widespread. Would not the host countries benefit immensely by
r~sponding te those who seek te initiate a real intercourse on
civilizations, as well as to generate interest among others.

52

MarcA Barblan -

Genve, Suisse

IDENTITE,MUSEOLOGIE ET DEVELOPPEMENT:
APPROCHE

INSTRUMENTALE POUR UN DIALOGUE

INTERCULTUREL

"La seule querelle qui vaille est celle de l'horrrne"

Charles de Gaulle,25.D3.1959
ilLe dveloppement a besoin de racines, et il faut
connaItre son pass pour construire un avenir qui
ne soit ni illusion ni contrainte fl
Edgard

Pisani,1988

Prambule
Musologie et dveloppement: ouvrir un tel dbat c'est obligatoire

ment nous inviter penser en termes gnriques, multipolaires et

instrumentaux la fois.
Gnriques, en effet, car il faut et il faudra encore plaider pour
une lgitime, indispensable, prise en compte du patrimoine culturel

des pays concerns -sa communication et sa mise en valeur-mais aussi

pour sa relle intgration dans les politiques de dveloppement.
Face aux (auto-)critiques grinantes que suscite le bilan des trois
dcennies coules on peut bon droit se demander -mme si la por
te rtroactive de cette interrogation reste douteuse- si l'intgra
tion du patrimoine culturel, et des modalits de sa gestion,comme
facteur authentique, voire fondamental,de dveloppement n'aurait pas
puissamment contribu l'inflchir de manire plus satisfaisante

pour tous les protagonistes.

Multipolaires, ensuite, car -au-del du paradoxe apparent- une saine
Ildfense et illustration" de l'identit de chacun devrait constituer
la meilleure garantie d'un authentique dialogue interculturel. Tant
il est vrai qu'il ne saurait y avoir de rencontre vritable qu'entre
partenaires lucidement conscients de leur appartenance mais dlib
rment ouverts l'autre.
Qui peut en effet prtendre que les groupes humains ont constitu,
par strates successifs travers l'oeuvre du temps, leur patrimoine
historique et culturel en vase clos?

53

Une rappropriation adquate ne saurait donc aboutir un gocentrisme

exclusif. Elle mettra au contraire en pleine lumire une vrit d'vi
dence, dmontrant quel degr l'identit mme de chaque civilisation
est marque par l'interconnexion

(y

compris lorsque cette intercon

nexion rsulte des tourments de l'histoire), quel point elle rsulte

de l'assimilation progressive d'lments de provenance diverse (dt
cette assimilation procder en partie de rapports conflictuels).
Instrumentaux, enfin, car on ne saurait en rester des constats qui,
force de prgnance,perdraient peu peu de leur vigueur.
Il ne suffit gure en vrit d'noncer un postulat fondamental - quitte

(se) disputer sur le sujet- savoir que le patrimoine historique

et culturel ne doit pas seulement faire l'objet d'investigations scien
tifiquesCfondamentales) , de mesures de conservation(indispensables) ou
de promotion touristique(bienvenue, condition d'tre mrement pense,
orchestre et conduite), mais qu'il doit aussi constituer un "capital"
au profit des populations impliques aussi bien en termes d'emplois et
de revenus(assurment souhaitables)qu'en termes de mmoire et d'identit.
Cela pos, restent en effet laborer de vritables concepts opratoires.
C'est dire que, dans nos socits modernes,la mise en valeur du patri
moine suppose, pour parvenir la plnitude,d'tre soutenue par un ef
fort appropri de communication interne et externe.
Aussi longtemps qu'une telle approche ne se traduira pas dans les faits,
avec la volont, le langage, les techniques et les moyens appropris,
nous nous condamnerons de gnreuses spculations destines d'heu
reux lus, quand nous ne prcherons pas parmi les convertis.
Parvenus au terme de ce propos liminaire, considrons encore un instant
le dfi premier: aide ou manipulation?
D'ailleurs, faut-il se laisser emprisonner dans cette frustrante anti
nomie et ne conviendrait-il pas, plutt,d'ajouter l'quation -pour
lui donner toute sa porte- le terme de partenariat?
Que des intervenants nourris par un hritage donn, celui de notre civi
lisation,slimmiscent activement dans le dbat et llaction qu'appelle la
dualit culture-dveloppement, cela peut relever d'excellents sentiments
(on sait toutefois que l'enfer en est pav); cela pourrait aussi trahir
une ingrence indue, dernier avatar d'un europocentrisme pervers (on sait
que certains paladins IItiers-mondistes" n'en sont pas exempts).

54

Tel n'est bien entendu pas notre propos, que nous illustrerons par un
exemple concret.
Interrog sur l'opportunit, voire la possibilit, de mettre en oeuvre
un vritable partenariat dans l'interprtation et la communication de
socits extra-europennes, un interlocuteur autoris nous dclarait i l
y a quelque temps que cela s'avrait extrmement problmatique. Pour
l'excellente raison que " nous "(entendez, "scientifiques occidentaux")
connaissions ces socits de manire bien plus objective, puisque les
intresss(donc,les chercheurs du cru)intgraient la vision qu'ils
avaient de leurs propres socits des lments (alinants, diront d'au
cuns) aussi allognes que rcents charris, pour la plupart,par l'ex
pansion europenne outre-mer.
Quelles que soient les difficults relles pratiquer un authentique
partenariat, on nous permettra toutefois de nous inscrire en faux, non
pas contre l'assertion elle-mme -relevant de la tautologie- que contre
les conclusions que l'on peut en tirer.
Il nous semble en effet que, si l'on veut chapper au travers d'un an
glisme trompeur.-qui consisterait retrouver les socits tradition
nelles dans leur originelle "puret 1'- il est grand temps de considrer
le fait colonial pour ce qu'il est, c'est--dire un pisode, douloureux
assurment, tragique plus souvent qu' son tour, de l'histoire humaine
qui a contribu modifier les socits concernes quitte influencer
jusqu' la vision qu'elles ont d'elles-mmes.
Ce qui, notre sens, justifie prcisment le partenariat que nous appe
lons de nos voeux. Partenariat qui nous permettrait de confronter, dans
un fcond dialogue,non seulement la vision que nous avons de l'autre
mais aussi celle que nous avons de nous-mmes et mettre ainsi en exergue
les interpntrations voques plus haut.
Et ce non selon une approche normative, gouverne par des jugements de
valeur, mais suivant une volont cognitive destine mieux apprhender
comment, au bout du compte,ont t models les hommes de notre temps.
On trouvera dans les pages qui suivent une trop brve allusion l'im
portance dterminante de la notion de systmes et de rseaux, donc aux
civilisations-relais. Ce qui revient mettre en vidence le rle car
dinal, dans une perspective plantaire, des civilisations caravanires.

55

Or, paralllement notre rflexion, prenait forme sous l'gide de

l'UNESCO un dispositif prometteur terme, le "Projet d'tude int
qrale des routes de la soie:routes de dialogue" approuv, fin 1987,par

la Confrence gnrale.
Une heureuse convergence se manifeste ainsi, qui nous parait militer en
faveur de l'approche prconise ci-aprs, savoir: mise en oeuvre de
la musologie intgre une communication globale constitutive d'une

dmarche transdisciplinaire et interculturelle.

Ce qui nous dmontre bien, si besoin tait,que la musologie elle-mme
s'avre instrumentale. Jointe d'autres lments elle vient constituer
,par de subtiles harmonies,la riche partition qu'il sied maintenant
d'interprter.

* *

1. Rle spcifique du conseil en entreprise culturelle

L'intervenant -- historien de formation, musologue par ln

prf3tique, soucieux de communication -- est avant tout un gnra

liste. Il n'a donc ni l'intention, ni les moyens, de prtendre

GlIpplanter les spcialistes des diverses disciplines dj concer
npes, de caR en cas.
JA)jn, donc, de concurrencer d'autres acteurs, l'intervention

d'un conseil en entreprise culturelle a pour but de valoriser les

recherches accomplies, d'en largir la porte, de les fondre dans
un instrument propre affermir l'identit culturelle d'un,pays,
en assurer

aus~i

la communication aux htes de ce mme pays.

Il faut reconnatre en effet que le fruit des recherches archo

logiques ou historiques conduites par des quipes extrieures aux
r.p.gions que nous prenons en considration ici restent trop souvent

dans un circuit ferm.

Fermo?, parce que le chercheur de formation acadmique tradition
nelle demeure mpfiant l'encontre de la mdiatisation. de ses
travaux, qu'il rserve usuellement la seule communaut scienti
fique.
Ferm, parce que des cloisonnements prexistants empchent
encore frquemment une vritable approche pluridisciplinaire.
Ferm enfin, parce ~le la curiosit scientifique, si elle
s'exerce comme une fin en soi, ne prend pas assez en considration

ce ~l'elle peut apporter l'identit culturelle de ceux-l mmes

qui font l'objet des investigations.
A propos du rl e de l'ingnieur, De Broglie crivait nagure
qu'il est un homme qui s'est spcialis dans la mise en oeuvre de
certaines applications de la science .
On peut ainsi lgitimer galement, par analogie, la fonction de
l'ingnierie culturelle.

56

A cette nuance pr~ qu'on ne saurait, selon les cas, se limiter

aux applications d'acquis prexistants de la science (ici, des
~cip.nces humaines principalement).
Dans une perspective dynamique, il faut en effet s'apprter
combler les lacunes de la science, en incitant de nouvelles
recherches -- sur des problmes qu'une approche pluridisciplinaire
Dura mis en lumi.~re -- quAnd ce n'est pas en suscitant l'app~.i

cation de techniques nouvelles qui permettront de concilier

exigences mthodologiques et ncessits de la communication.
L'oprateur mandat pour une mission d'ingnierie culturelle
doit donc tre en mesure, par formation et par vocation, d'appr
hender la porte 'des connaissances acquises dans les diverses
disciplines, d'en oprer la synthse et de proposer des mesures
appropries visant atteindre un objectif de mise en valeur et de
communication du patrimoine historique considr, dans le respect
(j'une mthodologie rigoureuse (ce qui n'est aucunement antino
mique!) .
S'agissant souvent de pays neufs (qui sont en ralit de trs
ancienne tradition), l'objectif gnral est donc multiple:
Conservation et mise en valeur active du patrimoine en tant
que fait de civilisation
.Mdiatisation. de ce patrimoine, conue comme communication
interne et

exteT.n~

Affermissement de l'identit culturelle autochtone

Promotion de cette identit l.'adresse du visiteur (n-:>tam

ment p..r une Incitation un tourisme quali.tatif) et invita

tion l'indispensable dialogue interculturel.

?. Principes g<'in<'iraux observer

I.e mandat confi un conseil en entreprise culturelle suppose
divers stades successifs; li.s r.ausalement entre eux ils peuvent
nanmoins tre traits indpendamment.
Notons au pral.able que, afin de promouvoir effectivement le
dialogue interculturel recherch, des oprations de ce type ne
"auraient rsulter de la seule dmarche intellectuelle effectue
istance.

Le but poursuivi commande en effet une prsence rgulire sur le

terrain ainsi qu'un authentique partenariat avec les oprateurs
culturels locaux et les populations concernes.
Reprenant ici, en la paraphrasant, une formule chre feu
Georges-Henri Rivire, nous dirons que -- quelle que soit la
ralisation envisage -- il faut mettre en oeuvre le .principe du
miroir .

Le patrimoine historique et culturel constitue en effet un

miroir grce auquel les habitants d'une rgion (re)trouvent leur
identit (et la mmoire qui la constitue) tout en offrant au
visiteur une image d'eux-mmes.
Autrement dit, le .comment nous nous voyons. va de pair avec le
comment nous sommes vus par autrui.

57

r.p-tte ptition de principe permet galement de contrebattre -

en le relativisant -- un constat frquemment exprim, en ces termes
par exp-mple:
Seuls les Europens peuvent s'offrir le luxe de nourrir,
l'gard de socits traditionnelles, des sentiments atten
dris
(propos de Tafanp-yi David Gweshe, danseur zimbabwen,
rr.p-mment rp-lats par la Neue ZUrcher Zeitung)
Une telle affirmation n'est pertinente que si lesdites socits
sont abordes dans une perspective passiste et europocentrlque.
Ce que nous proposons vise,

AU

contraire, considrer le

plltrimoi ne des socits traditionnelles comme un acquis qui

pourrait s'avrer riche de prolongements pour l'avenir des nations
r.nncernes, dans la mesure o l'on s'aperoit de plus en plus qu'il
n~ saurait y avoir de dveloppement harmonieux sans une prise en
r.ompte des racines culturelles et de leur adquation au monde
contemporain.

Les technologies modernes, matrises et correctement appliques

(r.'est--dire considres comme des outils au service de l'homme,
Pot non l'inversp), ne devraient pas entraner, de manire inlucta

hIe, un nivellement gnralis des modes de vie et des pratiques

culturp-lles.

Tant il est vrai qu'un des capitaux les plus prcieux de

l'humanit rside sans doute dans une stimulante diversit.

Cela pos, la premire tape du processus suppose un recensement

des ressources locales et rgionales.
De l'inventaire des ressources, r.onfront avec l'tat de nos
connaissances, rsultera une valuation quant la ncessit,
l'opportunit, de les sauvegarder, de les mettre en valeur et dlen
nSsurer la communication.

Surgiront F.'nsuite un certain nombre de concepts conduisant la

formulation d'avant-projets et de propositions concrtes.

Parvenus ce stade -- la slection des projets dvelopper
tant effectue -- la fonction de l'ingnierie culturelle consiste
1\ valuer de manire plus approfondie les modalits de ralisation
(en identifiant, notamment, les partenaires susceptibles de se voir
confier tel ou tel aspect de l'excution) puis superviser, le cas
chant, leur mise en oeuvre effective.

3. Quelques suggestiom, spcifiques

Ne souhaitant pas placer la charrue avant les boeufs, il n'y a
pas lieu de privilgier ici une facette du patrimoine historlque
plutt qu'une autre.
suggrons cependant une approche qui nous parat fconde.

58

Elle consiste considrer toute culture non comme un systme

clos (ce qui revi.endrait l'amputer d'une partie de sa richesse)
mRis comme un ~lment qui s'insre dans de plus vastes rseaux.
A cet gard, de nombreux pays extra-europens se prsentent
nous comme des relais essentiels (nagure interconnects) qu'il
convient d'intgrer dans les systmes dessins par les grandes
routes de l'histoire.
Routp.s qu'il faut certes considrer dans leur aspect conomique
(puisque telle tait leur vocation d'origine), mais surtout Comme
axes majeurs de communication, donc comme facteurs de contact
quand ce n'est pas d'interpntration -- entre les cultures.
La richesse et la varit du patrimoine historique et culturel
de ces pays -- notamment ceux dits de l'hmisphre Sud -- ne sont
elles pas frqup.mment tributaires de leur situation cardinale, la
croise du Nord et du Sud, de l'Est et de l'Ouest?
Quant aux objets prendre en considration, ils varieront selon
les conditions spcifiques.
Cp.pendant, en plus des catgories d'intervention tradition
nelles, lies un site ou une institution musale, qu'on nous
permette d'voquer ici la possibUt de mettre en oeuvre un (schma
intgrateur> .
Un tel schma pourrait par exemple se concrtiser dans un muse
dp. civilisation clat. C'est--dire que (bien que dot d'un
cp.ntre nvralgique) il ne serait pas concentr en un seul lieu,
mRis rpRrti sur plusieurs sites en fonction de leurs caractris
tiques propres et de leur porte.
Cp.s divers lmp.nts -- articuls logiquement entre eux -
r.onsti tueraient llne sorte dl comuse global qui intgrerait, dans
tr.mtes leurs manifestations possibles, les hommes, 11 espace f!t le

temps.
On pourra certes objecter que les tensions propres maintes
rgions ne favorisent pas une telle approche.
Qu'on nous permette cependant d'esprer que, lorsque c'est le
cas, la situation gopolitique du moment n'entrane pas de muti
lations culturelles irrversibles.
Cet obstacle devrait donc pouvoir tre relativis, voire
contourn, si -- du moins dans une premire phase -- l'on se tient

l'cart des turbulences rcentes pour mettre en vidence l'uni

versalit des faits de civilisation (donc leur fonction oecum
nique,

AU

sens pr.opre du terme) qui, de toute manire, transcendent

les alas de <cl'histoire immdiate.

4. Hi"" "n vnl,,"r dll pntrimoine culturel et d6veloppement

DE' tels projets ont non seulement leur valeur propre; ils
offrp.nt nllss! une ,vAleur ajoute., aussi bien du point de vue de
1 'i.dentit culturelle que du point de vue plus gnral du dvelop
pp.ment.

59

CltonR par exemple le cas du dveloppement touristique. Si ce

dernier ne prenait en compte que les infrastructures hteli~res, on
rIsquerai t fort de n'encourager que l'expansion quantitative d'un
tOllrisme Ruperficiel en vertu duquel le visiteur ccharteris.
pnrr.ourrAit lA sauvette tel ou tel lieu historique avant de
rp.intgrer le bus ou l'avion qui le conduira ailleurs.
Ne conviendrait-il donc pas d'ajouter ces infrastructures,
indispensables, une cplus-value culturelle>?
Ne faudrait-Il pas concevoir de manire intgre une au~hentique
mi~e en valeur des sites, au terme de laquelle on pourrait mieux
"Aisir la nature, la richesse et la porte de la civilisation qui
les a gnrs?
nutrement dit, la sauvegarde et la conservation proprement
matrielles ne devraient-elles pas tre accompagnes d'une inter
prtation cin situ> des objets considrs?
Certes, tous les visiteurs n'y seraient pas forcment rceptifs,
c'est la loi du genre; encore que ce type de besoin se rpande.
Le pays d'accueil ne gagnerait-il pas infiniment rpondr.e
j'attente de ceux qui veulent engager un rel dialogue sur fond de
d.vilisatlon et Il veiller la curiosit des autres?

60

Maria de Lourdes Horta Barretto -

Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

Museoloov in developina countries- a basic 'configuration'

Every country is a developing country. Every culture develops

itself in a permanent process of change and evolution.

Other people' s cul tures seduce us very strongly in a time of

heterogeneous patterns and agitation. It is not going back
to ideals kept by primitive societies that our present society
wi Il fir.d i ts heal ing. \ole have to cope wi th the present. And
to face the future.
The' problem of cul tural

li fe is generally the problem of the

interrelationship among various aspects of culture. This study

may lead to a better appreciation of the intensity of
integration. or the lack of it. in a culture. Rarely will it
lead (and when it does. only in an indirect way) to a
comprehension of the relationships between the individual and
culture. (*1)
These relations between the different aspects follow the most
varied patterns. and do not support generalizations.
Museums and Museology. as cultural facts and processes. cannot
support a partial analysis. without consideration of the
cultural context in which they happen. They are not separated
entities.

existing by themselves and floating in the air.

they

cultural

are

phenomena.

in

constant

the other aspects of any gi ven cul ture.

agents.

but reflect

clearly

the

relationship

but
with

They are not external

intrinsic nature of cultural

patterns.
In

order

to understand a

cul ture we have to penetra te deeply

in the 'spirit' of that culture. as Franz Boas remarks. (*2)

to have a know l edge and unders tand i ng 0 f the a t t i tudes tha t
control the behaviour of individuals and groups. The spirit
of each culture. Ruth Benedict calls its configuration.
This

would

than

the

atti tudes

be

different

'functional'
more

than

form

method.
the

to

trying

'functional'

analyse
to

find

social
the

relations

of

phenomena

fundamental
each
61

particular cultural aspect. It is not an 'historical' form,

except by the fact that the general configuration, while it
subsists, limi ts de directions of transformation, and subdues
them. Compared to the changes in cultural content, configuration
has very often a notable permanence, says Boas.
To discuss Museology in developing countries would not be a
matter of analysing i ts effects or i ts performance on favour
or on manipulating people in these countries. We would ha ve

thousands~different examples of both things ...

The

important question seems to be to discuss the fundamental

attitudes and the nature of the relationship between individuals

and the various aspects of their culture, the intensity of
integration(or lack of it) of Museums and Museology in cultural
configuration (reflecting, neglecting or even rejecting it,
but always one aspect of this configuration, limited and
determined by it, changing with it).
To answer this question would be the only way to have a relative
measure of the role of Museums and Museology in any country
or culture, the frame and extension of their effectiveness
and potentialities (either positive or negative).
In the study of these fundamental

attitudes and relationships

of individuals and their culture,

we need to consider two main

basic points, as Ruth Benedict points out: the nature of culture

and the nature of heritage.
Man is molded by habits, and not by instinct. Nothing in men's
social organization,
language, religion,
is transmitted
biologically, and the corollary we may trace is that we cannot
trust our spiritual or cultural conquests to 'germinal
hereditary

plasmas',

says

R.Benedict.

Cultural

heritage

is

not transmi tted biebgically, and this fact enhances the role
of cultural processes in the transmission of tradition.
The analysis of the nature of a cul ture and the nature of i ts
heritage
phenomena.

may
the

explain

the

general

interrelationship

'configuration'

between

the

of

various

social
aspects

and their integration or eventual disruptions that may occur,

provoking fragmentation, deviations, and sometimes more

62

schyzophrenic situations.
These are the main points l wanted to make in order to approach
Musecbgy (and Museums) in developing countries like my own.
Once it would be impossible to analyse the nature of brazilian
culture and its complex interaction of multifarious aspects
today and along i ts past, sorne aspects of the nature of i ts
heritage,

accumulated

'horizon of
present

its

until

past' (*3)

'configuration'

today,
may

of

our country
work

Sorne

be

these

points

may

and

'developmental'

its

shared,

of cultural contents and forms same

category.

transmitted

be pointed out

reflected in museological
-brazilian museums.
of

and

and

along

the

to explain

the

social

practical

despite

behaviour,
application

the differences

with other countries in this

Three

basic

elements

of

this

Heritage pervade and interfere in the country's cultural process

l.the .inheritance of colonization
2. the idea of 'Progress' and 'Civilization'
3. the mass-media system
What have Museology and Museums to do with that?
l.The

the

basis of

the social and economical structures of the country,

concentration of land and rents on the hands of a

wi th the
few, and

the

colonial

inheritance

exclusion of

the

great

is

still

majority

present at

of

the

population.

strong lite, which includes upper middle-class, holds

economical and political power, contras the system and

This
the
the

institutions and has full access to Education and Culture.

The great majority of the people is only 'functionally literate'
and the illiteracy levels are still very high. Lack of Education
is

at

the

basis

of

the

lack

of

civic

consciousness and

the

feeling of'identity'.
The strong presence of the State and the divorce of the common
ci tizen from state affairs supports the general

idea that the

responsibility

is

for

national

cultural

heritage

0/1'"

an

affair

~OlT(f(\m.fl\1-.
63

National museums are strongly dependent from Politics, as

anything else in a developing country, and any change in the
higher ranks of hierarchy provok~ a 'cascade' effect. Plans
cannot endure or be made in a long-term basis and 'pragmatism'
knocks down any 'theory'. Regional museums repeat the same
models, wi th strong interference, when not total disregard,
from local authorities. Museums do not yet mean 'number of
votes' in the next elections.
The 'sacred' and 'glorifying' discourse supported by the
majority of these institutions until today only comes in support
of the 'status-quo',
'naturalizing' the historical narrative
in a mythological 'speech'. The manipulation of the Past,
represented according to the dominant ideology does not stimulate
or propose a critical, refle~ive, scientifical look on events,
institutions and beliefs. In this way, the Past is against
the Present, a time of 9 lory, wi thout conf! icts and crisis,
when life was much better in those 'good old days'. The
conservation of those 'values' is what people must fight for,
and any idea of change or transformation is implicitly an idea
of disorder, a disruption,
march into the Future.

a threat for the country's glorious

Any models came from the Metropolis and from the civilized
world, including the idea of 'museums' itself. Nothing 'native'
could be elegant or beautiful, 'popular' taste is still synonim
of 'bad taste'. Popular art, conveniently separated from the
main collections and restricted to Folklore museums, as objects
of ethnological research, is still considered a 'minor art',
work of anonimous individuals, very good for tourists to bring
home as souvenirs. The 'petite-bourgeoisie' still pre fers to
have a reproduction of the Mona Lisa or the replica of the
Piet on their TV sets.
Museology

and

Museum

studies

in

the

few

universities

where

they are taught on a gradua te basis still maintain this approach

to the collections, manifested in the main classification and
terminology used, on the themes of exhi bi tions, on the
museographical

arrangements

scientifical denominations,

64

enhancing
and

taxonomical

'instructive'

categories,

labels.

In these

areas of study and in the curriculum of courses, very few

mentions or foccus on Education or Communication subjects.
Very few research is done in al ternati ve ways of presenting
exhibi tions, of approaching material cul ture in relation wi th
people' s

systems of reference,

of communication in a

language

and level that people can understand and refer themselves too.
The foccus is on 'objects' and not on' people' who made them,
used them, and their reasons for. The exclusion of the majority
is kept in this way, maintaining the idea that museums are
for a few, the owners of the 'cultural land'.

The 'official history' and the 'official culture' collected

and preserved along generations in national and regional museums
are the history and the 'high-cul ture' of the dominant class.
Those,the landowners, the nobility and the high-hierarchy of
the system, were the owneI) of material richness, goods and
values represented in museum collections. As 'mirrors' of
society, museums reflect the life and values of the lite and
'common' people do not recognize themselves in what is being
shown there.Nothing has been kept or collected of the 'loosers',
of the anonimous, no 'doccuments' of labour and physical work
(considered 'degradating' by middle-class until very recently),
no evidence of common and ordinary life.
Devaluation of people' s material culture - against the 'true
values' presented in museums and prized by the Art and Antiques
Market, contribute to the loss of self-value and consciousness
of people's individual and social identity, of self-expression
and creativity, and cultural productions tend to immitate
'dominant' and 'elitist' forms and manifestations.
2.The idea of 'Progress' and 'Civilization'
The ideology of Progress, basic to aIl the western world, and
which is behind the current 'developing' label 9 i ven to aIl
countries that are not on the first ranks in the modern battle
for control of power and weal th, forged new concepts that
changed the pace of life aIl around the globe.
'Ruled

by

the

idea

of

Progress,

the

ethical

system of

the

western world has changed in modern times'(*4)

65

Proposing a new and feasible

'Utopia',

moderni ty

lay Fai th

to be

followed,

an ideal to be reached,
imposes

i tsel f

through

the equation: Progress Civilization.

The

idea

of

'unique

civilization'

supports

and

colonization and incorporation of new territories,

of Capital

and Technology

by

that

chance

the

in peripheral

brazilian

national

of monopoly

areas. (*5)
flag,

It

is

not

created

by

the

turn of the century as symbol of the new Republic,

motte: 'Order and Progress'.

Progress,

bears the

that means Civilization,

is based on Order and supports the tradi tional one.

is the guarantor of this Order that will
Civilization and to the circle of

justifies

The State

lead the country to

'modern' nations.

Positivism

is the main phisosophical basis supporting any action or process

Under the disguise of
in the hands of a

'Moderni ty'

few.

the old Order is maintained

The wonders of Civilization conciliate

uncomfortable feelings of displacement and disbelief.

The representation of these
mold

new

great

mentalities

is

International

very

necessary to construct and

weIl

Exhibitions,

great national museums.

in 1922.

ideas,

demonstrated

which

are

through

emulated

by

The National Historical Museum,

the
the

created

was installed in a building of the International Fair

held in Rio by that year.

Now.

what is

'modern'

is what is valuable.

'backwardness', 'colonial',
'civilized'

is what

technology and
country's
of

'barbarian'.

forei'll.. and modern.

configuration,

slavery

and

The

run

What

and

labour

life unfolding

with
force

culture

is

internaI

migrations,

concentrated
'obsolete'

in big cities.

in

in the

abolition

industrial

and distant

The binds with

is

for

industrialization provokes deep changes

urban areas.Rural
new

is

'native'

What is Past means

from

and
the

traditional

values are definitively broken by the new values and comforts

of cosmopol i tan
attracted
and

by

richness

li fe.

The

'dpaysement'

populations,

the miracle and

dream of civilization,

Progress

provokes

rupture

fami liar

deep

systems, values and beliefs.

66

of local

of

social

and

What

matters

now

is

material

wealth,

as

quick

as

possible.

Identi ty

then is based on the principle of possessions, which

classi~y people in different 'status' of weal th, and exclude
the

dispossessed.

Culture

is

'luxury',

rich

people

built

rich collections, some of which will later create new museums.

The approach to the object is more than never the material,
scientifical, formal and stylistic one. Despite some movements
of reaction against the dictatorship of forei9~ models and
patterns, limited to intellectual circles, on Arts and Literaturc
the

general

configuration

of

the

country

was

subdued

by

the

idea of Progress and forei9A1 'civilization'. In the name of

this Progress, traditional values have been looked with despise,

forests and ri vers have been destroyed and controlled to build

up roads and hydroeletric plants, towns have been totally
changed and modernized,
architectural styles absorbed the.
futuristic models of Brasilia - the new capital.
Everything old has been conoted to museums. Everything outdated
and outmoded. Museology desperately tried to immitate Modernity,
not to explain it or to understand it.

Modern museums

'faded'

rap i d l y , unab l e to dec i de wh i ch way to look - to the Baroque

or to the Modern, and speaking only to those few, capable to
understand these categories.

ICOM defini tion of museums should

be followed but could never be reached. All public funds should

go to technology.
The distance between museums and the public grew farther, and
their 'signifiers' had nothing to do with the 'signifieds'
of collective consciousness. Collective 'signs' were pastheurizeJ
and lost from original significations. All in the name of
'Progress'

and

'Development'.

Material

culture

of

brazilian

people nowadays bears the features of the 'external Debt'.

People's only true valuable

'property is resumed to their own

minds.
3. The
care

mass-media

(radio, press, advertising and mainly TV)

of people's minds.

Selling

them,

by daily

took

installments,

the 'furniture' of their minds (*6)

67

The first major effect of this process in the country's

configuration was the 'urbanization' of rural areas, imposing
new patterns and behaviours typical of the great centers.
Illiterate people, native groups in reservation areas, the
most remote group of individuals are now able to 'read' audio
visual messages, which bring them the values, ideas and
principles of the great urban conglomerations. The conflict
of values and identities is inevitable. Appropriating the 'signs
and

'symbols'

small

of

villages

cosmopolitan

adopt

the

and

language

universal
of

the

configuration,

'global

sometimes wi thout understanding the new codes,

village',

or decodifying

the messages 'aberrantly',as Umberto Eco proposes. (*7)

lt is not only the furniture of people's minds which is changed.
Mental schemes and ways of thinking and percei ving messages
are

changed

the

media

too,

on

if

we

people's

accept
mental

the

studies on

processes.

The

the effect of
new

of the mass-media know how to control the minds,

to consumerism,
wi th

'VT

food'.

'landlords'
to lead them

to political support and to calm their hunger

The

power

of manipulation

Qf

the mass-media

is put into the service of the old stablished Order ...

\.Jhat can Museums do in this configuration? What can Museology
be in such a frame of economical-social-cultural order?
Examples there are many in both national and regional museums,
big and smal L of how museology can help people to understand
the country in which they live and the culture they've inherited.
In the age of mass-culture, in a 'developing' country, Museology
is a matter of choice, and mainly a political choice,to decide:
l.Whom does it want to serve? The dominant lite or the people ..
The stablished order or a new one?
2.With what objective9 supporting the 'stablishment' or
thoughts about it,

provokin~

refledions and a critical active look upon

it?
3. In which ways? Dictating another 'truth' in replacement
of other 'truths', or giving people the 'keys' to many doors
to be opened, so they can look for their own truth ...

68

Using

the

same tradi tional

models

and attitudes,

keeping

the

distance from the public and perfectioning its specialized

, jargon' . .. or finding new ways to reach people, communicating
with it through the use of common codes and systems of reference)
sharing with people their conflicts, dreams and thoughts?
Telling the same old stories about the same things, or going
deeper in the study of the nature of the culture and the nature
of

the

country' s

heri tage

(not

the materiaL

but

the socio

political one). in order to make people understand them better

and to preserve traditional and original values,changed in
Time ... showing the intersection and interrelations of cultural
aspects in the present 'configuration' of social life?
Looking at material culture as 'materials' and not as 'culture'?
Analysing the 'objects' as 'properties' of Subjects, or looking
at them as particles of atomized

'energy',

doccumenting human

action to transform reality?

The

permanence

of

culture) configuration. as

Boas

remarks,

limits the directions of transformation, subdues them, determine

them. Culture and Identity do not develop by themselves.
They

must

be

constructed,

wi th

the

values

of

Tradi tion

and

of new acquisitions. New values are acquired. People have to

f ind them wherever they may. When one is empty, one must be
fulfilled - by whatever makes one feel better. Self-value makes
people feel better. Self-devaluation destroys.
Development

is

not

predestinated.

It

is

conquest.

It

may

not happen. What if it does not happen in the way people make
us believe it should?
False

hopes,

illusionary

ideals

have been constructed

in our

countries, in people's minds. Why are these people now the world',
greatest 'indebtors'?

Nobody

is

consciously

for

awareness.

for

the

can

it

for

progress
be

manipulated.

development
of

integrated

of

Museology
people' s

communities' identity.
and

interfere,

as

may

be

tool

consciousness

and

Only

way

in

cultural

this

process.

in the nation's cultural configuration. For bad or for good ...

69

NOTES;
1)

BOAS, Franz. Preface to 'Patterns of Culture',R.Benedict,

portuguese translat.Ed. 'Livros do Brasil' Lisboa,lst ed.1934

2) BOAS, F.

id. id.

3) HUSSERL supports the idea that every object ,

at any given

moment, represents a 'phase' in its existence along the 'horizon

of its past'.Any elapsed 'phase' projects itself into the actual
phase, which must be seen through this perspective.
Husserl,E.
'Zur Phanomenologie des inneren Zeitbewustseins'
quoted by U.Eco in'Le Forme dei Contenuto',Milano,Bompiani,1968

4) BURY,John.La idea de Progresso. Madrid.Alianza Ed.1971 p.lI

quoted

by

M.Souza

Neves, 'Arenas

Paclficas',Revista

GAVEA,

PUC.Rio de Janeiro,1988
5)SOUZA NEVES, Margarida.' Arenas
PUC, Rio de Janeiro,1988,p.30

Paclficas'

in

Revista

GAVEA,

6) ALLISON,Brian. 'Furniture of the Minds',paper unpublished,

Leicester Polytechnichs,198 ..
7)

ECO, Umberto. 'Towards a semiotic inquiry into the Television

message',

in

Communications Studies,an introductory reader,Ed.

J.Corner & J.Hawthorn,Ed.Arnolds,1980,p.141

70

Maria de Lourdes Horta Barretto -

Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

La Musoloqie dans les pays en dvloppement - une configuration

de base
Le problme de la vie culturelle est gnralement le problme
de l'interrelation entre les divers aspects de la culture.
L' intensi t de cette intgration, ou bien la manque de celle
cL doit tre tudie pour qu'on puisse comprendre l'esprit
d'une culture,

ce que Ruth Benedict appelle

'la configuration'

de chaque culture.
Les Muses et la Musologie comme 'faits' et 'procs' culturels,
ne

supportent

pas

une

analyse

partielle,

hors

du

contexte

culturel qui les voit oprer. Leurs rlations avec d'autres

aspects doivent tre comprises et analyses, lorsqu'ils vont
rfltir la nature propre des modles culturels.
La nature de la culture et
tre

consideres,

selon

la nature de son Hritage doivent

R.B.,

dans

l'analyse

des

attitudes

fondamentales et des rlations des individus avec leur culture.

La dis cussion de la Musologie dans les pays en dvloppement
ne peut chapper de ces questions, et plutt que de discuter
ses aspects 'fonctionels', en faveur d'un peuple ou de sa manipu
lation, on devrait proposer l'analyse des attitudes fondamenta
les,

de

l' intensi t de

son

intgration dans

la configuration

gnrale d'une culture.

S'il

est

impossible

de

la culture brsilienne,

discuter

dans

ce

texte

la

nature

de

avec ses multiples et divers aspects,

on peut mettre en relief certains aspects de la nature de son

Hritage, qui peuvent peut-tre se raporter des traits communs
a d'autres pays en 'dvloppement'.
Les

lments

de

cette

Hritage

qu'on

peut envisager

panorama actuel de la culture brsilienne.

dans

le

et qui se refltent

dans le travail des Muses et de la Musologie sont:

1. l'hritage du colonialisme
2. l'ide de Progrs et de Civilization
3. les 'mass-media'.
71

1.L'hritage

subsiste

coloniale

encore

dans

les

structures

socio-conomiques du pays. avec la concentration du pouvoir

et du capital dans les mains de quelques peu. et l'exclusion
de la majorit de la population, qui n'a pas d'accs la Cultu
re et l'Education.
Le poids de la prsence de l'Etat se fait encore sentir, assu
mant la responsabilit qu'on lui impute pour la conservation
du Patrimoine Culturel. L'Histoire officielle et la Culture
officielle

sont

dmontrs

et

maintenus

aux

Muses

nationaux

et regionales. Les intitutions refltent l'histoire et la cultu

re d'une lite et la population ne se reconnait pas dans ce
mirroir.
Le discours sacralisant et glorifiant supporte et
le

'status-quo'.

La conservation de ces valeurs

'naturalize'
est garantie

et refute toute ide de change et de transformation.

2.

L'ide

de

Progrs,

qui

implique

celle

de

'Civilization',

modifie le systme thique du monde occidental et propose une

'civilization unique'. un idal utopique a tre poursuit, qui
justifie la colonization, le monopole du capital et de la techno
logie dans les zones priphriques.
Au Brsil, l'idologie du Progrs est lie celle de l'Ordre,
garantie par l'Etat. qui en est responsable, aussi bien que
pour l'introduction du pays la communaut de la Civilization.
Des transformations profondes ont eu lieu dans le stratum social
avec des migrations internes vers les grands centres industriali
zs, et le 'dpaysement' des populations rurales. La Tchnologie
et

la

richesse

matrielle

sont

les

mots

d'ordre,

justifiant

la dstruction des forts et la construction des usines hidro

ltriques.
Tout ce qui est 'vieux' appartient au pass, et les Muses
sont connots aux choses qui ne servent rien. Les intitutions
'modernes'
pouvo i r

sont rapidement dpasses,

exp li quer

est chaque fois

a

avoir

avec

la

Modern i t.

La dis tance envers

plus grande et leur

les

'signifis'

sans comprendre ou sans

'signifiants'

collectifs.

Les

le pub li c
n'ont rien

significations

collectives perdent le contact avec leurs origines.

La

culture matrielle du

peuple brsilien a

le visage

da

la

Dette externe du pays. Son seul 'bien' est sa 'raison'.

3. Les mass-media controlent les raisons.
rurales et les illetrs peuvent 'lire'
72

urbanisent les zones

les messages audio

visuelles, qui leur apportent les valeurs cosmopolites et univer

sels.

Le

conflit est

des mass media

Ordre.

est

invitable.

Le

service du

'stablishment'

Qu'est-ce que les Muses et

cette configuration?

pouvoir

de

manipulation
et

du nouvel

la Musologie peuvent faire dans

Al' Age des mass-media, la Musologie est un choix pol i tique,

qui doit dcider:

I. qui veut-elle servir?

2. Avec quels objectifs?

3. Par quel moyens?
Personne

ne

peut-tre manipule

consciemment.

La Musologie

aux pays en dvloppement peut-tre un outil pour la conscienti

zation populaire et l'identit communautaire, par l'analyse
de la nature de la culture et de son hritage, et la dmonstra
tion des complexits et des

interrelations sociales et cultu

relles prsentes dans la configuration actuelle des diffrentes

cultures. C'est la seule voie par laquelle la Musologie puisse
s'intgrer et vraiment interfrer
Pour le bien ou pour le mal.

dans

le

procs

culturel.

73

74

Isabel Barros de Taramasco -

Bahia Blanca, Argentina

MUSEOLOGIA y PAISES EN DESARROLLO

DESARROLLO 0 SUBDESARROLLO EN AMERICA LATINA

Para Gino Germani no es un azar el hecho de que hace apro

ximadamente treinta anos, una parte considerable de la 50
ciologia est dedicada al estudio del proceso que situa

p~

larmente y en oposicin el planteo del desarrollo y el del

subdesarrollo. Es mas, la Sociologia Latinoamericana se ha
preocupado casi esencialmente por el proceso de transicin
y cambio de las estructuras socio-econmicas que nos

perm~

te hablar de paises subdesarrollados, paises en desarrollo

y paises desarrollados en relacin a otros continentes.

Se ha cuestionado, de este modo, si en Latinoam

rica las estructuras de desarrollo, tal como se

vivencian

hoy en los llamados "paises altamente desarrollados",

no

significan acaso enajenamiento y dependencia; planteandose

al mismo tiempo la posibilidad de entrever un desarro:lo y
una modernidad propia y distinta.

En realidad, pareciera que en Amrica Latina es

ta manifestandose 10 que Collingwood denominaba "el efecto
del desconocimiento" segun el cual ninguna poca 0 civili
zacin es capaz de identificarse conceptualmente.

En parte, elle sucede porque en esas sociedades,

el nucleo del desarrollo esta descentrado de modo tal
el proceso de su internalizacin representa
y al mismo tiempo, un

que

continuamente

proceso de entranamiento". Es decir,

75

internalizar es enfrentarse con una heterogeneidad de yale

res, de modos-de-vida, de tradiciones, de simbologias

que

impiden pensar la sociedad como una totalidad unitaria.

fragment~

El proceso que se vivencia es mas bien

rio y en la mayoria de los casos, contradictorio.

A veces nos encontramos con analisis socio-cultu

raIes que parecieran demostrar que la cultura popular con
tiene elementos de identidad y de autenticidad que falta en
las culturas de lite (identificadas tambin como raciona
listas

modernistas).

Algo asi como una critica hacia la tarea intelec

tualizadora de cierta linea de pensamiento mediante la cual
se forjo una cultura de ideales foraneos que desecho en

pa~

te la veces totalmente) Jas creencias y vivencias colecti

vas originales. De todos modos, es un hecho que Amrica
tina presenta una superposicion

L~

una acumulacion de cultu

ras que la conforman contextualmente como una ambigedad de

crecncias, ideas y tradiciones profundas.

Esta ambigedad,

mejor dicho, el presupuesto de

que era necesario arribar a una clarificacion deI contexto,

fue el punto de partida de tendencias liberales que

prete~

dieron una transformacion social y cultural.

Se pretendio la homogeneidad cultural y un orde

namiento social que ofreciera la seguridad y la
~istintiva

precision

que caracterizaba a los paises en constante pro

ceso de transformacion

y desarrollo. Sin embargo esta

pr~

tendida racionalizacion partia de supuestos de desarrago.

Es decir, no se pensaba la modernizacion de la cultura au
toctona, sine una vez mas, la imposicion de arquetipos ex
tranjeros asi como el desarrollo economico propuesto no e
ra la maduraci6n de un proceso temporal-econ6mico
76

local,

sine la propuesta y puesta en practica de mode los foraneos.

El resultado fue el fracaso de un modelo de desarrollo."Lo
que ocurre en cambio, es que la propia cultura moderna na
ce en Amrica Latina falsificada en su razn de ser:

Como

un producto intelectual de imitacin y consumo donde la i

deologia contradice el pasado

(0

los varios pasados) donde

los indeales deI proyecto de desarrollo se encarnan distor

sionadamente, donde el discurso es extrano a las

esencias

profundas que determinan el inconsciente colectivo" <Octa

vio Paz LABERINTO DE SOLEDAD).

MUSEOLOGIA y PAISES EN DESARROLLO

La

Ciencia Museolgica que, segun sus

presupue~

tos basicos ha considerado que una de sus funciones

princ~

pales es la formacin deI espectador (habitante hacedor -y

consumidor de cultural, no solo por acumulacin de conoci
mientes sine en su actividad de participacion creadera de
be tener en cuenta la realidad cencreta de los paises

Lat~

noamericanes y despejar ideolgicamente los trminos que

h~

cen referencia a subdesarrollo, vias de desarrello y desa

rrello prepiamente diche.
Debe tener en cuenta, ademas que la crisis de de
sarrollo esta directamente vinculada a la crisis de los re
gimenes politicos democraticos y a la implantacin de

mo

dernos autoritarismos que han fijado pautas de conducta

de pensamiento que se manifiestan en todos los ambitos so

ciales, incluyende los Museos, la Museologia y sus estruc
turas constitutivas tales como: funcin educativa, funcin
participativa, manifestacin creativa, difusin de

valo~es.

defensa de patrimonio.

La Ciencia Museolgica tan cercana a los

planes

formatives y educativos de las distintas politicas cultura

les debe encentrar el medio de ayudar, apoyar, guiar

evi
77

tarido en todo momento la manipulacin que slo lograria a

fianzar las metodologias autoritarias de imposicin.

Tampoco puede olvidar que la formacin

cultural

de una sociedad implica su propia posibilidad de desarro

110. Entendiendo como tal: la internalizacin de sus prin
cipios culturales originales y de todos aquellos que a tra
vs deI tiempo y de la historia 10 fueron modelando.
Desarrollarse

~ocialmente

es encontrar la posibilidad

de

reconocerse en individualidad, frente a otras sociedades va

lidas en si mismas pero no anheladas como mode los arqueti
picos. Slo cuando las entidades educativas aporten los
nes necesarios para

~econocerse

pl~

en sus valores propios,las

sociedades y los individuos que las conforman podran madu

rar planes econ6micos de desarrollo.

Lamentablemente en 1985 la CEPAL producia un in

forme

sobre Crisis y Desarrollo: "Presente y Futuro de Am

rica Latina y el Caribe" donde practicamente el

problema

cultural no se mencionaba, 0 se 10 hacia considerandolo en

forma secundaria frente al tema principal que hacia
rencia a la produccin de motivaciones y actitudes

refe
requer~

das para el rendimiento ptimo de los modernos sistemas de

produccin, reproduccin y gobierno de la sociedad. Ese in
forme insistia textualmente en: " ... (la modernizacin

el

desarrollo de Amrica Latina) supone un crecimiento econ

mico autosostenido, la plena disponibilidad de los

recur

sos sociales, la difusi6n de normas racionales y seculares

de la cultura, la libertad y el incremento de la movilidad
social y las correspondientes transformaciones actitudina
les, agregando qu.-: para quehaya desarrollo es necesario
que entren en juego mecanismos de empatia que incorporen va
lores, patrones de comportamiento y aspiraciones originados
en los centros mas dinamios de la civilizacin y que
dean demandas".
78

mol

Aunque en dicho texto la CEPAL menciona la nece

sidad de generar actitudes creativas, por 10 citado en es
te caso, dicha creatividad es casi imposible ante los
mites impuestos por esa necesidad de empatias de

li

patrones

de comportamiento y aspiraciones originados en centros di

namicos de civilizacion.

No hay duda que en los Museos y a travs de

1105 se trabaja con valores autnticos y originales de dis

tintas culturas y civilizaciones que han conformado y con
~orman

la realidad deI universo deI hombre.

Es tarea de e-

ILes por 10 tanto demostrar que no hay "patrones de

civil~

zac ion imitables" sino "patrones vividos de civilizacion".

Las civilizaciones

(SuS

culturas y sus economias) emanan y

estan condicionadas por coordenadas espacio-temporales que

les son propias y que no se pueden imitar si no se sufren.

MUSEOLOGIA DE PAISES EN DESARROLLO y MUSEOLOGIA DE

PAISES

DESARROLLADOS.

No existe

una Museologia para

de paises desa

rrollados y una Museologiade paises en desarrollo, al me

nos si se analiza desde sus contenidos esenciales:

la

di

fusion de los valores socio-culturales.

Podriamos. si se quiere mencionar planificacio

nes estructurales de infraestructura museologica de paises
en desarrollo y de paises desarrollados pero en ese
solo estariamos haciendo mencion a tcnicas diferentes

caso
de

exposiciOn. La diferencia es asi meramente formaI.

LA fORMACION DE LOS MUSEOLOGOS

TaI como 10 hemos expresado.

la Museologia

Ciencia tienemetas y objetivos esenciales que apuntan

como
a
79

la formacin y transformacin deI individuo y de la socie

dad.
Los Museologos son en este caso, los elementos ba
sicos para el cumplimiento de dichos objetivos, por elle su
formacion no debe limitarse al manejo adecuado de tcnicas,
al manejo adecuado de la parte formaI de la Ciencia Museo
logica. Seria mas conveniente que contara ademas con

una

formacion 6e contenido que le permitiera comprender las

n~

cesidades de una sociedad, sus demandas y requerimientos,

no solo para complacerla sine tambin para ayudarla a

des~

rrollar simultaneamente sus carencias culturales y socia

les.

Una buena formacion museologica es indispensable

sobre tooo en paises en vias de desarrollo donde las nece
sidades socio-culturales son acuciantes. Sin olvidar

que

estos paises han sufr'ido, y sufren la llamada "acumulacion

cultural" por la cual el injerto consecutivo de diversas ma
nifestaciones culturales, sociales y economicas

foraneas

han ralentisado su autodesarrollo.

Ni la Museologia Latinoamericana como

participa~

te de la Ciencia Museologica en si, ni sus Museologos como

parte ejecutoria de la misma,

pu~den

perder de vista el he

cho de que viven en sociedades en crisis cuyo "futuro

no

seria muy distinto de su presente: el de un desarrollo pe

rifrico, descentrado, sujeto a conflictos, cuyo destino de
pendera en parte de 10 que las propias sociedades logren ha
cer con ella en el proceso de producirse a travs de su corn
plejo y cambiante heterogeneidad".

80

Vasant H Bedekar -

Baroda, India

THIRD VoORLD OPPORTUNITIES FOR EXPANDDW MUSEOLOGY DISCIPLDlE

In my opinion, the terln Museology

refers to the

professional conceptualization as well as the recommended

procedures to achieve objectives of museum service.
)

The

various theories, concepts or principles together represent

c...
sueh professional conceptual1zation. The Jiodification of
recorranended procedures by the acknowledged experts, based on
their experience, represent,the professional expertise to
regulate the museLDn practices.
individual's Opinions.

Hence museology is not any

Nor is it an abstract philosOphy which

is rmnifestable in the develOpment of pre-museLDn, museum and

post museum institutions. 1

Quite possibly, some cosmic viewer

nay lodtness many sueh changing forms required by eaI:'thlings te

express theiI:' experience of reality.

But we mortals must

confine oUI:'selves to what we aI:'e ceI:'tain about, namely,

museology as a theoretical discipline concerned with museums as
they have existed, or exist or likely to exist.

Because museums

are not private or family enteI:'prises and they are conccrned

with national or world heritage, a discipline has to be
established and museology has te be professionalised in theory
and practice.
Whether museology,

50

understood, can be of any help, or

if it can be misused in the develOping countries, or if both

Can happen, are issues of museological interest provided they
will contI:'ibute to the growth of the independent discipline of
museology.

Therefore, help or manipulation in the developing

81

countries should be d1.scussed to theextent to Which they

illustrate sorne basic principles of museology as found in the
museum phenomena in the developing countries Which cannet be
studied elsewhere.

A.1though Museology also refers to mUseum training, it is

proposed not to refer here to the special problems of Museum
training because the symposium 15 organised by ICOFOI1 and not
ICTOP.

The No. 156 MUSEUM ouarterly published by Unesco

devoted to staff training covers the coofusing scene of

training in the develOping countries for Which no easy remedies
are available.

Here, We will merely li st the special

opportunities which the developing countries Can offer to widen

the scape of museology as a separate discipline.
Museology as an independent science has rrany tasks to
perform in the cootext of developing countries in a few key
areas like establishing meaningful linkages amongst mUseums,
their public, the community leaders, educational agencies,
teaching communi ty, vol untary organizations.
need special attention.

v/omen and children

Masses believe what they see. Therefore,

rnuseology will have to offer demonstrations of its uses to the

community in very relevant areas of their life.

Since change is

resistcd in aIl traditional societies, new museology will have

to start with the community participation.

Hence museology Will

have to he field-tested and oriented to extensioo services.

Museology aB a science will have a great role to play if it has
to rnake museums need-based and centres of change.
museology

The new

must aim at rnaking peoples of the developing

countries self-reliant.
One reason Why the Third World is an ideal and virgin area

for museological study is the incredible variety in the museum

82

situation particularly in the community-museum relationships.

The diversity here canot be inagined by museologists from
abroad visiting a country like lOOia for the first time.

The

range of differences are not confined to the outward

appearance which might not be relevant to lCOFOM discussions.
What matters is the wide spectrwn of variations in their
attitudes, preconceived motions, expectations, mental
reservations, possible responses Which ncne Can fully
anticipate.

Museology as an independent science, particularly

as a social science, will gain irnrnensely by investigating the

va riabi lit y of factors in the rnan-museum relationship, bringing
te fruition the various preparatory and participatory processes

of presentation and interpretation.

The study of develepment of

methodology of analysis of such behavioural responses is very

elementary in the develeping countries.

Only a few specia11sts

like Mrs. Anita Shah of Hyderabad have initiated their search

on scientific-empir1cal basis.
Equally fertile will he the field of museum communicat1on
of nonverbal kind,

sUpplemented.~

instructional activities.

part1c1patory

a1

other

Where masses of peeple are awakening

to the need to know their envi ronmen t, all Western museological

hypothesis about commUnication or about nonformal continuing
education require repeated verifications and testing under
different socio-eultural situations which can be found in
abundance in develep1ng countries.

The problem of how to nake

educational programmes cost-effective may net be a theoretical

analyt1cal question, but it is urgent te test a large range of
ideas about the degree of sophistication in visual presentation
to generalize about their effectiveness insharpeping human
perceptioo, in comprehension of meaning and in change of attitudes.

83

In many of the develOping countries, the museums have to

cope

Up

with the problems of self-discovery by the communities

Who seem to be vague about the history as WeIl aS value of

their own peculiar heritage under threat

from the great

scientific, technological and environmental chlnges.

Not only

there is the plethora of alien interpretation of the indigepous

traditions but too many gaps in the material evidence to unfold
the real story of the man.

Museums have to solve the problem

at the same time avoiding excessive glorification Which cannot

he sUpported by the known facts.

Also the community has to be

enlightened about the unpleasant aspects of the past happenings

particularly under alien rule.

Conflicting local histories

milj1t create problems of exchanges of exhibitions in the

neighbouring countries which are in fact very essential to
place their own histories in the perspective of the world
history of man.

The regional agencies of ICOM and national

committees can create suitable conditions for e:xchanging

exhibitions l:ased on original material and information Which
museums alone can possess.
The greatest challenge to museological work in the
developing countries can be found in the a ttempts to present
culture to the lOCal audiences both When the continuity of
culture is very long and unbroken or when it is

othen~ise.

Particularly When the average man's level of general knowledge

about the whole world is fragmentary and always limited, it is
a Herculean task to

pre~ent

the achievements of the communities

in the past and present in true, objective perspective, without

overemphasis or underemphasis on details and without recourse
to unscientific

\~ays

of narration like in myths, legends and

other unreliable traditions.

The museologically significant

aspect of this work is the solutions to problems of illustrating

84

cultural themes, ensuring apprOpriate use of the original

material, often fragmentary, with the help of visual aids and
supported by spoken and written words.

It is one area where,

if evaluation is comprehensively undertaken. irrunense data

should he available for generalization of great theoretical value.
Their value will be appreciated still more when one appreciates
the complexity of the task before the museum curators, exhibitors
and designers in rraking their presentation visually stimulating,
historicallY authentic and yet comprehensible to an audience
having incredible differences in perceptual and intellectual
abilities.

A large number of hypotheses can be generated and

tested in the museum situaticos in the Third World.

Even in a single country, different museums reveal differences

in their developments for which museological explanations can be
sought.

But as in art styles so also in mUseums there can be a

possibility of evolution or cyclic changes from an archaic phase

at the beginningL

maturity. followed by a stage of decadence

when work becomes repetitive, cliche-ridden, formular and, in

general. unoriginal.

Can sueh hypo1:tlesis be tested in the

museums of the developing countries?

Their relative isolation

and heavy dependence on Government support make these museums

lesS responsive to the demands of the corrununity directly, and
therefore, their existen::e in the course of time might display
an internaI rhythm of archaic - youthful - mature - senile
periods.

Such hypothesis Can be tested by Case studies in the

Third World because history of many museums appear to lend

support to such cyclic develOpments.
One of the hypotheses te be investigated into is the various
models of museum systems found in the region.

Not only a

comprehensive study of these models may be made but it should be

85

ascertained aS Which of them are more durable than others and

also the phenomena of their replacements or recurrence.
context, one may ask if there are any discernible
and

Il

'1

In this

centripetal

fi

centrifugaI ,. forces working in terms of strong centres

produeing more durable and more recurring models or do they only

receive such paradigms as generated in other centres Which are
stronger in terms of creative tatent.

Naturally, comparisons

will have to be made between the occurrences in the developing

countries and developed countries.

Such a study should be less

of a historical account and more of analysis of the dynamism and

tensions between different capabilities for producing effective
museological mooels.
Incidentally, one IIl:lY also see if and how features of
different systems get fused, amalgamated or separated

because

of their fitness in the context of the changing sittion in the

developing countries.

Assuming that there Was a graduaI flow of

museological ideas and models into this region over IIl:lny decades,
such incidence of matching and/or nonmatching features in musewn
systems can be of much theoretical value.

It is naive to suppose that Museology is a kind of fund of

understanding and skill, accwnUlated a t cne place (like ICOM in
Paris) and if transported to the 'developing countries, it might
serve them in solving their problems (like the World Bank
financial aid helps the needy countries of the Third

\~orld)

The suspecion about manipulation through modern MUseology might

!Jr

possiblY betray a guilty feeling that because mostlthe countries

of the Third World were the victims of Imperial and colonial
powers which indulged in aIl forms of looting and vandalism and,
therefore, the modern museology which i5 basically a creation
of the Western world might not he looked at
86

w;th

apprehensions

that sueh Western museum thinking might even interfere. disrupt.

vitiate, contamina te , pollute the working of indigenous museum
practioners or even looJced at as a part of sane nefar10us plan
to reimpose intellectual neo-colonialism over developing
countr1es.

But such 1s not the Case.

F1rstly, the contemporary

disc1pline 1s not ..molly a creation of the \'lestern world.

AI ready , non-western countries have contributed to its
character.

If there are chances of manipulation with the help

of museology, they are because of the unprofessional attitudes

)

and missdeeds of Pseudo-museologists who can serve in

muse~

field in the develOping countries without fear of strict checks

about the quality of their work in the absence of professional
control and accreditation procedures.

Beware of thern

1. See, Stransky, ZbyneJc Z. in MoWoP, No. 2/1981, on page 21

where he says " We must realize that the museum is only

one of the forms of objectification of a specifie relation
of man to reality that has risen throughout history.

The

museum has - as we can document - its pre-forms ahd this

is not a single given form, but it will continue changing
and in the future it will have eventually completely new
forms ".

Also later he adds, " Museology as a science

cannot exist in objective dependency on the museum "

87

88

Josef Benes -

Praha, Czechoslovakia

Syllabus: On the Need of

fo~

1)

Eve~y

p~ese~ving

Gene~al

Museology

the Museums of Developing

Count~ies

nation needs museums as institutions which,

the mobile

pa~t

of its

cultu~al he~itage,

and

c~eate

implement national cultural identity as an existential

attribute of

eve~y

the development of

nation; and through

cultu~e,

thei~

specifie

~ole

in

science and education and in

continuity with the past, museums help to

c~eate

the

preconditions for the future.

2) To optimalize its

ope~ations, eve~y

museum,

of its kind and type, has to make use of the

~egardless

gene~al p~inciples

of museology, just as every school insists on general

principles of paedagogy. The application of general museology
to specifie conditions does not concern the essence of the
museum, it only means a modification in the forms of work to
suit the available means and social needs.
3) Huseology brings help to the developing

count~ies.

If

ever museums are manipulated and abused by foreign powers with

the aim of implementing objectives contrary to the interest5 of
that particular nation, we are dealing with power politlcs, not
with museology. Huseology i5 progressive by its very nature and
cannot itself lead to repressive measures.
ad 1) A typical feature of developed countries is their
dense network of museums with a long tradition. The developing
countries and those which have only now started along the road
to independent development build their museums as a means of
rising national consciousness and justifiable national pride as
89

exlstentlal attributes of every nation trying to achleve an

independent and characteristic cultural Ilfe. They should build
the network of museums just as much as they are building a
system of schools, and in doing so they can make use of
experience of the developed countries to avold errors and
unnecessary loss of opportunitles ln Incorporating exlstlng
museums ln the cultural Ilfe wlth a full Implementation of
thelr social mission whlch no other Institution can quarantee.
Preservation of permanent materlal values as authentlc evldence
of natural and social development is a contribution also ln
that cultural herltage Is preserved for the future generatlons.
Just as an extinction of any of the endangered specles of flora
or fauna Is considered a deprlvation of the nature, the
disappearance of products of any communlty anywhere in the
world should also be consldered an undesirable loss for human
culture. In museums, documents ln the collections are used by
the science as original sources of sclentlflc Information on
natural and hlstorical processes, as weIl as convincing tools
to achleve certain educatlonal and Instructive goals. The use
of collections can help rlse the cultural niveau of large
sections of population, enrich thelr life and allow them to get
acquainted wlth natural and hlstorical processes with a stress
on the speclflc aspects of thelr own culture. The smaller the
nation, the more it needs to express Its own cultural identity
so that it could malntain and further develop its speciflclty
even with a maximum use of sophisticated technology of the
modern era.
ad 2) It Is true that museums can to a certain degree
operate without

Impl~mentlng

museologlcal princlples, relylng

excluslvely on experlence. But If they are to operate ln an

optimum manner, i.e. share to the utmost ln the work towards
the development of the nation, they do have to apply general
90

museology. Its basis, e.i. the principles of museum work, has a

general validity because it sets the directions of the main
efforts, just as paedagogy helps to maintain high effectiveness
of teaching at aIl types of schools. And ln museums as weIl as
at schools general principles are applied to specifie goals and
to specifie work programmes. In this respect the type of
museum, the territorial delimitation of its documentation
competence, as weIl as determination of its public output has
to be taken into account. The application to specifie issues is
represented by discipline-oriented museology, which transforms
the generally valid principles to the form of methodological
guides for specifie activities, from acquisition through
conservation and storing to application in exhibition for
educational purposes. Because a cognitive system of general
museology as a binding guideline for aIl types of activities
within the museum system of any country has been made
available, it is no longer effective to limit oneself to
operations on the basis of experience only.
ad 3) Museology aims at optimalizing aIl museum activities
in the progressive concept of the museum as a socially
necessary and development-promoting institution. If there are
occasional cases when museums are misused, that is when they
pursues objectives which are contrary to the interests of the
people of the country in question, they show that sorne powerful
circles, whether local or from abroad, have force them to do
it. In other words, it is a question of enforced cultural
politics, not of museology as a generally useful and therefore
necessary theoretical basis for an optimum operation of
museums. The fears of undesirable manipulation or abuse of
museums against the interests of the nation should not be
addressed to museology, this would be an incorrect
identification of two completely different things. Cases of
91

mlsuse also happened ln the past ln European countrles ln those

natIons whlch were oppressed ln monarchIes enforclng the
domInant posItIon of the rullng natIon on them. As an example,
take the museums ln today's Czechoslovakla, whlch found It very
dlfflcult ln the last century to work agalnst the Interests of
the rullng natIons of the Austro-Hungarlan empIre and foster
natIonal consclousness whlch led to regalnlng of Independence
ln 1918. NazI Germany can be quoted as another example of
mlsuse of museums by power clrcles ln thelr Ideologlcal drIve
to conquer Europe and Implement the rules of race superlorlty
over the subjugated natIons. ThIs shows that the questIon of
mIs use of museums dld not concern only the colonIes ln the
pre-war world, or power polltlcs ln the contemporary struggle
of the thlrd world countrles to achieve an Independent
development. ThIs, however, does not fall under the scope of
museology.

92

Josef Benes -

Praha, Tchcoslovaquie

Thses sur la ncessit de lu musologie gnrale pour les muses

dans les pays en voie de dveloppement:
1/ Chaque nation a besoin des muses
crent,

pSI' lB

co~~e

institutions qui

prservation du patriDloine culturel mobile, l"i

dentit culturelle nationale en tant qu"un attribut de l"exis

tence de toute nation et ui contribuent de faon spcifique au
dveloppement de le culture, de la science et de l"instruction
dans la continuit avec le pass.
21 Pour un fonctionnement optimum, chaque muse, quel que soit
son type, a besoin de se servir des principes gnraux de la
musologie comme thorie et mthodique du travail au muse de la
mme faon comme toute sorte de l"cole repose sur les principes
gnraux de la pdagogie. L"application de la musologie gn
rale sur les conditions concrtes ne concerne pas la substance
du muse; elle siBnifie seulement une modification des formes de
travail selon les outils de travail concrets et les besoins so
c~aux.

3/ La musologie reprsente une aide aux pays en

vo~e

de dvelop

pement. S"il advient une manipulation dans le sens de l"abus du

muse dans l"intrt des objectifs de force contre les intrts
de le nation respective, c"est l"affaire de la politi~ue, non
pas de 18 musolobie. Cette dernire est probressiste par toute
sa conception de sorte qu"elle n"entraine aucunes mesures re
pres:'-ivcs.
ad 1/ l.es pays dvelopps sont caractriss par un dense

r~seau

de muses aux traditions de longues annes. Les pays en voie de

dveloppement et ceux qui sont au seuil d"une volution ind
93

pends~te

difient les muses comme des moyens de la prise de

connaissance nationale et de la fiert nationale justifie qui

est un attribut de l'existence de toute nation aspirant la vie
culturelle

in~pendante

et spcifique. Ces pays ont besoin du

systme des muses sinsi que de celui des coles et en l'difiant

ils peuvent ,rofiter des expriences des pays dvelopps et vi
ter ainsi les fautes et pertes inutiles; en s'inspirant de l'e
xemple des pays dvelopps ils f'euvent intgrer les muses dans
15 vie culturelle et faire pleinement valoir leur mission sociale
dont aucune autre institution ne peut se charger. La sauvegarde
des valeurs matrielles durables en tant que preuves authentiques
de l'volution de la nature et de la socit signifie un grand
apport cor e11.8 prserve les biens culturels pour les gnrations
f~tures.

De mme que la disparition de toute espce men8ce de

la flore ou de la faune est considre comme un appauvrissement

de la nature, la perte des crations de n'importe quelle communau
t du monde doit galement tre considre co~me un appauvrisse
ment non souhaitable de la culture universelle. la science pro
fite des collections des muses

co~me

des sources rrimaires de

la connaissance scientifique des processus neturels historiques

et s'en sert cormne des moyens convaincants pour les buts de l'
ducation et instruction. La vulgarisation des collections con

.
tr1bue
a' hausser le niveau culturel des larges couches de popu
lation, enrichit leur vie et permet de dcouvrir les processus
naturels historiques en accentuant les spcifits de leur propre
culture. Plus la nation est petite, plus a-t-elle besoin de
faire valoir son identit culturelle pour sauvegarder et dve
lapper sa spcifit tout en rrofitant au maximum de toutes les
conqutes techniques de l'poque moderne.
ad 2/ Il eft vrai que les muses peuvent fonctionner mme sans
l'application des connaissances musologiques, seulement

la

base empirique. r':ais pour leur fonctionnement optimum, c' est-

94

-dire pour leur participation maximum au dveloppemnt de

l~

na

tion, ils ont besoin de profiter des cornaissances de la muso

logie gnrale. Son esr-ence, c'est--dire les principes du tra
vail mus~l, possde une validit gnrale car elle dtermine
les travaux principaux ainsi que la pdagogie assure l'effica
cit de l'enseignement dans tous les types d'coles. Dans les
muses, tout

com~e

dans les coles, on applique les principes

gnraux sur les buts concrets et les progr~mmes de travail ce

qui concerne non seulement le type du muse mais aussi la dli
mitation territoriale de la comptence de documentation et son
action sur le public. Cette application, ce sont les musologies
spciales qui dveloppent les principes gnraux en modes d'em
ploi ~thodiques pour les activits concrtes, depuis l'acquisi
tion 3 travers le traitement de conservation et l'enmegasinr,age
jusqu' l'exposition ducative. Cowne on a ~j la disposition
,

le systeme des connaissances de la musologie gnrale qui sert

de bese obligatoire pour tOlltes les activits de muse dons tous
les pays, il n'est plus efficBce de se contenter des activits
au niveau expJrimental.
ad JI La musologie tend l'optimalisetion de toutes les acti
vits musales dons la conception progressiste du muse en tant
qu'une institution ncessaire servant au dveloppement de la
socit. Si l'on observe quelquefois l'abus du muse, c'est-
-dire l'orientation de son activit contre les intrts du peuple,
il s'agit d'une intervention des forces politiques intrieures
ou extrieures, donc d'une politi~ue culturelle impose, non
"Das de la musolo[ie en topt qu'une base thorique [nralement
utile et
L~

nces~aire

pour le fonctionnement optimum des muses.

peur de l'abus des muses contre les intrts du peuple ne

peut donc pas tre rejete sur la musologie; cela serait une
fausse identification de deux choses tout feit distinctes.
Dans le pass, on a abus des muses mme dans les pays et na
95

tions europens opprims dans le cadre des monarchies qui impo

saient la domin~nce de le netion rgnante. A titre d'exemple ci
tons les muses dans la Tchcoslovaquie actuelle qui avaient des
problmes se faire valoir contre les intrts des nations
oustro-honsroises rgnantes dans leur effort

~e

soutenir la prise

de conscience nationale qui a abouti l'acquisition e l'ind

pendence en 1918. Un autre exemple de l'abus des muses, c'est
l'Allemsbne nazie qui G'en servait pour imposer l'idologie de
10 dn~inotion de l'Europe et de so supriorit rassiste vis--vis
des peuples asservis. Il en dcoule que 10

possit~lit

de l'abus

des muses p0ur l'imposition de la dominance 001itir:ue ne concer

nait pas seulement les colonies dans le monde d'avant-guerre ou
les intr~ts de force dans la lutte contemporaine des pays du
Tiers monde pour leur volution injpenjante.
l'affaire de la

96

musolo~ie.

~His C~

n'est pes

Caroline Calonne & Mehdi Ghafouri -

Montreal, Quebec, Canada

FROM ONE WORLD TO THE OTHER:

WHERE A MUSEOLOGY IS IN THE WAY OF DEVELOPMENT

"Where, the essential options of

history decided. that we welcome
or push aside; that, we do not
know or question again; there,
a world is shaped".
M. Heidegger
Our discussion will stay away from any border lines, so we
can touch upon two developing "worlds", whatever the particular
political and economical factors of these nations might be.
The entry into the subject will take the form of reporting.
To begin we will present what Robert Hobbs has experienced as the
chief curator of Teheran Museum of Contemporary Art during the
years of 1978-79.
Then we will describe the history of
establishment of a museum system for the Cree of Qu~bec in their
land. These two cases will be a simple pretext for questioning
the practice
of museology as a social science which its
interventions take place in a pluralism.
At the same time we
will try to analyse it legitimacy as it is applied to the
creation of museums in a parallel context to our world based on
western scientific knowledge.
CONTEXT - PRETEXT
The Teheran Museum of Contemporary Art had put together an
important collection of Western Art (Klee, Pollock. etc.) when in
1978 the director appointed Robert Hobbs (from Johnson Museum in
Cornell) as the chief curator (*). The museum had a staff of 120
for helping the American museologist to undertake his mandate in
fulfilling the museum mission:"The director of TMOCA informed me
that I was hired to bring Western art to Iran, to turn what was
still a
grandiose gallery
into a museum and to develop
exhibitions of minimalism and conceptual art at the museum and
send them abroad to Paris, London and New York to show people in
the West how enlightened Iran was"
Hobbs. not only was a
professional museologist, but also a researcher in this area. He
had profound convictions on the role of social transformations
which led to the creation of museums and should be carried out by
the institutions : "r was foolish enough to fall into the entire
sheme ... to go to Iran in hopes of importing wholesale another
culture, a distinctly foreign sensibility, a set of assumptions
about the availability of art and the inherent democracy of
culture, which should be available to all ....
r then beleived in the universality of art,
in the predominance
of the
esthetic ... meaning of art were ultimate and not
situational, outside of time and place and available to all."
This lign of thought was well integrated in the profession, and
are still curent in sorne circles.
But Hobbs had to revise his
position as he was confronted with a new reality in Teheran.
97

Himself comments on his ideologic shift.

He primarely notices
the irony in the abreviation TMOCA used for as a name for the
Museum following the examples of the leading American museums.
At the first approach to the institution he comments on its
architecture, which is a mixture of different architectural
concepts used in western modern art museums, as follow: "Less a
parody of Western museums than a stylish but still awkward
adaptation of them ... The building seemed to weigh down the art,
to tie it to matters of great import and to advertise the
significance of Western thinking and the preponderance of Western
styles in the shah's scheme for modernizing Iran".
Having his
own notion of the educational mission of museums, he confronts
the museum benefactors: "1 think they where probably concerned
with
their
own
self-image, with looking like benevolent
dictators, and were intent on offering the people a panacea in
terms of beautiful buildings and instant culture ... Attaching
themselves to the tradition of royalty interested in the arts,
they patronized the arts because they probably believed them to
be both healthy and innocuous, and they felt the arts endowed
their regime with opulence and the look of liberalness, with
excitement and quality."
He had to revise his conception of the
arts and museums participation on the social context, and
comments on the lack of impact of the international exhibitions
and even of the Ancient Art of Iran on the population: "What, in
fact, the museum lacked was a real continuity with the recent
pasto
People felt plummeted into a new and alien although still
exciting modern world, and they were dazed, shocked and uncertain
about their rightful position in it."
The historie events eut
short the rapid desillusion of the chief curator who returned to
his country not having finished his mandate. The TOMCA didn't
really exist, not as it had been prescribed by its benefactors,
nor under the prefabricated form that its chief curator had once
dreamt.
The reality
of
museolosy
abrutly
appeared in
transparancy: " TMOCA was a set of misaligned signs, a system
that had been broken down and decontextualized, so that many of
the illusions that plague western museums were cast aside and one
could see with astonishing acuity what two centuries of museum
building and curating had done to the entire profession."
In oposite to the first example, the Cree museum project was
intiated inside this authocthonal community who has its own
independent adminstration in the Northern part of Quebec. In
1984, the chiefs of each community as members of the Grand
Council of Cree and the other members of the council, who have
visited many museums in Canada and other countries, noticed the
Cree made objects and artifacts beeing exhibited as museum
collections, felt the need to estalish thier own museum(s).
The Cree population is about 8000 living in nine communities in a
vast tri tory of 340 000 Km2.
The Cree culture which has an
extremly rich and complex mythology, has been the subject of
numerus anthropological, archeological and ethnographical studies
done by reseachers of different countries. But the results of
these studies rarely have been seen by the Cree people. The Cree
do not have access to a large heritage dispersed in four corners
of the world. The Cree way of life for sorne years has been going
through a rapid transformation due to thier daily contact with
the Canadian society. The arrival of electronic media ( satelite
transmission and VCRs) has introduced a new communication concept
more or less based on the international pulse. The community was
changing its character. Due to the breackage of the bonds between
the youth
and the elders, the transfer of thoughts, and
98

traditions, and the training in the nature were becoming more and
more difficult to a treatening level. A museum seemed to be a
proper solution for preserving and transfering whatever of
lasting value. Three counsulting firms on museum planning one
after the other were asked to prepare a project for the Cree
museum system. The first had sugested to build a museum in one of
the lager towns in the region where aIl the Cree artifacts can be
assembled and exhibited,
following the traditional museology
exhibition and techniques based on a
passif communication
(Showcases, Explantory Panels, Photographs). The programming
would be of an anthropological and historical nature.
This first study did not go too far with the Cree, due to the
fact:
that first,
the Cree did not want a transplantation of
other museums in their community since it was not created for
their needs; second, this museum would have been more for outside
visitors than for the Crees themselves.
It appeared that this
solution was a distanced application of museology to a culture
that is looking for establishing its own social identity.
Another counsultant was asked to undertake the project. This one
took an opposite approach.
Inspired by the concept of new
museology, it proposed an ecomusee which will include the present
and the future, ignored in the first study, of the communities as
weIl as the pasto The ecomusee in a centralized establishment,
will offer the necessary technical and traditional resources
requiered for transfer of the culture among the Cree as weIl as
the non-Cree population. At any rate the project was not applied.
But what the Cree wanted, "them", whose language does not have
the word

Il

museum "?

REMINDER
"But, it is thrue that this translation
of Greek terms in Latin language was
not in no way a small inoffensive
event as we still tend to think today.
Roman thinking retakes the Greek words
without the original experience
corresponding to what they say ...
It is with this translation, under the
western thinking, that a vacum opens
itself to deprive this thinking, from
now on, of foundation."

We insert this second quotation from Heidegger as a reminder,

Even more than a reminder, we should be warned that
and
(to be prounonced more or less "museum") are borrowed
terms, such images that are reconstructed artificially, by
improper concepts based on past and current experiences in such a
society.
In effect,
the two previous examples have helped to
show the divers museum fonctions in a non-welcoming environment.
In this perspective,
the
museology can
not pre-establish
scientific knowledge as a pretension to reality, in a vision of
the world defined based on this unique type of understanding.
This questioning is directed towards the method and not the
discipline, since museology finds its legetimacy in a in-situ
practice constantly renewed in contact with various cultures.
The theorization will have the role of questioning, more than
defining the frame for a systematic and systematizing work.
99

Going back to Cree museum project. A third firm was engaged

to come up with a propsal for implementation. This group began
its work by going to each community and be in the actual
environment of the Cree,
tryied to get an understanding of the
culture, their museum needs as well as the geographic location of
the villages.
The counsultants have listened to the Cree local population, sorne
of whom have never left the Cree territory. Very soon,
it was
realized that the question was not a " museum ", but a "place", a
place that they can get together and present thier creations of
the past, present and future, where they can keep their culture
and their way of life alive by transefering it to the youth. The
consultants discovered that the previous proposals have not paid
enough attention to the relationship between the Cree people and
their natural environment, which not only defines their social
organization but also their ways of communication.
Therefore a museum system made of nine small community presence
(museums), and a central technical centre where they can develop
and provides Cree museological services,
i.e.
conservation,
exhibition techniques, and the training of the personnel. Each
village will have total control over their museum as well as
integrating it with the Cree museum system.
In 1988, the Cree museum system is not built, but the primary
steps as was proposed by the counsultants in creating temporary
locations are being taken. Nevertheless, this project seems to
witness a renewal of museology in contact with a
different culture and environment. During the course of this co
operation museology has to formulate a set of new questions on
its role, its responsibilties, and its frame for analizing its
mandate. At the end of this reminder, one should perceive that
museology when in relation with "other worlds" reveals its
internal structures, allowings to define new approaches in the
field of human knowledge. Thereby museology ventures towards the
way of accomplishing the threshold from one reality to the other.

Hobbs, Robert,
'A Contemporary Museum under the
Regime', MUSEUM NEWS, Vol. 63, No 2, December 1984,
pp. 9-16.

100

Shah's

Caroline Calonne & Mehdi Ghafouri -

Montral, Qubec, Canada

D'UN MONDE A L'AUTRE;

LA OU UNE MUSEOLOGIE EST EN VOIE DE DEVELOPPEMENT

"L o se dcident les options essentielles

de notre Histoire, que nous recueillons ou
dlaissons, que nous mconnaissons ou
mettons nouveau en question, l
s'ordonne Yn_m2nQ~
1

Notre
propos
se maintiendra hors-frontires pour voquer
deux "mondes" en situation de sous-dveloppement, et ce quelqu'en
soient
les
facteurs
politiques
et conomiques nationaux
particuliers.
L'entre en matires, prendra la forme
de
reportages. Un
premier relevant
le tmoignage
de Robert Hobbs,
qui
fut
conservateur en chef du Muse d'art
contemporain Thran au
cours de
l'anne 1978.
Et un second relatera la petite histoire
entourant un projet visant
l'tablissement d'un muse cri dans
les territoires de ce peuple autochtone du Canada.
Ces rcits
seront simple prtexte questionner par la suite la pratique
musologique en tant que science sociale dont les interventions
s'effectuent dans
le pluralisme.
Ainsi,
nous
tenterons
d'entrevoir sa lgitimit lorsqu'elle s'applique la cration de
muses dans le contexte
de
ralits
parallles

notre monde
fond sur le savoir scientifique occidental.

Lorsqu'en 1978,
Robert Hobbs
(2) fut nomm conservateur en
chef du Muse d'art contemporain de Thran par le directeur, le
muse nouvellement rig abritait dj une importante collection
d'oeuvres modernes
d'art occidental
(Klee, Pollock,
etc.).
Le
personnel
du muse se composait de plus de 120 personnes qui
devaient aider le musologue amricain remplir la mission qui
lui avait t confie: "Donner une vocation toute contemporaine
au muse en y exposant
l'art minimaliste et conceptuel de
l'avant-garde occidentale, et faire connaltre le muse dans les
grandes capitales; Londres, New-York et Paris."
Hobbs tait non
seulement un
musologue de
profession,
mais galement un
universitaire dans ce domaine,
Il
avait donc des confictions
profondes sur le rle
de transformation sociale que dtenait
l'institution musale et l'art moderne.
Elles peuvent se rsumer
en quelques
phrases:
L'art est universel ... L'art est pour
tous et chacun, .. Le muse est ouvert tous et chacun" Si sa
pense semble
ici reprendre des slogans
trop scands, ce n'est
pas pour l'amoindrir,
Bien au contraire,
elle
participait
l'poque. et est sans doute toujours actuelle pour certains, la
vaste notion du progrs culturel prenant ses sources aux sicles
des lumires et nourrit des ides dmocratiques qui furent vite
accol l'art occidental lorsque celui-ci
pris ses assises sur
101

le continent amricain.
Cependant le discours et la pratique de
Hobb furent vite confront une ralit tout autre.
Nous
relevons ses propos.
Ds
l'abord,
il note l'ironie dans la
dsignation du muse par le sigle TMOCA, puis dcrit comme suit
le btiment, qui amalgamait des concepts architecturaux de divers
muses d'art moderne de part le monde:
"Le btiment semblait
retenir la porte des objets d'art qu'il contenait pour lier
ceux-ci leur valeur ostentatoire et pour relever
l'importance de la pense occidentale".
A sa propre notion de la
mission ducatrice du muse. il confronte celle des mcne~: "Je
crois qu'il taient surtout intress par leur image de marque,
se voyant tel des dictateurs bienveillants dsirant offrir au
peuple une panace sous la forme de btiments impressionnants et
d'une culture instantane."
Plus encore.
il
dO rviser sa
conception aculturelle de l'art et du muse.
Il commente ainsi
le peu d'impact sur
la population
des expositions d'art
contemporain international ou mme celles d'art ancien iranien
"" .en ralit,
ce que le muse ne pouvait prsenter tait le
pass rcent de l'Iran.
"Les vnements historiques. couvrirent
la rapide dsillusion du conservateur en chef qui
retourna dans
son pays sans remplir son mandat.
Le TMOCA n'eut donc jamais de
relle existence,
ni
sous
la forme qu'en avait dcid les
mcnes,
si
sous la forme
pr-fabrique qU'en avait rv son
conservateur.
La ralit musologique apparut par transparance:
"Moins une parodie d'un muse occidental.
qu'une adaptation
superficielle et inadquate de celui-ci. TMOCA tait une srie de
signe mal
align,
un systme bris et dcontextualis ... et on
peut voir avec tonnement que deux sicles d'histoire des muses
ont dtermin l'volution de la musologie".
A l'oppos de ce premier exemple, le projet d'un muse cri,
prit naissance l'intrieur de cette communaut autochtone dont
les territoires sont confins au nord du Qubec.
En 1984, les
administrateurs ou chefs de tribus, qui avaient visit des muses
au Canada et l'tranger
bien souvent y reconnaissant les
objets de
leur patrimoine et de
leur art devenus musealia sous
les vitrines - mirent ainsi ce projet de l'avant.
La population crie se chiffre environ 8
000 personnes
appartenant neuf tribus disperses sur un vaste territoire de
340 000 km2.
La culture crie,
possdant entre autre une
mythologie extrmement riche et
complexe.
fut
le sujet de
nombreuses
tudes
anthropologiques.
archologiques
et
ethnographiques de
la part de spcialistes de divers pays.
Toutefois les rsultats ne sont que trs rarement parvenus la
population crie.
Celle-ci n'a pas accs une grande partie de
son patrimoine dssimin dans les muses aux quatre
coins du
monde.
Le mode de vie cri a depuis quelques annes subit de
rapides transformations en raison du contact journalier avec la
socit
occidentale.
L'arrive des mdias lectroniques
(tlvision via satellite, systme V.C.R.) insra un nouveau mode
de communication instantan au rythme du poul de l'actualit
internationale. La vie communautaire qui permettait
le transfert
des traditions d'une gnration l'autre fut compromise, de mme
que
l'apprentissage du mode
de
vie
dans
l'environnement
ancestral.
Un muse semblait tre une solution adquate pour
reprendre contact avec ce qui ne devait pas se perdre tout
jamais.
Trois firmes de plannification musale furent tour
tour engage pour proposer un projet la communaut.
L'un
suggra l'rection d'un muse dans une grande ville de la rgion
o seraient rassembl les artefacts cris.
suivant des techniques
d'exposition musographiques traditionnelles et sur un mode de
102

communication
passif
(vitrines,
panneaux
explicatifs,
photographies), La programmation y serait de nature historique et
anthropologique,
Cette premire
proposition ne
tenait
gure
compte du
fait
que
ce genre d'institution n'avait
aucune
rfrence dans la culture
crie,
et
semblait
s'addresser un
public tranger,
Le mandat auquel pouvait rpondre un tel muse
ne se conformait en aucun cas aux besoins et l'identid sociale
de la communaut dont
il eut
projet une image distancie,
Le
projet
fut
rejet
et on
fit
appel

d'autres musologues
conseils,
Ceux-ci prirent
une approche oppose, Inspirs de la
nouvelle musologie, ils proposrent
un
comuse qui tiendrait
compte du prsent et du futur de la communaut, ce que le premier
projet avait omis.
L'comuse, dans un tablissement centralis,
offrirai
les
outils
et
les
ressources
technologiques
et
traditionnels ncessaires au partage et
la
transmission des
connaissances entre les membres
de la
communaut crie.
Toutefois le projet ne fut pas retenue.
Mais que dsirai-donc les Cris, dont la langue ne comprenait mme
pas le mot "muse".

"Mais il est bien vrai que cette traduction

des termes
grecs en langue latine n'est
nullement ce petit vnement inoffensif
pour lequel on le prend encore de nos jours
La pense romaine reprend les mots
grecs,
sans l'exprience originale correspondant
1 ce qu'il disent.
C'est avec cette
traduction (ubersetzen) que s'ouvre, sous
la pense occidentale, le vide qui la prive
dsormais de tout fondement."(3)
Cette deuxime citation de Heidegger nous l'insrons comme
un rappel.
Et mme
plus qu'un
rappel,
une mise
en
garde
l'effet que
~~~~~
et
.;~
(1 prononcer plus ou moins muse)
sont
des
termes
d'emprunts,
tels
deg
simulacres
qui
reconstruisent par artifice des concept impropres l'exprience
passe et en cours
dans
de
telles
socits.
En effet, les
exemples iranien et cri ont servi 1 mettre en scne les diverses
fonctions
et
idologies
qui
sous-tendent
la
prcarit d'une
institution
musale
dans
des
milieux
inaptes 1 l'accueillir.
Dans cette perspective, la musologie ne
peut
se
prvaloir de
connaissances
scientifiques
comme
prtention 1 la vrit, dans
une vision d'un monde
dfini

partir de
ce
type
unique de
savoir.
Ce
constat
d'chec
vise
les mthodes
et
non
la
discipline, car
la musologie
trouve
sa
lgtimit dans une
pratique in situ constamment renouvelle au contact des cultures.
La thorisation
aura un rle de constat plutt que de cerner des
grilles d'analyse pour un travail systmatique et systmatisant.
Revenons 1 l'tude du projet d'un muse cree.
Une troisime
quipe
fut
engage.
Celle-ci,
se
rendit
sur les lieux, et
voyageant d'un village 1 l'autre pris conscience de l'loignement
de chacun.
L'quipe
se mis l'coute des gens, parmi lesquels
plusieurs n'avaient jamais quitt le territoire. Bien vite, Il ne
fut pas
tant question
d'un muse, puisque ce mot n'avait pas de
ralit tangible pour eux, mais plutt d'un lieu,
d'un endroit
proximit ou
ils pourrait
se runir, prsenter leurs crations,
organiser des
activits culturelles.
Elle dcouvrit ainsi que
103

leur prdecesseurs avaient prt peu d'intrt au milieu naturel

dans lequel
s'insre la communaut crie,
et qui
dfini non
seulement son organisation sociale. mais galement son rseau de
communication spcifique.
Il fut donc propos que
la communaut
cri se dote d'un rseau musal constitu de plusieurs annexes
disperses dans chaque village. ainsi que d'un centre technique
central qui
offrirait un service de musologie cree pour les
activits de
collection.
de
restauration.
d'exposition et de
formation du personnel.
En 1988, le rseau musal cree n'est toujours pas construit.
Cependant le projet nous semble tmoigner du renouvellement de
la musologie en contact avec un champ culturel et un
environnement inexplore par elle.
Cette alliance dans sa
pratique mme, permet
la musologie de
formuler un nouveau
questionnement sur son rle,
ses engagements et ses grilles
d'analyses.
Au terme de ce rappel. il est permit d'entrevoir que
la musologie lorsqu'elle entre en
relation avec les "autres
mondes" dvoilent ses structures internes,
ceci lui permettant
de
dfinir de nouvelles
interventions dans
le champ de la
connaissance humaine.
Elle se
lance ainsi
vers la voie de
l'accomplissement de
lieux de convergences d'un ordre de ralit
l'autre.

1 - Heidegger, M.. fg~~iQ!_g~i_~!Q~Ql_Q~ll~_E~Il(li21~~~g~)

Gallimard, Collection Tel. Paris, 1980. p. 21
2 - Robert Hobbs tmoigne de son exprience Thran dans un
article intitul "A Contemporary museum under the Shah's
Regime" paru dans la revue amricaine ~~!~~~_~~~! en dcembre
1984.
Les citations suivre sont tires de cet article et
ont t traduites en francais par les auteurs.
3 - ibid., Heidegger. p.47.

104

Rosario Carrillo de San Segundo -

Madrid, Spain

Museologvand its use or misuse in the world

" Museums for a developingworld " was the topic of the Ge
nerai Conference of ICOM.London.83.
A year earlier. for the "International Seminar{or the
Financing of Culture", he~ in Madrid, March 82. a very inte
resting study was presented with the title: " Museum, an
investment for development". where the relationship
between development level/ museum development in the coun
tries was stablished1!J1dnew criteria of "structural intellec
tuai changes" were suggested to be added to the traditional
ratios for describing more accurately the development level
of the countries.
Amonythem were:the number of inhabitants
per museum. the evaluation of the Cultural Change etc.(1)
There]the data are abundant and eloquent: While the indus
trialized (sic) countries present an average of 983 museums/
country. with a population of 30.500 inh./museum;the afri
can countries held an average of 8 museus/coun~.and this
continent as weil as the asiatic one have an average of
1.500.000 inh!museum. (2).
ln the woridsessions of the l'ancrai S:,'stellls Society of Spain
in Madrid. Nov. 83.1 made under the title:" Museological
notes for the integrated experimental development" a propo
saI by means of what 1 called "A MUSEOLOGICAL UNIT",
But
before developing this museological conception,which
1 consider still val id. 1 will deal with sorne previous ge
neral considerations, which let me approach it. (5)
PRELIMINAR QUESTIONS
Since the end of the sixties and particularly from 1972
, up to now. international organi~ations have greately(On
cp~ned' themselves about:
1.

Environmental and energetic degradation.

2.

Global(ecologic) understanding of this phenomenon,

3.

The human being as a factor of change (subject and

object) .

4.

The cultural dimension in the social context.

5.

ldentity and Heritage. two key concepts of the new

gnoseological paradigm.

6. The cultural pluralism.

7,

The effects of

world wide communication.

8.

Formai and informai popular groups.

9.

Finding an answer to the51e'

questions. (4)
105

And those organi~atiorls make endeavours to foster the inter

national solidarity. the use of common ressources. the applica
tion of the science. knowledge.technology and material mean and
to concern as much Institutions as possible to accomplish:
A.

Common understanding of the actual situation in his speci

fic problematic.

B.

Promote the social participation.

C.

Heighten the level of education.

D.

Propitiate the change. understood as development on the

basis of priviously stablished criteria.

E.
Going further on the study of the systems of values,
hierarchies, related with the cultural pluralism.(S)

its

PRESENT VIEW

Never before have the mass media made possible to such un ex

tent a common feeling of univesality; but in the other hand. not
only the danger from possible uncontrolled armament was never
higher. but also the world wide communication ( to make common)
would lead to a general paralizing uniformity ( ANOMIA.using the
words of Durkheim).
THE DIFFERENTIATION-INTEGRATION (Sinergy) (6) of the indi

vidual. social groups or cultural systems is considered as a

relational quality. conditionning the cohesion of the system com

ponents and consequently the
change of the system.

THE CREATIVENESS (innovation capability) under the name of

NEGUENTHROPY is expected to be from the Communication Theory

and Cybernetics. able to counter the enthropy of the socio

cultural system and to make the necessary human ressources

available.

Nevertheless. the application of

indiscriminated innovation
and change.making use of Management methods/Cybernetics. Modeling
techniques on the basis of alien models.without having in mind
the fundamental
differences inside or outside the national unit.
can be so pernitious as to allow the critic to speak in these
terms:" The contemporary science is a basic model of domination
and instituted violence"(B).
Occasionally value systems are a priori designed.f.i.: The
economic paradigm". overwhelming his frame work. encreasing an
irrational consumism ,Pjawaking false necessities;then used and
fixed aS normative..Il.I1<tperennial.are transmited by the basic
institutions. such as the family or the school. conditionning
this way the fundamental human freedom. (9)
THE IDENTITY.considered from a static point of view. means
the unit y
in the diversity of the elements of the system; from
a dynamic point of view. expresses permanence in the change .(10).
pj.nQ

106

AS a matter of facto we ail know that war continues swee~

tup earth and :<oVlPI tirna5.
,IDENTITY is defined as: "Ethno

centrisms in confrontation"(II) and development described as:

" the worse enemy of the ethnicity"(12).
;but ln spite of that.
a basis of common rights and fundamental needs to ail human
beings,with independence of their cultural diversity, are now
really contemplated.
The mutual help among the countries begins
to be viewed as an exigence of solidarity .
GLOBAL SYSTEM OPTION FOR DEVELOPMENT
The socio-cultural systems are considered open systems. in
teractllig with the environment.
Consequently. they change ine
vitably along time.
The changes partlallY rellated to those
interactions .can occur slowly or rapidly and be superficial or in
depth.
The traditional social systems. interacting for centuries

with their environment .are weIl adapted systems. belng thelr

compo~ts weIl
integrated;that means. motivated enough to put

in motion the necessary ressources to their survival (material

ressouces . knowl edge. informat i on etc .. )

When violent cultural clashes occur,there are radical chan

ges in the system. deep alteration of values and structural mo
dification. which originate functlonal collapses(catatrophes).
w,ii-h risk 10the identi ty of the system.
The option of development is thought out like a quantitative
qualitative change of the system. consciously assumed.
From dy
namic point of view,this option of development would be the acce
leration of the rythmus of the system's evolution. in such a
way that: 1) The system maintains its identity in spite of
the change; 2)the self dependence of the system is optimized.and
3) the previously determined necessities will be sa
ti sf i ed. (13)

Some times, the so called " Development discours" implies

the dimensioning of the sub-development by means of occidental
ratios and paradigms (thinklng.behavior. knowledge).(14)
But
considering that the flrst difficulty is the evaluation of the
self identity (15) and that the social internai problems
of the reinforcement of the elite increases.all the world con
cerns himself more and more about the growth of the technical.
technological and economic differenc.es among the countries
aIl "f tlJelrl' being part of the international system.
WHAT SYSTEM DO WE HAVE?
The profound knowledge of the indigenous system of belon
ging is a previous condition to any change consciously assumed
The value paradigms are also fundamental elements to be consi
dered.
WHO WANTS THE CHANGE?,WHOSE INTERESTS ARE IMPLIED?
WINNER,WHO THE LOOSER?

WHO IS THE

The collectivity is not a substitute of the individual.

Nevertheless,Lican be guestionablec. U.' the simple adition of
the isolated interests of the individuals will necessarily lead
to the collectiwe benefit, ( Edgard Morin)

107

WHO DECIDES?
The development option go es through politic 9 1 , economic
and cultural internai decissions.
If referred to the "occiden
tal democracies, this decision implies at least theoretically,
the taking part of the greatest amount of population with the
largest cultural variety and with a possible constant open cri
tic.
AMONG THE POSSIBLE SYSTEMS,WHICH IS THE BEST OPTION TO BECOME

NORMATIVE?

The words of Ashis Nandy are explicit enough:" Gandhi did

notdllow the historical consciousness to be a substitute of the
daily life morality" (16).
Most of the cri tics to science and to its theoretical imple
mentation are referred to unilateral decissions taken on the
basis of sole and exclussive criteria, when applied to change.
There must have been misappreciations of the interrelation

and of the variables of the system to be changed. There is no

doubt that similar reasons made possible the absortion of

some cultures by the others. (Destruction)

The cultural pluralism and the collective cooperation are toge

ther with the encrease of education and the optimal difu~ion

of cultural experiences and knowledge, the,' instrument and fer

ment of the real change.

For the speed of change increases in our centurY,led by

the influence of technical and technological means and also by
team-work and the interdisciplinar c.ooperation, we are confident
in the solidarity and the mutual countries help,because we are
convinced that the scientific and cultural communication lead
to the fit ratio differentiation/integration to give an adequa
te answer to the present human needs.
Comming back from the "wild unilateral development" the hu

man being becomes aware of the stro~natural conditionned and

weil naturaly protected rythmus of evolution of the biologic

individual
system.
For that, unvalued aspects from wild de

veloping planns,begin to be considered much more important to

the individuals and to the social group,starting from solidari

ty and mutual respect paradigms.

MUSEOLOGY
The application of Museology to real life problem-solving

is 4part or a level of metadisciplinar (scientific) Museology.

In fact it is the answer to the present cali for ressources

of a specifie knowledge ,in the context we have globally seen
before.
Museology is included in the group of metadisciplinar
sciences, whose specifie subject belongs to the domain of cultu
ral survival, having as specifie object the relationship between
humdn beings with their environment under preservat~nal consi
deations.
The constants or the principles of the process consi
dered at the individual and/or collecive level.
The traditional

108

Institution of the "musealization phenomenon"

is the Museum Institution( though hot exclusive) and the speci

fie place for it is THE MUSEUM. ( See papers of the annual
meeting of ICOFOM.from 198G up to now).
The socio -museological Identity would be based on the "re
signification" of the cultural componentes (OBJECTS in a vaste
sense) (19) along the time(diachronically).
Museologie gives a peculiar pespective of reality from its
specifie domain.
Under a systemic paradigm.Museology accepts
the possibility of analogy among the plurality of sciences ope
rati~ with systems.
From the scientific contemporary methodology. Museology
could use every methodological option.able to solve the parti
LU~t ~rDbJcm proposed
in every case. (20)
Systemically viewed
Modellng is a fundamental instrument,either in an episthemolo~i
cal level. model graphie functional design or in Implementation
of models;nevetheless we must take into account its incipient
actual condition.
Museology , if studying the general principles,ruling and
regulating the preservational phenomena .j'ltiw~l.elly reliated to
the creation-destruction ones.uses scientific methods,will be
scientific.with independence of its application to the concrete
facts.
Museologie modeling design is considered a museological

technique,but sorne times it is said to be also a technology.

being called technique the Implementation of models. (21)

intellective level must not be mingled with the physy

of practical application;i.e.: hanging on a painting
or installing an exhibition.
For that,some techniques and concep
tualtechlloJogies .traditionaly named'MUSeOgraphy"are required
( 1 have proposed the use of this word to define " museological
historiography".London 83).
1

~his

ca~~rocess

Museology is a knowledge originated from the very begin of

the human acivity of selection ,preservation and accumulation

(thesaurization) of objects, objects to be transmited, but pre

viously transcendentally resignified to and from every new so

cio -cultural group.

There is a museological historiogrphy comming from ancient

times;there are systematic works since the XVIII
century.
But
Museology bec ornes in fact a scientific necessity in the contempo
rary panoramic context;where a lot of particular sciences come
to life,counterbalancing with this analytic multiplicity the glo
bal conception of the unit y of knowledge.

I~roblem solving M~SeOIOgy will be a very important contribu

tion; fist of all.for helping the human being from a specifie
perspective to go deeper in self knowledge by the comprehen
sion~f his preservational behavior, also in the transmission and
resignification and consequently Integration of the preserved
cultural heritage.
It is not to be forgoten that preservation
is a relalonship between creation /destruction (cornes to my mind
in this paticular occasion the similarity to the Brahmanic Tri
nit y).

109

Museology is also important to the contemporary human being,

able to think globally, because he needs the greatest amount of

ressources that the technology offers him"but this can only be

used and applied if his knowledge,his mental structures make it

understandable and usefull to him,and putting his creativeness

in it as weil.

THE MUSEUM INSTITUTION

The

is instituted in the Museum .

The Museum makes possible, as fore said, the social resig

nification'of the cultural preservation through the stablished

realtionship Objectual element/individual-social group.

This re

lationship depends not only on the informative-communicative po

tentiality of the OBJECT( in very large sense), integrated into

its system of belonging;but also depends on the perceptive capa

cityof the individual and/or the social group,through his inte

rest, his pesonality and his particular conditions of belonging.

collec~ive

musealization

The environment is also very active element in interaction with

the proposed system.

THE REVALUATION OF THE M~SEUM INSTITUTION WILL BE CONDITIONNED

TO THE EFFICACIOUSNESS OF HIS WORK AND TO THE SISTEMATIZA'ION AND
SCIENTIFICIZATION OF THE FULLFILMENT OF ITS COMPETENCES.
The cultural elements,patrimonial components of a colectivity

are a capital part ,interactiong in the cultural process of the

group and its members.

The best works,considered universal heritage by humanity, are

50 on the basis of their singularity,their irreplaceableness and

their clear identity.

Museums, Research Institutions and Universitites will admit

sooner or later MUSEOLOGY,which is yet an incipient science;but
as institutions are slow to act and change, my practical proposai is
THE MUSEOLOGICAL UNIT.
MUSEOLOGICAL UNIT FOR INTEGRATED DELOPMENT
It is viewed like an elemental practico-functional cell to serve
the stecific plans of global ~tegrated development.
It has a
tripple entity:
1.
2.
3.

Comprehensive-intellective
Communicative -informative
Paramuseal

It consists of a minimum of human and material elements,

added to the planned equipment for the zonal(local) integrated
development,which usually depends on Ministeries or Official Ins
titutions, more interested frequently in the technical unilateral
development.
The museological unit foresees the museological research,
the Metamodeling, Modeling and the consequent Implementation of
Models (22),integrating itself relatively low Increment into the

110

zonal development program.

Its incidence in the social system

can be maximized by its interactives loops of informative in

fluence on the sructures of thinking and action.

The adequate

ness of the inquiry.~vel and method,chosen according to every

particular problem,should be underlined and also the possibi

lit y of interdisciplinar-metadisciplinar action.from which a

great profit could be obtained by means of the technology glo

ballyapplied.

Furthermore. Museological Unit implies theoretically aIl

the potentialities suposed to the Museum. as weIl from the tra
ditional point 0 view,as in the new constantly discussed ver
sions.which are no more than "museological buds". answer from
the collective creativeness to the social necessities. which
are clearly diversified.
The Museum was said to
1.
2.
3.
4.
5 .
6.
7.
B.
~.

la.

be(2~):

An nucleus.agglutinant of the social relationships.

An educatif nucleus.
An indicator of the change process
An active instrument of the change itself.
A mass med i a .
An informaI supplement of the school education.
A selection-preservation-integration instrument.specially
important in times of high consumption.
Research Center. specially for museological research.
A platform of contact and discussion.
A Motivational Center. with special incidence on the
individual and social creativeness.

Summarizing:
NECESSARY ELELENT OF IDENTITY IN DEVEOPING AREA(Countries)
ELEMENT FOR THE "RESIGNIFICATION" OF OLD AND NEW METHODS.ACCOR
DING TO THE MOST RECENT INFORMATION.
ADVANTAGES OF THE MUSEOLOGICAL UNIT
1 .. It is thought to be inegrated in the Management Organisms for
developing aeas.
2.
It could not only give initial impuls to development;but also
continue functionning at any development level,being able to gi
ve birth to a Museum 1 rooted in the Communty.
3.

It is the base of metadisciplinar-interdisciplinar action.

4.
It is conceived to deal with the tripple interrelationship
of creation/preservation/destruction.
5.
It considers the evolutive process from which the developrnental
option can be offered and planned.
6.

It roots its action in local identity.

111

7.
The external and internai evaluation becomes an essential

aspecto to it.

8.
Short,middle and long term of the system action can be con
sidered.
9.
Some aspects barely valued from other points of view are
specially foreseen : cultural heritage, quality and quantity of
the objects in use,social cohesion, social demand for informai
associations.
10.
Special incidence is accorded to the strenthness of the lo
cal identity.
Specially significant are the premises to the so
cial group,as a possible nucleus of museological relationship.
Il.

the social cooperation and participation are very much em

voluntarily assumed action and collecti\~reflexion.

phasized.b~

Perhaps its most important advantage is that museological

unit is thought.1 repeat,as a moving nucleus cell.adaptable and
easily maintained.
These very important conditions are diffe ~
rent to the Museum ones. institution fixed from definition.
The discovery-research-information-"resignification" weil com
bined are based in cri tic hermeneutics, as gnoseological founda
tions.
ln any case. its validity is generical, suscepible of being
applied directly from the local conditions and local groups. pre
viously weil trained with the maximum integrating possibilities
HELP ,from central(national) Institutions or from external
(international) origin.would be the best if applled not to crea
te faise expectatives. but to support in the right moment the
public demands. to put into practice the awaken initiatives, to
put into use the conguered rights and turn into reality the EMER
GING NECESSITIES.

NOTES
1.
De la torre, M. and Monreal,L . . Museums: An
development. ICOM 1982

112

investment for

2.
Important changes from this date to today can be red: Bedekar,
V.H. " MuseoIogical education in India. " Re. Museum.Vol 156. 1987.
pg 284-291 and Jisheng, L. Ibid. pg. 291-295
3.
Carrillo, p...
Proposed in 1986 to the C.S.I.C.< Superior

Council of Scientific Research). Madrid

4.
In 1957 the SID
ment)
5.

is created < International Society for Develop

Mathar, A. The roots of the future. UNESCO. 1982.

6.
Synergetics, scientific discipline ,which studies the process

of cooperation among the differents parts of a system.

7.
Aracil, J. Mquinas,sistemas y modelos. Madrid. Technos.
pg. 73 Y sgs.

8.
Ashis Nandy.
1987. pg 16

" Winners and victims". ReY. Desarrollo. nO 12.

9. Bourdieu, P. Les hritiers. Paris. ;

10.

1986

1980

Walliser, B. Systmes et mpdles. Paris. Seuil

.1977.

I l . Nieuwenhuijze, Van, c.a O. " Perspectiva cultural:lHielo so

bre el pastel 0 caja de Pandora? Rev. Desarrollo. Vol 12. 87.
pg. 17-21

12.
Eghbal,~. El fracaso de la etnicidad y la servidumbre

voluntaria". Rev. Desarrollo. Ibid. 52-55.

13. Preiswert. ReV. Desarrollo. voli-82. Ci ta de R. Carri 110 en "

Critique Sumary
the ICOFOM communications. Finland 1987.

ef

14.

Nleuwenhuljze, Van, C. a. O. Op. cit pg. 20.

15.

Eghbal,A. Ope. cit pg 54.

16. Nandy. a . . Op. cit pg 16.

17.
ln conexlon with the scientificity of the new. disciplines:
Lemoigne. J.L. Les nouvelles sciences sont bien des sciences"?
Rev. Recherche Internationale de Systmique. vol l.n o 3, 1988.
pg 295-318.
18.

Stranski, z. papers of ICOFOM on Museological Methodology)

19 Analogy amog social systems: Bednarz, J.Jr. "Autopolesis: The

organizational closure of Social systems". Rev. Systems Research.
Vol. 5.1988. pg 57-64.
Oliga, J. "Ethnological foundation of
tice. Vol J. 88 pg.87-109.

20.

21.

Be 1 l, D.

systems.~ystems

Prac

Cita of Aracil. Op cit. pg. 233.

22.
De la Torre,M. and Monreal,L. Op clt. pg.15 . . See alsa R.
carri 1 10. "Musealoglcal Uni t".

113

114

Rosario Carrillo de San Segundo -

Madrid, Espagne

La Musologie et son usage dans et par les pays

en voie de dveloppement
"Muses pour un monde en dveloopement"tait le. ~ul~t de
la XllleConfrence Gnrale de
ICOM ,Londres, 1983.

Dj en 1982 unPtude intressansous le titre:" Mu

ses, un investissement pour le dveloppement" tait pr

sente Madrid l'occasion du;'Sminaire International

Pour le Financement de la Cultureif, dans laquelle se pro

posait la correlation entre le niveau de dveloppement/d

veloppement musal,ainsi que des nouveaux rappor~ indica

teurs de "transformations structurelles intellectuelles",

comme par exemple: La relation nod'habitants/n" de muses,

l'valuation du Patrimoine culturel et.c. ,susceptibles d'tre

ajouts aux critres traditionnels l'objet de dfinir

plus prcisement le niveau de dveloppement des peuples.

Les donnes sont abondantes et eloquentes: Tandis que

les pays industrialiss(sic) prsentaient une moyenne de
983 muses/pays, avec une population de 30.500 h./muse;le
Continent Africain en avait une de 8 muses/pays et celuH:i,aussi
bien que le continent Asiatique avaient une population
moyenne relative de 1.500.000 h./muse.
Dans le contexte de travail de la Societ de ~ystmes

Gnraux de Madrid,NOv.1983, je proposa~ une option de

dveloppement nome:" Notes musologiques pour le dvelo~

pement Exprimental intgr", moyennant ce que j'appelait

"UNITE MUSEOLOGIQUE".
Avanl de passer fai re quelques

considrations sur ce sujet, que je pense encore valable,

jeveux aborder quelques questions gnrales pralables:

QUESTIONS PRELIMINAIRES
Depuis la fin des annes 60 et plus particulierement depuis
1972, des Organisations Internationales extrment leur pr
o<cupa t i ons sur:
(

1.

La dgradation de l'environnement et de 1 nergie.

2.

La comphhension globale(cologique) du phnomne.

3.

L'tre humain comme facteur du changement ( lui acteur

rcepteur).

4.

La dimension culturelle dans le contexte social.

5.

L Identit et le patrimoine, deux concepts cl dans

les nouveaux paradigmes intllecti~ sociaux.

6.

La pluralit culturelle <::n cohabitation.

7.

La communication et sa rpercussion au niveau do ~ terre.

8. Les associations formelles et non formelles la base

populaire.
115

9.

Ncessit de trouver rponse valable

ces procupations.

Ces Organisations estimulent la mise en jeu sur la base

de la Solidarit Internationale,du
, plus grand nombre d'Institu
tions pour appliquer la science, les connaissances, la techno

logie et des moyens matriaux fin de:

A.

Comprendre la situation actuelle dans sa problmatique

spcifique.

B.

Promouvoir la plus vaste participation individuelle et

collective.

C.

Elever le niveau ducatif.

D.

Favoriser le changement.conu comme dveloppement

raison de critres pralablement tablis.

en

E.
Approfondir dans la connaissance des systmes de valeur

et dans leurs h~archies, en relation avec la pluralit d'op

tians culturelles.

PANORAMIQUE ACTUELLE
Jamais comme aUjOUrd(hui les moyens de communication n'ont fait
possible un ~el sentiment commun d'universalit dans toute la
terre;mais,par contre.pas seulement le danger cause de l'ar
mement hypothtiquement incontrOl n'a t jamais aussi grand
Ju&SI
en mme temps la communication (faire commun),ij pa
rait qu'amenerait inxorablement vers l'uniformit totale.
prvue paralysante ( ANOMIE. tout en prennant le mot de Durkheim).
La diffrentiation-intgration (synergie) (6) des indi

vidus,' des groupes sociaux et des systmes culturels est con

sidere une caractristique relationnelle. qui indique d'une

certaine faon la cohsion des diffrents lments qui consti

tuent le systme. tout en conditionnant de faon dcisive le

changement.

On croit aussi bien ds la Thorie de la Communication

et la Cyberntique.que la crativit, entendue comme capacit
humaine d'innovation, pourrait compense l'enthropie du syst
me socio-culturel (Neguenthropie). par la mise en jeu de nou
veaux ressources,(7).
Pourtant. 1 ~nnovation et le changement coOte que coOte.
en appliQuant.S~l~ discrimination des techniques de Manage
ment ou de Gestion Oprative, l'utilisation des systmes cyber
nbQues, le dveloppement sur la base des modles trangres.
n'ayant eu pas encompte les diffrences culturelles fondamen
tales(externes et/ou internes l'unit nation) peuvent
tre tellement pernitieuses. Que l'on puisse dire Que:" La
science moderne est un modle de base pour la domination ou la
violence institutionalises"(8).
~out

Parfois aussi. les systmes des valeurs, tablis priori

sont utiliss comme des fondements(vrits) innamovibles( p.e,
"LI conomicisme".Qui .pris comme paradigme de valeur, renforce
la consommation irrationnelle. tout en provoquant des fausses
nessits).et sont transmis par des Institutions de base, comme
la famille ou 1 Institution Scholaire, Qui deviennent de cette
faon des conditionnants des liberts fondamentales des
individus. (9)
116

L'identit est le concept qui exprime, si'l'on prend du

point de vue statique, l'unit dans la diversit des lments

du systme; du point de vue dynamique, une certaine permanence

dans le changement. (10)

Finalement,bien que les guerres continuent asservir la terre

et que dans des occasions on peut lire propos de l'identit
qu il s agIt :" d'ethnocentrismes en concurrence" (11), et bien
que des experts nous prsentent le dveloppement comme :" Le
pire nemi de l'ethnicit" (12); pourtant aujourd hui ON ADMET
LA PLURALITE CULTURELLE EN COHABITATION ET DES BASES COMMUNES
DE DROITS ET DE NECESSITS, EGAUX POUR TOUS LES INDIVIDUS ET
TOUS LES PEUPLES.
LI ENTRAIDE DES PAYS COMMENCE A DEVENIR UNE EXIGENCE.
DEVELOPPEMENT ET OPTION GLOBALE SYSTEMIQUE
Les systmes socio-culturels sont considrs comme des systmes

ouverts. en interaction avec leur environnement:~r consquent,

ils:
changent dans le temps,cette transformation pouvant

tre lente ou rapide, superficielle ou profonde.

Les systmes traditionnaux, qui fonctionnent pendant des

sicles deviennent bien adapts et leurs lments composants

sont bien intgrs,

Les motivations sont aussi sufissantes

pour qu ils mettent en jeu tous les moyens ncessaires (mat

riaux, de connaissance et information) pour qu ils survivent

(quasi stationnaires).

En cas de confrontations violentes, les changements radi

caux dans les systmes,l'altration profonde des valeurs,des
lments composants, originent des collapsus (catastrophes),
qui risquent l'identit du systme lui mme.
L'option de dveloppement est conue comme une modification
qualitative-quantitative du systme, consciemment lue ou
accepte,
Cette option vue du ct dynamique,serait l'augmen
tation du rythme volutif du systme,de faon que celui-ci con
tinue maintenir son identit dans le changement; que l'auto
dpendence du systme qui change soit maximale et finalement,
que le~besoins, pralablement tablies soient satisfaItes (13),
Parfoi~ cel ui nomm" DISCOURS
DU DEVELOPPEMENT" impl ique une" ralitdu:dveloppement" dimensionne et exprime par
des critres gnosologiques, de connaissance et de comportement ex
clusi fs, normalement occidentaux (14),
Mais, puisque l'on re
connait que la prmire difficult est la connaissance de la
propre identit (15) et que les problmes sociaux,au niveau
national, aussi bien qu au niveau international,de renforcement
d puuvoir des lites et des luttes de pouvoir en gHral
s'accroissent: la proccupation cause de l'incrment de la
distanc~
technologique-technique conomique et culturelle
entre les plus et les moins favorisss devient de plus en plus
grande-out en tenant compte de l'unit du systme international
dans lequel tous les pays sont impliqus,

QUEL EST NOTRE SYSTEME?

La connaissance en profondeur du systme social duquel
nous faisons partie( celui qui veut tre chang), est la con
dition pralable tout changement, qui se veut consciemment
117

accept.
Les paradigmes de valeur et gnosologiques sont
des lments fondamentaux dont il faut tenir compte.

aus~i

QUI VEUT LE CHANGEMENT ?,QUELS SONT LES INTRETS EN JEU?

SONT LES BNFICIS ET LES ENDOMMAGS

Qui

La colectivit ne peut pas tre le substitut de Ilindividu;bien

qu on peut'.
se demander si l'addition simple des intrts
des individus produit ncessairement le bnefit de la collec
tivit (D'aprs Morin.E.)
QUI DECIDE?

L option de dveloppement passe par dcissions internes (du pays),que

sont autan_d'autres options politico-conomiques et culturelles:
des options qui, en ce que nous comprenons comme "dmocrati~
occidentale~':devrait impliquer le maximu~ de population dans
la plus larqe diversit culturelle. restant la critique constam
ment ouverte.
PARMI LES SYSTEMES POSSIBLES,QUELLE EST L'OPTION DSIRABLE?
Les mots d'AShis Nandv sont probablement sufisamment expli
cites:" Gandhi ne permettait
la conscience hisorique deve
nir le substitut de la moralit de la vie journalire". (16).
La critique faite couramment la science et son application
thorique et pratique a t faite plutt la dcision unila
trale. prise en raison de critres exclussifs et excluants
pour la planification du changement. prise aussi probablement
par mconnaissance de l'interaction des lments composant le
systme social modifi.
Sans aucune doute .il s agit des mmes
raisons historiques qU'ont' fondament l'absortion (destruction)
de quelques cultures par d'autres.

appel /a pluralit culturelle et la participation

collective sont tout d'emble ,avec l'augmentation de la forma
tion tous les niveaux et la plus large difusion de~ex
priences interculturelles. les dtonants la fois qu instru
ments et ferments du changement lui mme.
La vitesse du changement dans notre sicle est fondamen
talement une consquence des moyens technologiques et techniques
dont on dispose. ainsi que des mthodes de travail en quipe
et en collaboration interdisciplinaire ( partir de cel on
peut bien comprendre l'loignement de certains pays par rapport
aux autres).
Nous avons pleine confiance sur l 'entreaide solidaire
des pays, des cultures, des institutions. parce que nous croyons
fermement que l' Interchange scientifique et l'intercommunica
tion culturelle. vont faire possible la diffrentiation-int
gration prcises.qui ~~It la rponse adquate aux bsoins de
l'tre humain d'aujourd hui.
Etant de reCour du "dveloppisme" uni latral sauvage. on
se rend compte que le rythme volutif (biologique) des indivi
dus est fortement conditionn et protg de faon naturelle
dans la relation change/prservation/destruction. c'est pour
a que l'on commence valoriser aujourd hui
ds la solidari
t et le respect l'individu. des aspects qui ne l'taient
pas. tout en partant de conceptions troites du developpement.
118

MUSEOLOGIE

L application de la Musologie la solution des probl

mes pratiques serait une partie ou un aspect de la Musologie

de base. prtendue scientifique (17) et aujourd hui cette

ID2Plication rpond d'une facon naturelle l'appel pour l'ap

plication de ressources (le champ spcifique de connaissance

musoloqique) dans le contexte global nonc pralablement.

L institution traditionnelle du phnomne de la musalisa

tion est l'institution musale(bien qu elle n est pas exclussive)
et le lieu spcifique de sa matrialisation est le Muse.
( V. Apports des runions annuelles de II lCOFOM de 1980 au

jourd hui).

En Musologie. la permanence de 1 lidentite socio-muso

logique serait base sur la " resignification" des composants

culturels objectuels ( L OBJET au plus large sens) (19) dans

le temps (diachronie),

La Musologie est considre une perspective de la ralit

ds son champ spcifique.

Si l'on prend le paradigm systmi
que on a
la possibilit d/tablir des analogies avec les

systmes des autres disciplines.

Quant la mthodologie scientifique contemporaine, la Mu

sologie pourrai t se servir d'autant d 'options mthodologi'1~lel>.
qui ,d'une faon cohren~ et systmatique pourraient resoudre
les problmes poss (0).
A focalisation systmique. par conse
quent, la modlisation est l'instrument fondamental des ni
veaux diffrents, aussi bien au niveau pistmologique que
comme moyen expl icat! f graphique fonc.tionnel ou bien par Il ap _
plication concrte un cas de la ralit.en tenant compte de
l'tat incipient de la Musologie et par consquent de ses li
mitations actuelles.
La Musologie est scientifique si elle s'occupe des prin
cipes gnraux qui rglent et rulent les phnomnes caractre
prsevationnel, intimement lis ceux de cration-destruction;
indpendamment des faits concrets.
La modlisationwsologique serait tout court la " techni
que musologique",bien que. dans des occasions, cette technique
est considre comme de la technologie.

L application pratique des modles des cas concrets,

appartiendrait au niveau minnement technique. ne pas confon
dre avec le fait physique d'application sur le terrain;, p. e.:
le montage d'une exhibition physiquement.
Ce fait prcis a be
soin au5'( b'en de techniques que des technologies spcifiques
ou partages et que traditionnellement sont appelles des"tech
niques musographiques" (mot que j avais propos pour la Nisto
riograph~ musologique.Londres,B3).
La Musologie est par consquent un savoir qui a son ori
gine ou moment ou l'tre humain slectionne et accumule,tout
en prservant des objets, qu il considre prcieux(et qu il
signifie de~ontrascendante.ayant dans son esprit leur dura
bilit et par consquent leur possibilit de transmission).
Depuis des poques anciennes ,la Musologie a son Histo
riographie elle.
Son savoir est sistmatis depuis le XVIIIe
119

sicle et finalement .de nos jours. elle devient une disci

pline ncessaire dans le contexte contemporain. o le fait
d'apparaltre des nombreux savoirs pourrait tre considr comme
la face analytique du phnomne et le complment de la com
prhension globale de l'uni~ du savoir.
Applique, la Musologie est une partie fondamentale
champ spcifique, pour aider l'tre humain ds une perspecti
ve culturelle approfondir dans sa propre connaissance, aussi
bien par la comprhension de son comportement prservationnel.
que par celle du pocessus de transmission et de resignification. et
par consquent, d1intgration de ce qu a t prserv et trans
mis. Il ne faut pas oublier que la prsevation est une~lation
cration-desruction.( Pour cette occasion cette relation peut
tre prsente comme l'imitation du "travai 1" de la trinit
Brahmanique) .
1

On comprend donc bien 1 intrt de la Musologie pour l'tre

humain,C~pable de comprendre de faon globale les ressources
que la technologie lui permet de comprendre ,sur la base de
ses propres connaissances et de ses structures mentales, cet
tre humain qui resout ses difficults dans chaque temps et
occasion,moyennant sa capacit crative.
Dans la panoramique peine esquise dimension cultu
relle globale, la Musologie peut bien s'inclure aussi
comme
aide pour la dcision la plus consciente d1utilisation des mo
yens ( conscients ou pas conscients) ,parmi lesquels nous pou
vons inclure les techniques et les technologies anciennes et
nouvelles.
f

L INSTITUTION MUSEALE
La musal isation.aniveau collecti f. se matrial ise et s' insti
tue dans LE MUSEE.
Le Muse fait possible la "resignification" collective

de tout ce qu : l'on a pralablement prserv, dans la relation

lment patrimonial/individu-groupe social.

Cette relation ne

dpend pas seulement du potentiel informatif-communicatif de

l'objet (intgr dans son systme d'appartenance);mais aussi

de la capacit perceptive du sujet-groupe, pour laquelle il

faut aussi tenir compte de ses intrts, de sa personnalit et

de sa propre appartenance, tout en comptant l'envi ronnement

comme un lment interactif.

La revalorisation du Muse comme Institution sera condi

tionn l' ficacit de son travail et la systmatisation et

scientifisation de l'exercice de ses comptences.

Les lments objectuels, qui constituent le patrimoine

d'une collectivit ,sont une partie capitale ,interactionnant
le processus culturel de la collectivit et de ses membre.
Les oeuvres que l'on considre comme patrimoine univer
sel ,sont tel par leur singulari t et par leur caractre d'ins
sustituables, c'est dire par leur claire identit.
Les Muses, les Instituts de Recherche, l'Universit etc.,
recevront plus tOt ou plus tard la Musologie, qui n'est pre
sent qu une science incipiente;mais , puisque les Institution~
sont de par elles trs lentes
et rticentes au changement,
120

ma proposition active et praique inmdiate est L'UNITE MUSEO

LOGIQUE

UNITE MUSEOLOGIQUE POUR LE DEVELOPPEMENT INTEGRE

est concue comme une celule lmentale pratico-fonc
tionnelle au service des plans 9pecifiqu~de dveloppement
local(zonal) intgr.
Elle se matrialise par une triple entit:

~lle

eomprhensive-intellctive

2.

Communicative-informative

3.

Paramusale.

Elle se compose d'un minimum d'lments humains et matriaux

qui peuvent tre ajouts l'quipe de dveloppement zonal,qui
d'habitude dpend des Ministres et/ou d.Institutlons (organls
mes)Officlels, plus intresss' au ~veloppement technique uni
latral.
L'uni t musologique prvoif l'tude musologique et la

modlisation consquente du plan global d'action.

61le s'int

gre avec relativement peu d'incidence conomique, au cout du

programme de dveloppement local ;mais avec le maximum d inci

dence dans le systme social, parce qu elle agIsse en "boucle

d'information" sur les schmes de pense et d'action.

La dci

sion de dveloppement se fait sur la base des options possibles,

options de valeur et d'interprtation en partant du systme

lui mme.

Son action est basiquement interdisciplinaire-metadisci

plinaire et elle se bnficie de la technologie applique au
dveloppement technique global.
Il faut aussi reclamer pour elle tout le potentiel
attribu au Muse,aussi bien con~u dans le sens traditionnel,
que ds les nouvelles et toujours discutes versions, qui ne
so~que des" bourgeons ,. des ncessits sociales musologlques,
mises au jour d'une faon diversifie ,par laquelle la crati
vit collective offre sa rponse.

LA VIE JAl LU SSE TOUT AUTOUR: NOUS NE POUVONS CONT 1NUER

A MAINTENIR DES DISCUSSIONS BIZANTINES SUR~LE SEXE DES ANGES"

QU;..ri

Les potentialit prvues pour le Muse taient:

(zo)

1. Il est nucleus d'agglutination des relations sociales.

2. Nucleus ducatif.
3. Indicateur des processus de changement.
4. Instrument actif du changement lui mme.
5.
Mass mdia.
(
6.
Supplment non formel de 1 enseignement scolaire.
7. Organe de slection-prservation-intgration, espcialement
important dans des poques consommation rapide.
8.
Centre de recherche et de production scientifique, basique
ment musologique.
9.
Plataforme de discussion et de contact.
10.
Centre de motiva1ion ,qui incide sur la capacit crative
individuelle et collective.
121

ELEMENT DE RENFORCEMENT DE LI IDENTITE DANS LE LIEU DU DEVELOPPE

MENT
ELEMENT DE SIGNIFICATION (RESIGNIFICATION)DES MOYENS TRADITION
NAUX ET NOUVEAUX (ressources) .dprs(lnformation la plus r
cente.
1

.LES AVANTAGES DE L UNITE MUSEOLOGIQUE

1.
Elle est intgre dans les organismes de gestion pour les

areas sous-dveloppes.

2.
E.peut donner impulsion iniciale au dveloppement et aussi

bien continuer fonctionner tout niveau de dveloppement.

en exerant comme nodule exprimental d'un rseau hypothtique.

3.

E. est une base d'action meta-interdisciplinaire.

4.
1::. tient compte de l'interaction .cration-destruction-PRE

SERVATION de faon thoriqu~pranque. Elle peut donner lieu

la cration du Muse ds la collectivit elle mme.

S.
E. considre le processus volutif duquel part l'OPtion du

dveloppement.

6.

E. enfonce ces racines dans l' identit locale.

7.
Un aspect~>Sentiel est l'valuation interne et externe du

fonctionnement du systme.

B.

E. prvoit l'action court. moyen et long terme.

9.
E. met en
cations. p.e.:
des objets en
non formelles

valeur des aspects mpriss par d autres planifi

patrimoine culturel. quantit et qualit

cours.cohsion sociale. demande d associatiOJ'

etc.

10.
E. insiste sur le renforcement de l' identi t locale. tout en
soulignant le lieu ou l'difice qui par sa signification locale
pourrait servir de nucleus dans les relations musologiqueS

Il.
Ce qui devient le plus important ~c~'e~s~t~I~~~p~a~r~t~i~c~i~p~a~t~i~o~n_
du groupe .volontairement accepte. primant 1 aspect de rfle
Xi011 eT de.cri tique ouverte et soutenue.
L'avantage la pplus importante'~~ le fait de sa mobilit
et son adaptabilit,trs diffrentes du point de vue du Muse.
Trs importonTaussi est son caractre d'impulseur.mais partir
des racines de la communaut(action de recherche.d'information. re
lation ,resignificaion).
En tout cas, sa validit est prvue gnrique.susceptible
d'tre applique partir des conditions locales et par des
personnes du milieu inmediat.dc~i la capacit d'intgration soit
maximale.
1

LAIDE EXTERIEURE.aussi bien au niveau national (central).que

provenant d'un pays tranger. aura le plus de succs SI ELLE
NEST PAS APPLIQUEE A LA CREATION DES FAUSSES EXPECTATIVES.MAIS
UTILISE POUR APPUIER A POSTERIORI LES DEMANDES DE LA PO
PULATION DE MISE EN PRATIQUE DES INITIATIVES REVEILLEES,DES
DROITS CONQUIS,DES REVENDICATIONS EXIGES. C'EsrA DIRE POUR
FAIRE REALITE LA SATISFACTION DES NECESSITS EMERGENTES.
122

NOTES
1. De la Torre,M. et Monreal.L.
dveloppement. JCOM 1982

" Museums: an investment for

2.
Des changements importants depuis cette date aujourd hui: Be

Bedekar,V.H. " Education Musologique en Indie". Rev. Museum

Vo. 156. 1987. pg.284-291,et Jisheng. L .. Ibid. pg,291-295.

3. Carrillo, R. Proposition au C.S.J .C.(Consil Suprieur de

Recherche Scientifique).Madrid,1986.

4.
En 1957 nat le SID ( Socit Internationale pour le dvelo

ppement) .

5.

Mathar, A. The roots of the future. UNESCO.1982

6. Synergtique. Discipline scientifique,qui ~de les pro

cessus de cooperation des diffperentes parties d'un systme.

7. Araci 1. J . . Mquinas, sistemas y modelos. Madn'd "

1986, pg 73 Y sgs.

8. Ashis
pg16.

9.

~andY.

Technos

"Winners and victims". Rev. Desarrollo.no12.1987.

Bourdieu, P. Les hritiers. Paris:

.1980.

10. Walliser. B.Systmes et modles. Paris .Suil.1977.

Il.
Nieuwenhuijze,Van C.a.O.
"Perspectiva culturdl:<'Hielo

sobre el pastel 0 caja de Pandora? Rev. Desarrollo. Vol 12. 1987.

pg.17-21.

12.
Eghbal. A. " El fracaso. dl' la etnicidad y la servidumbre

voluntaria". Rev. Desarollo. Jbid.52-55.

13.Preiswert. Rev. Desarollo. Vol J. 1982. Cita de Carrillo,R.

en Resumm critique. Communications de L JCOFOM.Finland 1987.

14. Nieuwenhuijze,Van. c.a.O. Op. cit .pg.20.

15.

. Eghbal,A. Op. cit.pg.54.

16. Nandy. A. Op. cit. pg.

16.

17. En relation avec la scientificit des nouvelles discipli

nes: Lemoigne. J.L., Les nouvelles sciences. sont bien des scien-

ces?~'.Rev. Recherche International de Systmique. Vol 1. n03. 1988.

18. Stranski, Z. Papers of ICOFOM propos de la Mthodolo

gie Musologique.Londres,83.

19.
Analogies entre les systmes sociaux: Bednrz. J. Jr. "Au
topoiesis: The organizational closure of Social systems". Rev.
Systems Research. vol 5. 1988. pg 57-64.
20. Oliga. J. " Ethnological foundation of systems .Systems
Practiue Rev. Vol J. 1988. pg 87-109.
21. Bell. D. Cita Aracll. Op. cit pg 233.
22. De la Torre. M. et Monreal.L. Op. cit pg.
Carrillo, R.
"Unit Musologique".

15.

voir aussi
123

124

Nelly Decarolis, Elisa M Dowling de Garro & Mariana Astesiano

- Buenos Aires, Argentina
Bearing in mind the topic of this Symposium, we ask ourselves

the following questions:

- Are we really aware of the multiple possibilities offered by

Museology as a useful tool for countries in process of develoE

ment?

- Do we take into account the whole of man's cultural and natural

heritage or do we arbitrarily choose certain objects for conse~
vation, leaving out some, precisely those which shape the
cultural and social mosaic of our society?
- Have we analyzed the existing relation between man,his~enviro~
ment and the product of his culture or, on the contrary, do we
isolate objects, "sacralyzing" them, forgetting the important
role played by man in the evolution of civilization?
- Do we realize the need for museological institutions where
man's actions can be investigated and studied in an inter
disciplinary manner and projected through time and space
giving possibility for both ana1ysis and subsequent evaluation?
Which is the leitmotiv for not having made a deep revision of
our musuems or of our intellective museological structures?
Even today we keep traditional museums only adding to them an
educational and diffusing role.
Argentina is going through a museological mobilization, but it
still strengthens the traditional museum's ideology,with its
conventional characteristics, as a repository of objects, re
presenting a unique or dominating discipline from the most out
standing exponents: art, history, archaelogy, naturalssciences,
etc. These museums can offer but fragile images from the past,
bare facts in a "sui-generis" interpretation of a world torn out
from its own context.
An integral approach in the investigation of contents,~onsidering
man through his tangible and intangible testimonies, wou~d
contribute to the explanation and understanding of our social,
economic and historic reality.
"The primary focus of both contemporary museums and museology
is people, not objects, collections, buildings or activities.
The primary purpose of museology is to facilitate the process
of preservation as an integral part of human society through the
study and understanding of the relationship between people and
material culture and their social and natural environment!!.
(Tomislav Sola).
Thus, a social position of Museology is finding its way into
different parts of the world, which see in it an adequate
instrument for the free development of community. New museo
logical institutions arise (neighborhood, local and community
museums, ecomuseums,etc.) They have a multiplying effettand
stand out in many regions, maybe as the only valid alternative
for development.
In Argentina, this new social conscience is questioning the
existing old structures, demanding an answer to unsolved
problems among which we find those originated by the pluralism
125

which exists in a country as vast as ours, where strong

immigrant influences show the diversity of cultural backgrounds.
Museology must widen its scope beyond its traditional functions
by encouraging community's participation in its activities,
taking into account scientific, cultural, social and ecanomic
matters in which people are concerned, turning to interdiscipli~
ary work for specific projects.
Besides, Museology cannot escape from the general crisis of our
time: it is practically impossible to carry out a museological
programme without previously introducing substantial changes in
the criteria of our professionals and, unfortunately, the avail
able resources are still not enough to fulfill the desired
objectives.
Training of local personnel and community participation would

allow the strengthening of collective memory through the rescue

and safeguard of their cultural and natural heritage.

Official and private organisms should promote local initiatives

to guarantee new and efficient museological experiences. At

present, some are being carried out in certain geographically

delimited areas of our country. Their aim is to represent man

and his environment J)lacing him in his geographic, ethnie,

historie, socioeconomic and cultural reality in order to enable

his participation in the safeguard of his cultural and natural

heritage.

One of the principal goals of these experiences is to create

a communal meeting space where new forms of cooperation are

designedj promote bonds between members, allowing them to face

conflicts or difficulties such as those related to depopulation

of marginated regions. The repercussion of these experiences

will result in an improvement of the quality of life within the

community due, mainly, to the creation of new working sources.

It is necessary for public opinion to understand the interest

expressed by each community. For this purpose, the cooperation

of ICOM-ICOMOS, ofour Government authorities and private

institutions has been requested.

One of the drawbacks of this type of project is the lack of

scientific outlook which can provoke contradictions due to the
absence of critical perspective. Bringing face to face scientific
interpretation and the self-view of a community may allow a
dialogue that will, in fact, overcome such a confrontation.
The practices, techniques and sociocultural references gathered
through such research, should return to the community through
a clear and concise museographic language, accessible to all
for the best understanding of facts which will be tomorrow's
history: the exhibition is a privileged medium for social com
munication and should give everybody the opportunity to find
themselves, not only in time but also in. space, understanding
and even changing the surrounding world.
In our underdeveloped countries, the process of "decolonization"
has represented a great step forward in recovering identity
which has been lost or hidden for a long time. However, the ex
colonies cannot break away from centuries of colonialism: they
cannot yet overcome the breach between past backwardness and
present advancement. In this context we must not forget that
Argentina has always been an ensemble of individual realities.
It has not been unique in its primitive culture, rieither in the
process of conque st and colonization, nor even now, in its
126

development and possibilities. Our culture is the result of

several contributions: aborigine. colonizers. missionaries.
"criollos" and immigrants from aIl pirts of the ....orld-mostly
italian and spanish-who settled and built our country during
four centuries. Only assuming this cultural pluralism ....ill we
be able to advance in shaping our true national identity. The
deep change that is taking place today in our society is due.
partly. to the daily "bombardment" of information on man.
Science and technology produce kno....ledge. rts transmission
constitutes one of the aims of Museology.Museums must sho..... as
clearly as possible. the repercussion 'of scientific discoveries
upon man and the importance of their technical uses for society
development. becoming useful for the improvement of human
capabilities: perceptive. artistic. intellectual. ideological.
predisposing man's mind and sensitivity for an encounter with
past and contemporary civilizations. providing him access to
self-rflection.
Only in the conformation of a unique and inde pendent man who can
ellaborate-- from within and with others ne .... ideas. attitQ~es
and behaviours. based on ethical la....s and codes-can we foresee
our destiny projected into the future.
We firmly believe that preserving a living culture. safeguarding
heritage. promoting social-economic development and reassessing
human dignity are the fundamental steps that Museology must
folIo .... in developing countires to be considered a helpful tool
in the work of Museums.

127

128

Andr Desvalles -

Paris, France

PAYS EN VOIE DE .DEVELOPPEMENT OU NON .

IL N'EXISl'E QU'UNE SEULE M1J:SEOLOGIE

nes muses qui 8e crent, comme ceux qui

~ft

sont

cr~s.

dnns les

pays en voie de dveloppement posent-ils des problmes de nature

difforente de ceux qui ss cr6ent dans les z6nes sous-dveloppes
des pays riches? La mme question se pose, pour l'un et pour l'au
tre, de leur beAoin social. Naissent-ils pour le plnisir den tou
ristes qui viennent de

l'ext~rieur

T ou sont-ils une

n~ces~it cul~

turelle pour la population ooncerne p"r leur impl ..ntation et leur

financement? C'est seulement lorsque l'on aura rpondu h cette
question et que le muse aura trouv

SA

justific"tion sociale et

culturelle 'TUe l'on pourra se deml\nder "quelle contribution J" mu

solo~ie

l'eut offrir aux p"ys en voie de d"velnppement".

Qui visite le Muse Grco-romain d'Alexandrie et le Vune F.p,yptien

du Caire? Sans nul doute lallUeoup de

tourist"!s. Crs et enrichis

pendA.nt rles dcennies par les "rcholop;ues frAnAis et bri tAnn)']ue",

p"rmi les pluA "nciens muses, ils restent inrliffrents, du moins
trs margin:>.ux aux prp.occupatians de 1" mass:e des populations rurA
les, et mme urbaines, de l'Egypte. M..is aette situation est-elle
vr.. iment diffrente de ce qui se passe dans les pays industri.'l is'>s
o la er".nde masse ouvrire et p"ys".nne fr"nchi t AUAsi ili ffici 1ement
la porte de tels muses si elle n'yI' pas t entrain"e pendAnt sa
premire scolarit" ?
L'existence de ces muses en tant que tels n'est T'n.s en cause: s'ils
ne font pas de bien, ils ne font pas de mal. Ce qui est en cause,
c'est le rapport entre leur contenu et l'attente du puhlic, et c'eet
ln fnrme de la

communic~tion.

souvent mnl

~d~nt0e

~\U

h~hiturles

diRtiques de ce public. Le contenu, lorsq\le Son mesSRre est

loint"in, mme s'il immerge "utant le quotiilien, en

F.~nte

Grce, au MexirruA comme en ItPllie. LA. forme, lorst'lutelJp.

rn~

~UARi

comme en

n'~id~

nul

lement rendre plus fll.milier ce contenu, en le d.cryptnnt, en le

ressuscitant.
129

Pour ma part, je considre qu'il n'y a qu'une seule musolop,ie et

que donc, les conditions de son application pouvant v"rip.r,. seuls
ncuvp.nt v'u"ier le contenu musa.l a.insi que le~ moyens de son expre~
sion

muso~ranhique.

Il n'y a donc pas d'un ct une musoJor-ie pour

les pays "dvelopps" et une autre pour les pays "en voie de

d'velop~

pement". Pour reprendre la formulation des directives du prsent sym

posium, il y a "une musolo/\,ie F:nr"le utilisable tr".vers le monde
entier". Le contraire impliquerait que le muse, dans son esnence,
puisse recevoir plusieurs dfinitions de par le monde, selon l'en
droit o il nart. Des formes diffrentes peuvent apparattre ou se
dveloPJl"r ici ou l, des formes

nouvelles peuvent voir le jour dans

les pays en voie de dveloppement, mieux appropries telle ou telle

de leurs populations, comme ce fut le cas, en France, avec les co
muses, .rpondant mieux aux aspirations des populations rurales et
pri-urb"ines que les

~aleries

d'art, qui avaient la faveur des clas

ses les plus favorises en Occident. Mais la spcificit musale

doit t re

conserve. Car nous savons bien que les vari"tions que

l'on pressent sont dues aux diffrences culturelles des milieux dans
lesquels se dveloppent les muses, que ces diffrences ont le plus
souvent une origine sociale, et que l'on peut les retrouver aussi
bien dans les banlieues d'une grande vills industrielle ou dans un
village rural, en Europe ou en Amrique du Nord, que dans une ban

lieue ou dans un village d'un pays en voie de dveloppement.

La source des diffrences n'eet pas

~opolitique,

ells est sociale

et conomique. Simplement,en fonction du contexte conomique et so

cial, tel contenu musal ou telle forme mueale sont privilgis.

a) Diffrence dans le 1>esoin de muse : leur" envie de muse " est

loin d'3tre aussi forte qus dans les pays occidentaux, lssquels se
sont mis beaucoup plus tt conserver les tmoins de leur pass
comme pour conjurer la mort de

~ur

civilisation.

b) Diffrence dans le contenu: si,malgr tout, le pass intresse,

il

11' est

.pas

tel~smsnt

reprssnt par dss "osuvres d'art", au sens'

o l'Occident l'entend gnralement, sortiss de leur contexte, ou

par'!
cres sans contexte immdiat, quo/des tmoins culturels exprimant
les racines de chaque groupe ethnique, constituant son patrimoine
et permettant d'exprimer son pass et son prsent. De la sorte les
collections constitues entrent majoritairement dans la catgorie
des collections anthropologiques,qu'ellss trouvent leur oril':'ins
130

dans les fouilles archologiques ou dans les collectes ethnographi

ques. Comme le rappelait Y.O.Dawodu,

~ndateur

du Centre d'tudes

50% des
90% d'entre

musologiques de Jos,"si en Europe et en Amrique du Nord,

muses sont des muses historiques, en Afrique, plus de

eux sont soit ethnop;raphiques, soit archolo,o;iques." ( Icfueum, 1982,

XXXIV. n 0 1 ;r 43 )

C'est ainsi que nombre de petits musee, surtout

8.thnogDaphi~~es

existent de par le monde, qui sont peut-8tre des

~nrlo.

de muses

d'identit, mais trouvent un cho dans les populations d'o leur

contenu est issu. Qu'ils aient t crs l'initiative de gouver

nements Qoloniaux comme en Tunisie, au Maroc ou au Snp;al, ou
qu'ils soient l'oeuvre de gouvernements de nations anciennement
mancipes, comme en Europe orientale, au Mexique ou dans les na
tions d'Amrique du Sud, ou plus rcemment comme en la plupart des
nations africaines. Le

mod~le

n'en est pas tellement diffrent,ni

la frquentation, que da.ns n'importe quelle nation d'Europe ou

d'Amrique du Nord.
c) Diffrence dans le niveau culturel: l'El "mise niveau" ne passe
pas ncessairement par le canal du muse, institution p;nralement
tourns

vers le pass plut8t que vers l'avenir; et c'est - sans

doute trop - en faisant tabls rase de leurs rs.cines culturelles

que les pays en voie de dveloppement se tournent vers l'avenir.
C'est pourquoi les projets de cration de muses scientifiques et
techniques et de "'science oenter" sont de la plus grande importance
pour ces

p~s.

Mais, avant de regarder plus en dta.il quels tYPllfl de mURe correspon

dent le mieux un besoin et une ralit pour le premier public

concern, il nous faut revenir, pour l'vacuer, sur cette question

pose, vraie question sans doute pour certains, mais fausse question

pour la musologie, la question de l'aide et de la manipulation.

Si en effet nous acceptions de poser les

probl~mes musolo~iques

en

passant par cette prOblmatique, noue prjugsrions d'une vision con

joncturelle date ,et ne pourrions plus nous rfrer une mUBoloF,ie
que nous donnons comme sciencs gnralisante du muse considr com
me lieu culturel fonction universelle. Nous devons au contraire
nous dem"nder quels sont les meilleurs moyens offert" p. r la. mlls",,
logie pour rsoudre les probl"mes spcifi.ques pose l'.ux pOnllll".tionB
en voie de dveloppement, quel que eoit leur pays d'exist ... nce _ et
que ces moyens proviennent de l'extrieur ou de l' j ntrieur, mme Ri.
cha.cun ne neut que souha i ter nrfrable qU' ilR proviennent plutllt de
l'intrieur.
131

l.1l tTuestion de 1". mllnipulA.tinn, si ellp. doit @tre

mUAp.olo~i'Tue,

de vue

~VOtTu'<P.,

rl'un'pnint

c'est flour rA.pneler qu'l:l,unlln di.f-1C0l1rS cnl t.ll'rp.l,

neutr~lit6

historique potammp.nt, ne peut prtendre 1"

Il.bsolue et

tT1Ie, mme si les Universitll.ires eSRllient d'crire une hintoirp. 1"

pluo ohjective possible, chaque gpnr/ltion, Ch"tTUA cole d'historiens
/l sa propre vision qui remet en caURe peu ou prou l"R v:ions prc
dentes. De mme un muse, dllns lA choix de ses Ilcquisitions, comme
dans III conception de son exposition permllnente, ou de ses expositionn
temporaires, trlldqira toujours l'esprit de son (ses) conserv"teur(s),
qUi/
aussi objectives soient leurs ambitions.
.
PIlr contrs ... n'est pas la

musolo~ie

en t"nt que tellA mli "Ar" con

~

cerne lorsqu'un rpgime politique s'emploierA.

rcrire l'hiRtoire

pour en Rommel' ce qui lui dpplait ou en mettre en V'l.1 p.ur

~ l'el:~p.s

ce qui sert ses vues, jusqu' maquiller des sculptures, des neintures
ou des photop'rfl.phies. L ser" 1" manipulation .. t non 1"

mun~ol n(':i.e.

Une question dontolo....ique se pose toutefois "ux rARPonR"hleR Rcien

tifiques d'un prop'rllmme musp.op:r"phique, la seule s6rip.use, mme si
elle est politique et non musp.olo.... ique. Elle rejoint 1" questi.on de
l'~,

mme si elle peut s '101'1'1 iquer aussi bien .,. l'usap;e du mllse

aupr6s de cp.rtains milieux soci"ux dfllvorins des l'''ys

di~"d~velop

ns ll A.ussi bien qu' ceux des plllYs di'ts"en voie de dvelopncment"

dans leur

~lobalit.

L" question est: doit-on, peut-on fa.ire Ip. bien

des Irons mllllOr ellX ? Doit-on les aider il lever J eur nivellu cu]

tu~

rel? Est-ce les lever ou les cha,nger ? Et, da.ns ce cas, ...-t-on ]p.
droit de changer leur culture? Ora.ve question, aut"nt philosophique
que politique, qui d6p".sse de loin 1,, musolop;ie, m... is qui ln con
cerne a.us;'i d"ns la mesure
outil de d-

011

Oil

le muse peut tre, p"rmi d' Ilutre", un

d'ac-culturation.

Rien n'est innocent ds lors qu'il participe /lUX

le

CRS

du muse ds lors qu'il ne se contente

mut~tions.

p~s

~t

c'e~t

d'tre un miroir

fid"le du p".ss et intervient sur le nrp.sent et l' A.ven; l ' en se ... ~f~
rA.nt

d'"utres cultures qu' celles

hrit~es.

""ie le munp.e nse si

peu d;\ne: c:es mut."

. tions inluct.::..bleR quSil n'a (n1f\re :i Rn C':\11pnlJil iGer

et peut f"ire un
conserve

const~t

froid de ces

mut~.tions

en mme tmns qu' i l

l'h~rit"rrp..

'routefois,

~.\1 re~n.rd

de cet hrita!,e se pose une p;r"vp. tTnestinn, 'lui

touche profondment la musologie, nonce

mn~istrn]emp.nt

ble par Stnnisl"s Adotevi d"ns son

intervention d'JGON 71

132

~mouV/l\lte

Oreno

(Les muses d'ln" les systmES ducatifs

n~rologues. P~rie,

In : Ngritude et

et cul turels contAmpornins.

r~cp.mmp.nt n~~

107? ) et reoriee

Alpha Omar Kon"r ( ISS 1985 ) : 'c'est celle do. l~ mu"n.li,,~tion des

oeuvrp.s TP\T' leuT' dp.contoxtuA.liFH\tion, l'l;"r leur np.foncti.onn:l.lisa.tton.

Dj

fond~e

r~chant

pour toute oeuvre que l'on eort de eon contexte en 1',,1'

une gliee, un couvent, un

pel~is,

comme l'a Roulipnp.

mus~es

Quatremre de Quincy ds la cration dee premiere

franais de

la fin du Ifl et du op.but du 19 eicle ( ConsiMr~~ionA nul' ln des

tination rl.es ouvr".~es de l'art. P"ris, 181') ) "uquel a rnit p.cho T'aul
Valry en 192"' (PiceE sur l '"rt ],e problme du musA), ""tte cri
tique de 1.. "suspensio,'''(Jean Dav..llon) devient un hurlement de dou
e'a;~it

leur ds lore qu'il

d'oeuvres rituelles 'T"e l'nn

e~

leur milieu eacr. Et qui plus est, le plus sotlvent,

pour n'en conserver que les lmente les plus "nobles"

~rrnrhe

1eR
p~r

"

,.ltltil~.nt.

leurs m,,

triRux et leur technique ( voir un trs bon exemple ~ propos des

sculptures

~bel ..m,

des collections

in : Di'l.ne Losche et. Sue Wnlston, I..n. conservation

ethno~r"ph~ques

).?"

Mueeum.)CXXIV,nol,lqR?: 34V;
qui est en cause ( 11 8 ide

tl

ou

: l'insuffis"nc" de rl.ocumentation.

tt

n'est plue alors l'us"lre dll mllsp.e

mRn ipulA.tion" ), c'est son Rens mme,

voire son exietence. F:n tout c"s celle du muse de

henux-~rts.

h supposer que l'on conser... ~t les cr"tions ritnelles

t~ralit

dn~"

l~ F~tp.

( je sonrre telles tomhes dcores nour

Io1me

lenr in
dA"

~orts,

reconstitues "u Muse d'Anthropolorrie de "'exico ) et on'n.ucune mn

~ont.(l''Xtllilli.niltinn

ti.1A.tion n'ait lip.ll lors de leur mlls6alis;:\.tion, 1l.ne

!TI"xim~le

dans le

c~,dre

d'un mu"e d',..nthropolop;i",

des sciences de l'Homme, est-elle encore

ou,plu~ Inrl~Amp.nt,

concev~hle

e"n" que l'on con

tinue parler de tr~.hison .? Si oui, tout ...rrachement ~ll viv~.nt t'>.nt

dfinitivement interdit, c'est l'institution mus~le elle-mme nui
se trouve mise en

c~use.

Inutile de dvelopper plus

~.v"nt

cette cri

tique, qui est fondnment ..le.

Supposons nanmoins accepte l'ide de la musalisation de la culture
viv~nte

et des

tr~ces

de son histoire: il est toujours loisible de

cr4er un muse d'idntit au coeur de l'Afrique ou d"ns une ile de

l'Asiedu Sud-est, tout ..ussi bip.n 'TU'au Portuf..'Rl ou en Norvp:e. Tou
tes' les formes de muses d'identit sont alors imaginahles, et pas
lHl-Ulement le muse statique, reflet

"photo~r..phique",

"miroir" d'une

ralit complexe et pouvant se rfrer au modle "europen" qui a

parfois t implant
n'est pas forcment

d~ns

certaines ..nciennee colonies. Le modle

m~uvais

: se pose seulement la question de Son

adaptation un public pour lequel le muse n'est

p~s

forcment une

institution faisant partie de ees instruments culturels familiers

133

depuin deux sicles - oeci est vrai en banlieue de Parie ou de Lon

dres aussi bien que dans celles de Mexico ou d'Abidjan. Mais d'autres
modles existent, aussi nombreux qu'on peut les souhaiter, et notam
ment dans le genre des muses communautaires. Ce n'est pas le liou
d'en dvelopper ioi toutes les variantes, tudies
le cadre des ateliers du MINOM

p~r

exemple dans

nIl n'y a pas qu'une seule mthode

logi de la nouvelle musologie. Il y en a donc plusieurs qui se

construisent et s'appliquent dans des projets qui rpondent ses
principes et qui ont pour base des ralits sociales particulires."
(4 Atelier international de Nouvelle musologie. Saragosse,1981.
Conclusions).
~~is,

si un muse d'identit a un r6le capital dans la prise de cons

cience'de ce qu'est le patrimoine et de l'insertion du prsent dans

la dure, un muse des soiences de l'Homme ne saurait se limiter
l'exprsssion passiste de la culture d'un ou de plusieurs groupes
ethniques. Il doit dvelopper le plus largement possible les notions
de dure et d'espace, en montrant l'interaction entre les diffrentss
cultures et entre les cultures et le milieu naturel, dans le temps et
dans l'espace. En montrant que les mutations ont toujours eu lisu et
que l'image du pass ns saurait tre monolithique, il

~ide

affron

ter les problmes. dus la modernisation. Qui plus est, il doit abor
der les mutations contemporaines elles-mmes, quitte en simplifier
la prsentation pour en rendre abordable la complexit - et .out en
tendant au maximum d'objectivit ( sinon, gare la "manipulation" ).
Par ce biais,

m~me

s'il

rev~t

un

intr~t

moins pittoresque pour les

touristes, son rOle ducatif immdiat sera beaucoup plus grand. Et

encore plus grand sera son rOle s'il a la possibilit de se spcia
liser en certaines disciplines pour lesquelles nul autre mode d'ex
pression ne peut offrir une matire aussi concrtequ'il ne le fait
par vocation. Il peut le faire pour les muses scientifiques, pour
les muses techniques, pour les muses de beaux-arts.
Pour ces .derniers - qui sont ns d'une conception "moderne" de la
cration esthtique ( l'oeuvre,indpendante de la ralit sociale,
tenda.nt, depuis la. Renaissance, l'art pour l'art ), le plasticien
faisant souvent oeuvre de cration pour un public spcifique - le
seul moyen de.conqurir. cs."qil 1 on appelle le "non-puhlic" aux arts
plastiques est que les crateurs puisent leur inspiration au plus
prs des formes et des techniques familires ce "non-publ ic", de'
faon ce que ls deux parties entrent "en phase" sans avoir
134

franchir de barrire sociale. Ds qu'il aura

pntr~

dans l'art con

temporain ce nouveau public pourrll accder facilement il. l'art cl ...s

sique. Hormis cette voie, le premier restera litiste et le second
restera incompris d'un

~rand

nombre.

Mais s'il est des secteur.. o le muse rpond A une Ilttente pour les
populations "en voie de dvelonpement", ce sont bien les secteurs
scientifiques et techniques.
Parmi les premiers., il fllut donner toute leur import...nce a.ux muses
tR~onomie,

des scienoes de la Nature qui permettent, par la

III bio

logie et l'cologie nl".turelle, non seulement de retenir, en les re

cueillant, les savoirs ancestraux, ms.is de les enrichir p'lr l'laI'
gissement du rayon des connaissances une chelle extr...-rr,ionale,
voire mondiale. Il sont aussi un excellent outil nour anprendre
dfendre les ressources et l'environnement nR.turel s

men~.cs

chaque

jour un peu plus nar un progrs incontr61, en expliCTuant comment

rguler ces ressources, comment pargner l'environnement et lutter
contre la pollution. Par l'interdisciplinarit on rejoint les muses
des sciences de l'Univers, Flvec

l~

p;ophysiaue,

s'il]u~trant

pnr

l' exploi tation du Rous-sol, et l'agronomie, permettant d' exnl irmer

les modes d'exploitation du sol.
vp.nt a.ussi y puiser de

~' ...is

les llciences de l'lIomme neu

p;r~.nd8 ensei~ements urf'.ti.fT\leR

des problmes de sant,

d'hy~ine,

np,r ln

hi~is

d'ergonomie

Le champ principal des sciences de l'Univers "st

tOllt"f"i~

1 '''1:1'li

,,,,tion deG ph"nomnes nhysiques ninsi qUe leurs nppl icntions techni
ques, depuis les plus empiriques et les plus rlldiment"ires jU"fTU'l"lIX
plus sophistiques que notre poque a produites. Le "nvoil"-fnir
p'iri.rtu.e rrue lA.
P.'nr"'.ti~n,

tr~dition

tr~.nsmis

et flmp.liorp, de

,....,;nr;r~tion

doit 8tre conservp. comme doit @tre exp.l irrup. ce

t'TUfl:

Ml

f'!n
l

("'A

plUR gr"-nds sl"vants internRtionaux ont invent. De 1.'. fR.ucille :; la

moisRonneuse-batteuse, du

traineau et de ln pi 1'0,":11 " il l'l"ut"mohila

et au missile interplante.i re : tout peut l!tre montr

(lU

nUP:.~"r';

nour

tre mieux expliqu, complment concrret de ce que peut apnorter 1'10

cole et souvent "morce de vocations. Les moyen .. d'expression neuvent
en varier h l'infini, pour s'adapter aux diffrents nive;lux de nuh1ic.
Leur choix n ... rien voir nanmoins avec la ,o:opolitinl1e et nvec le
niveau gnral de dveloppement du pays, mRis avec les sen1n"

r.nt~

ffories de Duhlic vis.

Rn

~.\1cun

moment de leur crAtion ces muses ne cioivent voi r ne poser

135

1"- question de la rM.nipulation. Si elle ee trouve pos':P., c'eRt 'lue la

fonction musale
~our

Il

t dvoye et l'ob,iectivitii mueolor.ique trllhie

des raisons politiaues, comme voqu prcdemment: soit on ef-,

fet que l'assistance veuille s'afficher comme telle et

oes oon

e~jr.e

trepllrties, idolop,iques ou conomiques ( pp.r exemple l' interni ct ion

d'voquer, il. propos des matires premires et des pro,lu i ts ar.ricol RR,
la faon dont se fixent les cours mondi"ux ), soit 'lue l'idolor.ie
elle-mme r,uide la politique des muses ( par exemple: interdiction
d'voquer comment les infr"structures ou

l'orF,anis~.tion

oes chp.nr.es

rendent' difficiles les approvisionnements ou h"ndic"pent l'coulement

des produits ), comme elle

pu le fp.i re, pour certains mus"es oe t.v

pe historique, dans certR ins p"ys R.prs leur RccesRion

ollnce ou aprs une rvolution. M"is, rptons-le, le

~.

l' indl'en

d~voiement

est

forcment pol i tique et ne touche nullement ln musolop:ie nn.nn "on

essence.

Reste que, si

It~

existe,

c'e~t

bien pour dp.s

conomiques,

r~json~

cpr si les P"-.ys en voie de dveloppement connaissent des hn.ndic"-ps,

les principRux ne sont ni l'absence d'envie de

mU3~~

l~

0\1

rechnrche

d'un contenu "-d"-pt,; il 1" culture de leurs popul"f.tionn, "'''in Ip. fnit
qu 'un mun~~ est nrp.9f1'Ue tou.iours un lu"Cp.. T..p.~ mmf1~ r.r:l"i.ntcn ne m."'lni

puJ."-tion n"uvent se f"ire .iour aussi hien dn.ns un p"ys 'lui diRpooe ne
""Tftu-s de moyens, comme la. France,

d~s

10rn que len fin:l.ncemp.nts "en

!'T1'U

ses, .iusl"fu';\lors A.snums entirement Tl;l.r 1er;; nOllvoi.rr: nuhl ies,ou les
D:\.rticuJiers p::'l.r

l~

voie

l\ssoci~.tivp.t

r.or"ur"f'!nr.~r

se voient

rl.'trp. nrio

en ch .rRe ""r de Il'rR.ndes entreprises, souvent Mul tin.tion~les,

ln forme de
r:omnt~

m~c~~n:'\t.

TTn muse c01tp.

non seulp.ment. lA.

mr-.inten~ncc

ch~r C1'1~nd
de~

il f:"llt.

h~tjment.~,

SOIlS

nrp.nrlr~

lTl.li~

P.ll

les fr:'if:

rl~

restlur::t.tion et d'entretien des collectionR Pot RurtO\\t., ni. l'on Rnu

h~ite nu~

]:\

lPo

m'ls~e

Rir.'n:'\l~tique,

ne Roit

n~s

unp.

simnl~

des modes d'<:'nim:\tion et

n~~ropnlp.,

]~

~ont

n'p.xplic~t.;ont

rie

tO"t~

snt1V~~l\t

et,

n';p,liRP, d'un personnel il. 1 . fois snffisnnt en nomhre e'\ divp.r"ifiA

en comptences. Oitons encore Y.O.D"wodu : "C'est "ne lour"" t"che
Clue celle de conserVAteur,' surtou+ en Afri.rf1.1p.,

il

0'1

p.n+.

n~rf'oi~

le

seul emnloy du muse. (2!!.cit.) ponr reM:'lrquer, ;;i. 1:- cn"'"lpJ\r::t.i~,.,n

II

nlest P;:lR indp.cente, ou'il est

de

nombreux

ml.lSf~eS

p.n

Ji~lrOnp.

m:li~,

il est vr;:l.i qu' ils sont sans doute trop nomhre1J"''C ! - 0 11 1 P. nersonnel
se ] imite

nonr les

r. 11n Rt\.T'dien temps p::trtie]. Tln

n,~,YR

mua~p.

c01t(> cher, mme

riches 1 et 113. T'lT"ohlJ!lA.tiollF! <i.e sl)n

e"'(i~+.nn~fI!, Comrr1p

celle de l'instruction, ne doit pn.s se !,oser en t,,;'mp.~ nt> rentohilit,l.

Lf"! ~p.ul
uSr\p:e

136.

~mortissement

~d.1tC;:l.t if.

d'un

TTlu9:e

se me!3 1 1rp. dnn!=i

SR

f"'~f1l1p.nt~.ti.on

?t

Andr Desvalles -

Paris, France

Developing country or not: there Is only one museology

(rsum of the French texl)

Is the situation of museums in developing countries really different from what happens in
industrlalized nations, where the masses of workers, or of country people, only go to
museums with great difficulty if they have not been taken there during their early school
years?
There is not, on the one hand, a museology for developed countries, and one for
developlng countrles on the other hand. There IS only one general museology, usable
throughout the whole world. The opposite would imply that the museum, in its essence.
could have several ctifferent definitions across the world, according to where it was born.
Different forms can appear or be developed here and there. In developing countries
new forms can be devised that are more appropriate to one or another segment of the
population, as was the case in France where ecomuseums replied beller to the hopes
and expeetations of rLJal and semi-rural populations that do are galleries, which are
favored by the more advantaged groups in the west. But the specificity of what is a
museum remains. Because we know that the variations one feels are due to the cultural
differences of the environment where the museums evolved, and that these differences
are most olten sOCIal, and that they can be found in the urban areas of big industrial
cilies or in small villages. in Europe or in North America, in a suburb or in a village in a
developing country.
The origin of the difference is not geo-political, it is social and economical: differences
ln the needs of the museum, in its content, in the cultural level S .imp Iy, llccording to
the social and economic contexl, the contents and the form of one museum or another
will be advantaged. In particular museums of mankind will be the most abundant,
partlcularly museums of identity.
Concerning questions of ~ or manipulation, they are not relevant to museology :
thetr explanation can only be poIitical and does not concern museo/ogy at ail. Only the
question of help can come dose 10 the museological lX'obIem: "Do we have the right 10
intervene on the level and ln. the cultural content of others?" But museums have such a
small role to play in society's large mutations 1

If help exists, it is for finanClal reasons because a museum is always expenSlve, whether
in developing countries or in rich ones.

.137

138

Wojciech Gluziliski - Wroclaw, Pol and

Museology and Cultural Differentiation
Basing on the sciantifio knowledge of various disoiplines,
Coluseology endeavours to defina
riate

met~ods

'HW

L""alize the wost approp

and aeans of aotivities in the sphera of

oo~

prehilnsive IlluseW"J! worIe. Fulfilling this task i!luseolo;;y is,

aboya all, a practioa.l lCllowledge and theol'atioal elements a1'e
to substantiate and eluoidate - witnin this framework - prao
tioal propositions and norffiativ8 indications. It is obvious
t~at ~ilese

propositions and indioations Dre reasonable and

oan be utilized only on

t~e

basis of a definBd praotioe - the

museU:il praotice. This in turn is oultLil'ally oonditioneu in a

sensethat its geneais and

develop~ent

are linked with Euro

pean oulture and its oonte!!Jj.Jorary prinoiples have been sha.tied

throughout t:Je ninet eenth oel1 ~ ury. On the basis of the sy st sm
of values appropriate to this oulture, tr.e oonoept of time,
the peroeption of history, attitude tOI'lars the past and the
future, museum

pr.o~ice

emerged as an

exp r e s s ion of

these ideas and attitudes and as a praotioal

a c t i vit Y

for the realization of these values. In this sense, the prao

tioe 18 Hot of suoh a universal oharaoter that is a part of
aU praot ioe s relat ing t

the appeaS8:Jlent

require'llents. These praotices, ragardleso

f lllan' s bio logioal

0:(

ti,eir cultural

diffe!''3ntiations ars oO:W:lon te 'Jankind as a whole in time .nd

sp&oe O<1ouuse they :.ire al\'lays and evel'}l"/bere uniforlllly neoes
sary.

~onetn8~~ss. llluseu,~

praotioe in tbis sense ia neither

universal nor neoessary. TransferreJ to tne domain of a difre

rent oulture, where it is not an
sgeoifio ideas and attitudes it
alien and artifioial

e x

reo~ins

r Gas ion

of its

for that reason an

a 0 t i v i t Y ttat does not realize

139

values momentous for that oulture. It did not gro'.': up frou:

native

oultur~l

roots and is not,

&2

suoh,

i~nnnently Bubst~n

tiated. It has bsen transplanted tOBether with other elements

of an alien oll1ture, often also an alien politioal auti10ri ty.
It is diffioult to refrain from oalling it a manipulation.
Nonetheless, museum practioss have spread throughout the
world and wherever thsy are, if at all the y exist, thsy ought
to

resp~ct pr~ctical

propositions and normative indications

of museology beoause only thus oan effective operations be en

sured. This is not a manipulation any more but a quite ratio
nal requiremant, of course only if we consider this oonorete
praotioe and disregard its being - to a

d36~ee

- an alien in

ter201ation in tne system of a looal, native oulture. But this

means t::at .lluseology finds its',lf in a highly aillbiguous posi-
tion. On the one hand, as a soienoe regulating a specifio prac
tice, it is - because of this praotice - a rationally substan
tiated instrument and, on t:,e othe!' hand, due to individual
features of a local culture, it is an
tion sincs it resulates a

~ractice

i~stru~~nt

of manipula

ulien to teis culture. This

i8 being done apparently for the banefit of the CvrURE, but

there ie no abstract CUi/l'URE, th,"re exist however concrete,
individual oultures as

e~pirical

facts. Museology must take

sides therefore, dOBS it support CUDfURE as an abstraot or oul

tures as reel facts. There should be no doubt as to tte proper
choice. If this is so, Clueeology faces an

i~lportant

task of

:codifying its basic aesumptions V/hioh V/ould allow to zda;;;t mu

seu~

practice to cultural conditions in every

fashion it would transforw

fro~

an

~lien

r2sp~ct.

In this

cultural body into an

orL,nnic ele!Llent of native culture - of a ne\\' quality, of cour

se. Certain

140

r~cent

features in

wuseu~ practic~

seem to indica

te that this process has already begun.

At the tims

~hen

G. Dshio accused museums of "failing to

protect tts historicsl lseets, tlle tif'torical :r:ilieu, and li

ving from the sappfng and
they could not dsvelop

d~stroying

ott~r~ise"

of trlse

as~ets, b~cause

("Kunstchronik", 23, 1911),

the colonial museuws nct only "sapped and destroyed the histo
rical environment of subjugate oountries but also penetrated
and

ex~lored

them as

vivid oultural tissue. Instead, they

established in their exposition rooms

~ad,

fIat and

6che~atio

cultural iu.ages \'!hich outside tl.e CJuseLl.ffi v!alls h",d livad their
naturel lives and represented a

nor~al

everyoay existence for

milLions of people.
",JutiSUillS are herbariu:;Js. Herb,iuLls lre use fuI" - declares
tl16

sacle ut,;or - "but tt,.:>y

81'S

passed by if on", oan see li-

vir;E plants "n their neii;hbours, tu0 80il of their roota and
+'.
,,1.8

enveloping atmosphere". He conoludes:

"illussu~S

are not an

end in theillseives, :r.useu:.Js are linl:s in the [eneral system of

tlle

protectio~

of tbe naturoL

s e, rioe if
e~erge

of relics". Today we
e~6

th~re

cult~ral 8nviron~~nt.

i~

directly from

say: tbe protaction

Pine1ly, he iB hope

Bubstunce t:lut re,:uir!5 prctection",

2
t!~

environment ta

belongs trom the histox"ioal

~ether

~ouiJ

asp~ot

w~ich

this substance

and raquirs protection to

\',i.t., it as its natural milieu.

Lhese ideas

prec~de

by scores of years the

pres~nt,

80-cal

led "nell' museology" with its ";;luseu:s without walls". 'Ulil; is

where l \l'ould envisage an attempt at the previously postulate
xodifications of traitional xuseology.
":~useuf!jG

sion of open

v!ithout Vlalls' - tbis need not involve te inolu

~paces beyon~ t~~

mUBsum by traditionBl

~useum

141

proo:ldures. It would egual a tram;formation of the living en

vironment into a gigantio nherbarium' - a aenseless task im

possible to realize.

Nsither oan it Ulsan t"e absorbtion of mUBeUillfJ by o.?en spa

oes. rhe physi021 differentiution of the cultural heritage de
monds the use of

vari~us ille~ns

includins thosB typical of

and methods of praservation,

DiUS8UCS.

'l'he definitin ,llUSeUfJS witLout 1'.'alls" cont2.ins t'."o

s~para

te yet coup1ed ideas: the idee of stri.tJl'in.; wuseulfis of tlll5i!'

t~~ditional i~age

and the idea of cietting out of

~UGeuw

enclo

sures. The idea of "striPlJinb illUS'IlJiIS of thi"ir L'aditional illia

ge n comes frolL

n.

huhn ("':luseumsl,uDde"

14,

1~20i

16, 1922

''!ri tten il': 1919) \':ho sharply criticized mUBeU..lS, in particular

;nu~eu~s

of art, and postulatad their thDrough reiorm (previous

1,;', l considered it too rBdical cus~s WUEeU~E

ac

of "i~poverishing the abject tei~n ovar from ni~

net""ntt centul"Y positivism. Objects

n t s,

;3Ut~_or

rss 11, 198b). The

~he.r'1for''3 illL1E:eu~s,

a,'6

S6",n "s

U!li

consistent v.'it.L tbeir oharacter, oon

struct th8ir expositions in accord:o,noe "Iith esot'O'ric l:cinti

fic )rinciples (cf. D. Cameron in

"~US4d

l'ho~~e

au servics de

... ', rCOi1i 1971), disregardir:g pu!:Jlic rl5qu.;;ents <llld possibi

1iti,os

o~

recsption. :Ihus - j)ostu1a":ss Kulm - il' sa far \':e fo

cussed our attsntion on GluseUJ;:

co:..:s :,,6 Bense and objctivs of
re an 6a1'1i8r
by

for~ulation

objects, man should now be

",us'~u:,'

activities.. 'Ne find he

of tha preEent-dhY tendency definee

F. v. ;,'lenLch as "tLe shift i'roi:i obj sct-csnt,;reod to

nity-centered"

(r55 12, 1987). This shift in

it possible to Irae museum practice from its

and

od~pt

L13nt, ss

142

it to the cQltural specifioity of

~~s r~fsrred

ta Dt the

b~Jin!line.

COWlLU

dir~ction
~njform

e a c h

wakas

corset
environ

This i8 not a pure

ly me ohanic81 0para t ion hov!dver, i t i8 linlcad 'ai th the ne oa s

sity of cognizing the cultural and sociologioal aspects of li
fe of this

oo~~unity,

in particular

th~

sYillbols and systems of

values functioning in it. This requires a

ove r

the :llUEeu;)) '.'Ialls and

its interior towards a

gi~en

cO.::l:~ing

s t e p pin g

out of the sanotu"y of

oomwunity. But this is not aIl.

If the community is to be the rsfarance point of museum prac

tice, it wioll be sensible only when
ped &utaoritatively
b J'

for

tb~

illuseum will not be sha

it, but within

it. In turn, this CEans tha

ste;;>pin~

specified range

OV'3r mUS8Uill l'Ialls by

the co ,,:lunit y to its interior in order to influence LDUS6U;;; ,?rac

tice direetly. In aIl,
'::':\1setl~

t.i.'18 o?e:.:

oing

.~~~ ~U2eum

Il:~3

as' an

cO~~Llnit:l

819~3nt

CO.~:jLlIl.ity, pe~c;'3iv::-.d ;~jS

ronm~nt
t~}t3

ta a

t~is ill~ans

of its

u close cooJ'ration oatween

\'lit:,; :-bis

of 1:8
081n...;

OO~j;:Llnity,

no'.") er;jbra

o~n cul~u~e.
S9l?8:'Dt~~d

~;xibt.ence, ,~'t=<:':8ins hC'''!-3V'=I'

st.'3})in,:; O''J''3r .':':LU.ia.:J v!alls !.Just li.8.Ve

.J

i'r,);.:! ttle envi

.LJl.P~

;:~LJ8trC;.iotn6s8;

the1.' -:.':ore a

viron:.:J8ntal aspect: t!1:7 llluseu.;; do'Os not r"st:iet

t~.

1t~elf

ird en

to ;:.re

Bervi!"!,:; cQitural heritElge ':litl,j its ',','alls but u!"!::srtak"s Cby

itself or eooperating with other institutions end thus 1n8p1
l'in::;

t~,;e

cOi~unity)

ments of the

the protection of cultural and natural ele

enviro~3ent.

In regard to cultural values thase

aetivit1es illay be extAnsively understood dnd eubrace both eus

to:ns

B:"1

ting) end

habits (supporting, ins;Jiring. sti.1;ulatin;:;, dOOUill'3TI

t~e

material heritage. As

r~gards

the latter, it

should involva aboya all a protection in situ if possible or

i,j tld

.;;useu:~

bt only if necess::n'y.

I!"! "':l1e risin.::; CU"'rent of the soi.entifio-tecill1ieal revolu

tion tee
CO:.1"8

proble~

of the direction ot ci.vilization ohanges be

ilartieula:cly important sinee there is no doubttr,at it

143

will reach everywhere.

pl~netary
~it~

~ut

out of the two possibilities: the

unifor~ization

and totul

or selective unification

the keepir.g of historiGally shaped, native cultural va

lues - only the latter is acceptable and' "mussums without

walls" should Bct in its interest.
The new museum praotioe cannot do without its own theore
tooal foundations but the:! ",ust ditfer fro .., those hithE'rto

80

oepted. ThE' faot tbat trditional mussums o,ilerate in a 6p'3oi

fic mBnnsr l'SuItE j'rom e
wbich, 28
-

t~leoloGic~l
~:o

i -:se.lf b-=lon:;ing

~6fir.pd

";hilosophy oi

tb50ry, constitutes

~u8eurus",

substructure

"JusaoloL;y - oi' t"is pai't d,i ch et the

il: ;!;i.nnini; l Luve cal1~d a priotical Imo'!.'led"El. 'lll1is tbElory de

fin~s

in

obj!cts of cctivity

P~&CtiC9 ~hilEl th~

BS valu~s ~hich Ebo~ld

pr~ctical

sectio? of

be

rs~lizsd

~u~~olo~y

cncoses

certi;ir. ;:;,tbods and .:Js2ns for tl1'3ir rsalization, In cLar

v.'ords, ;!luseu.:Js

such as thfir idea is ane as tlley Glre sha

e:r~

ped by pr'sctical. eclarations ar.:l normative inicatior-s of :::u

se010;;y as a practical kno'''l",():::;e serving th"
tl!i8 idea. But it uuct b?
lJ"iJly 1'1'0:: t,.'o beginning -

a!x:

t~,is

::~

L'"a cr'

r~:;:

is

t.;.:~ ;::.t~.

"ti~

.::L'."=Ll.~S

tbis id?a is

rJo:;),~nt

fro.:: ieclo;y it

144

- as it

:;~,

eiU"'t

WBS

pro

'.'ith ideclogy

Ijnl(~d

of :.aani.mLtion

rOL'.l~

~'::;::"

not heva to ebsorb

::""UEU~8 l"~fl,::c-+':s &1'!

c~rt:ir.

EystB~

i('~olo~icul

i.'?ul.

:;.ystGl;l

r'2sons auti:orit8tiv61y

l'rom a 2!'eviouc 8ccej,.:tano;:> oi a

thiE

c~neral1y

of

~}F;;8rs.

lil~ke

sc

1'0 free

':.ith the

-4;L~t

sstura

tl:.:: l'~f16ctior~ of itb aJ\iolc~;,ic21 r: s;.~itic strc

id.:e of

;,:nize

th;;

th~t

O':>l1o:--7:e cubsta:F,e. oI corJ!.:1.W1al liis,

8YK~

ture it

wh.~re

s~id

'::'81i~~tion

often swerves

f~om

s.tl~cifiC

lite.

W~

"'~.

elsments. 30 fer,
of v81uas,
~

:c~co

..:od.:;l, but the

i:>6010<:;y.

,;~

a r",sult,

conclude th2refcre, tl!8t

trJe hithfl'tO rscoc:niz":d "philsopL;;> of

,JU,"UiLS"

plscsd oy

t~_o

1'=;9.1

8cion;;i.fic d:cijlir.:s:

shoL:.l.J ba

1'8

:oociolo::';;)1 of cultu

re .::.n::: seliotics of cuHure !J?>Jlied to ooncret3 c:l1tur"l envi

ron::le::ts. But thase

:mviron:n~nts ,iL'tl

tl1erafore accept - v:itilin the

'~useu~s ~ithout

tions in

~useu~

diff9rsnti!lt;ld,

fr~hl9v"orl~

VIS

;;lU st

of a gen'3ral idea of

wells" - the JOfsibil.ity of >Jartisl varia

practice Vlhich

mUDt

be

corr3spondin~ly

alas

tio if oonorete communities are to be its point of refarence.

Conclu:J.ing 1 wisi"! to a-'lphasize thet even
wells"

cun~ot

ba

exampt~e

from traditionsl

involvi~1~ dOCIlLr2nt::ltj.on ~nd

t:Hlt

t~h:J

without

Eci~ntific

functions

r~s3erch :'.'itl.~ on? ;>rov.is.ion hO':'ev'3r

viill not lsave 'chair

viti'.ls but only su)}ort L

"wus:u~s

i~]rint

'~nvi.c,)n_J::ntal

aoti

if ne.;dsd.

145

146

Ousmane Sow Huchard -

Dakar, Sngal

Note de prsentation

Les trois textes suivants retracent et rsument assez bien les interrogations
et les proccupations d'lm grand nombre de musologues ali"icains. et abordent.
avec des pOInts de vue de nIveau thorique. pratique. mthodologique et
conreptuellf' diverxents, la problmatique musale et musoJogiqUE' dans les pay~
d'Afnque noire en particulier. et dans les pays en dveloppement en gnral.
Ayant anim lm dbat. que nous avons provoqu travers les colonnes du
quotIdien natIOnal sngalais SlO' J'action musologique. ces trois textes avalent
pOlO' objectif d'clairer la pratique quotidienne des professionnels des muses
africains.
Ces trois textes qui se suivent sont prsents dans J'ordre suivant:
le premier. qui est de l'autelO' lui-mme (Ousmane Sow BUCHARDl.
s'intitule : "La culture. ses objets-tmoins. et l'action muso- logique) (in: Le
Soleil. Dakar, jeudi 20 janvier 1983. p. 9)
le second. qui se veut lme rponse au premier. est de Mme MBengue. ne
Mariama NDoye, alors conseIVatelO' du Muse des arts africains de l'Institut de
l'Afrique noire 111 place Soweto (ancielUlement place Tasher); son titre est: "Le
muse en question" (in: Le SoleiL Dakar, vendredi 4 mars 1983)
le troisime. qui est une rponse au deuxime, et qui est de l'autelO'.
s'intitule "La culroe. ses objets-tmoins et la musologie en question".

En livrant ces trois rOexions aux membres de notre Comit intematiolUll

pmu' la musologie, je voudrais alimenter ainsi les discussions autolO' du thme de
notre colloque, mais aussi j'espre pouvoir tirer profit de l'clairage et de
l'exprience de tous les collgues polO' nous aIder faire avancer les muses et la
musologie en Afrique.
147

1 Ousmane Sow Huchard

La culture, ses objetstmoins et l'action musologique
dans Le Soleil, Sngal le 20 janvier 1983

Insll1ulion , but non luer.m, ou

ver1e lU public.n g6n'''1 et .dminS

Ir'e d.n. son fnl.rtl, qui s. tOnSlc,e

".xposltion de bilns cullurets.

IfU~ 'Iude.' "ur Inlerp,'tllion,' ltur

colleclion.t. ft'ur prhenl.tlon, pour

Uducalion .111 ;>Ialslr dl.ll'ublic,

1 le mesSlge visue' Qu' comporl~:

-- le mesuge symbOlIque du ture

bon eUfop6enne. Clr, ln AfriQue.

- le clmeU',.. de rart;

IP,ts l'accession lndtpenda"CI

dt 1. plupar1 des pl yi. ni IIII,Y pr.".

- un blzlr neutr,:

- rlSi~ POS1hum de l'art;

- Grenier de luxe o les objels

culturels perd.nll.ur Id.ndil~ tlleur

.1gnificalion; .

Dans un cadre plus ofnfr.1. toul

objet J>ouv.nt a"ecler run de nos
sens II. 't'ut, le louche'. l'odorat le
ol, I"ouTe), c.onslitut un mtssage.

l i probl'mitiqui mU"otoglquI
lu des .,.dltlon. de con N'
wl110n ou d'exposition d'objets-"
moins dans la loci't' .niCline tr.di
tionnelle. il
qUllnllitufion mu
Mil. t,II, Qu',lIe .xis'. luJourd"hul
Cla""1 plupart ~'I pays Irriellns. M

SI'"

,e,l.

nourrit "s.nUIUlmanl d. la concep

dre en charge radmlni.lraUon de ptu

'Siel.lfs sorte, d"stitulio", qu'
co
Ioniuleur .,.it crtHI pOUf,5e~

,<

lOins propres; te muMI faillI, .,artl

de celles-I'. C"slalnsl que 1. S."tp.1
htrili de qUltre institullons mu
Males raU.ch'e l'Institut fond.
mental d'Afrique noir, (IF AN; de
rUni....'.il. de D.k,r. Il S'igil du mL!
see des Arts .fricains Ou mUHe

t'hnoor.phiQue 1. pllc..r Tascher'

Dakar; du mus~e historique oe rAfri
que occidental, et du muse de la n..:'.r
Goree, du musee hislorique et
.thnographique A Saint-louis.

le MUsH Dynamique, quant' iui,

lut crU arocculondu premierfestiVill
mondial S1es Arts n'gres. pour .bri1er
Il plus grande ,.posltion temporaire
dar1 ntgre j.mais rh!i,,,- llr.vers le
monde

AUJourdhul. .Iors qu'un projef de

"'us" des CiYilisalions nolr.s exille.
loret nous esl de con st. 1er que la
prob5fom'lique muologiqu. resle
IoIne art.ir. Joln dIS pr'occup'lions
dt 1. grande majorilf des chelcheurs

"allonlu 1 du public en

Of"',.I.

Empiriquement, l'action musfologl

que du S.nfgal. durant ClIS Yingl d.r

nitres Inn6es, Ist dtmeur" circons
tritt Il 'amille des chercheu's
't,.ng"., un po4tit public d'inltih tt
u. toUf"l:s&eL

ObjectiYlment, nous ne savons pu

Ct' qve les S6"fgalals pensent dn
musfes
de leur rOll dans leur s:)
cflt ,n plein. mulation. Cependant,
noui ... yons que tous les musles. oU
Qu'ils se trouvent, "'6ch.ppent piS il
Il contradiction rondamentaJe de
lout. institution du o.nre : celle de
luer Il signification de l'objel tn re_
tray.ntode son conl.x1e propri.

.t

Dans le d'blt Inlmj qui opposell's

diltnseurs et les d.ltlCteuts de l"ins
tilution mus.,le, on peul Intendre du
muse, plusieurs d.'iniliio'"', o'J tp.
marqu.rs donl les suivi nies :

- 1. niu.... n'.,t PIS inttgr. 'u

monde conl.mporih ':

- Il nolion de mus6 sl pfrlmH;

ttc ...
Malg'f toules les crlllQues dont e!!e
est l'objet. lnslltution mushle, de
pul, Il nal.unce, a connu une ho
lutlon .1 un d'veloppemenl remar
~u.blts de par Il diffusion ,t ..
concepHon: on en compllra;l au
jourdhul Quelque Quinze mille. Ira
ver, le mondl, dont 1. moiti' au.
Elall-Unll dAmtriQul.

,n

SI
Afrique, l'institution mus"le
..1 consi<i4r" pif eer1.ins comme
un. sor1e de prison pour les objets
culturels des pe-uplel '~IIIQuels le co
lonisateur Ivalt impOH sa clvliulon,
Il resle- qu'il app.rtlenl aujourd'hui'
no, Inlhropologues. arch'ologues.
so~iologues, mudologues, If ~'du.
c.~,ur5.' d'inItier uni nouvelle pratl
que mus6ologique C9"rorme a nos
politiques de dhtlop~ment. nos
ao;.piralions nalionlles el l'impe
rieuse ncessilf de Il realisalion de
I"unilf Ifrcaine.
Dt Il cU"UrI Il d. 1 obllta-I'.

moln..
.. Ou~nlendon~nous
'moin .. ?

Si on se livraii i une .conoml, de 1.

Cullur., on constaltrail trh vile,
comme
soulipn' .... br.~m 'Moles
que: .1. Cu"ur."., rfd.JU fm./ement'
une ~"o,me Qu.nlt'~ cH m.suges...
Un messaOe t'ar.t un groupe finI. or
donnf. dt1menls puish dans un rf

r.

pertoire. constitu.nt une dquence de

signes assembls selon cert.inesIlil.
Dans cet univers de. messages que
constitue 1. Culture. on distingue:
,. l ' mtsupe sonore Qu; se subdi
"iJf lui-mIme
"ois c.t'gories :

,n

- inslilulion Qui prhenlt dt's !-1"1.

wmbles de biens culturels t des 'Ins
de conservai ion. d'flude, cftducahon

la p'rOf~,

.1 de cHlKlllion

J. bruir.

148

par .. objet

'.ngap' des hommes

fang.pt d~s sens,tlons

-1. musioue.

J.nplJQf' des choses

;mpr'm~

- le mesup~ des formes artificielles

_ lei mess"g~s ar'is"QLl...~s" IMoles
A).

Autlement dit. la Culture se rfume il

1ensemble des signes de la.vie sociale
des ho,nmM .1 tela nous ,am'ne i t.
thfort de l''change el plus o'n~'a
le me nt lU pt1~nom~r'\e de t. tommv
ntcalion soci.le en .nthropolodle
Ces mesuges Que l"homme projette
hors de SI conscienc, pour commu
niquer .vec d'aulres hommn elren
vironnem,n" en gn'ral, sont tous
des objets culturels. Ils peuvent lre
matfriels ou non malriels; on peut
les observer ou ln toucher. les sentir
ou les entendre, ielon leur forme Ou
leul nature propre. Les objels cultu
reis sont donc, quelle Que soil leur
l'lature, les t~molns de l'exIstence
.mme de la Cullure qui est, en d',u
Ires termes, .-,.,ffort humain indivl
due! ou conecrif qui me' f, n~tu'e.u
service de "'Jomme-, mals c'e!>t Bussl
par utenslon; comme r.volution
tlistorlQue dt l'humanit nous l'a en
!""i1~n~: -rvlilisarion Que rhomme
f... l! de lui mIme et des 'ufres homo
mu d.nl " ",e ,oefale .. (Virton. S.J ..
196,5).
Si les objel, cultur,'s maltrit'Is If
m('lignenl de ra~'ilude de I"homme
fixer SI pense dans des symboles

mat'riels. il reste Quf' cetle pen~e qui

p.ul 6tre individuelle Ou collective.
Irouve aussi son e.pression dans
d'a~lres oblllS de nalure louttll."tlle
renie des premiers: car comme le dil
Marx: pDijt'lS ,. ptoduclion, tes homo
mes n',gissen, pu seulemenl sur f.
nlfurt, mais avssi les uns sur les 'v
Ires. 111 ne p,oduisenr Qu'en col/abo
""' tfune m,"'re determine ef en
echange,nt entre eUI Jeur~ acrl~its
POU' produire, ils tntren' en re/arions
tl en '.pports d4rermines les uns
.vec les lufrll, ef ce n'esr qur dans
les limites de ces reJarions ef de ces
r,pports Jocjau~

Que

s'4fablif leur

action svr la n,ture, 1. productionN.

L'ensemble deo;. rapports sociaux
Qui se cari\clrise par plusieurs ni
veaux de comprhension (pOllllQue,
religieux. ~conomjque. social. juridlo
.qve. elc ... ). sont aussi des ObjelS
cul1urels donlles manifeslalions son!
t:anSPbles

C!'s Objets cullurels. Qut>

l'on .ppelle plus couramment des

raits lociau . constituent .....C le~
objets culturels m.I'ri.ls ce Qu'on
pourrait nommer: 1. diChotomie de
r islence hum.in. Ces deu. nalu
r'i d'objets cullur.11 sonl r'gies p.r
.l di,lectiQue soci.le. cerac"ristiqui
prlncipar. de la d)'nlmIQut' culturelll..
lnltitution mu~ le, en l,nt Que
miroir de la socitl., ne de."il plus se
conlen'er seulemenl de glrder la
-m.mOire de l, socit" .. inscrite Ou
m,l'rl,IiMe d,ns des objtts ph)'si.
Ques muillforrnes. mlis con'Id'rer
l'ensembl. des Objets culturels pro
duils pif le s)'sltme soei" les hom
mes de mushs ttlnd,ont donc
compte du 'ail que .. 1 .iocI41~. 'en
nmb/e

soci.I, e.s'

,/Iu/,IIe

d,ft.s

globe/jl., dune cerlline Cul'ure

JI!

.so.

ci", Ilprimle p,t un -rl...u de

conn.,ss.nces,I$ull.n,.
d'une
:;ve/conQve I.on de rensemb/e des
m"~tI'v. cvllute/s Qu'elle "btlque .
Il est commode d.ppe/er -m~mo'te
du monde- la
fensem:Jf' de ces
m'f~~j'u., tefs u/s pou".ienl se
'rov ... er .ecumul~s oan$ une -/Ji.
b/'ol"'~Qve unp;frselle .. (Moles. .J.
Celle .. b,bf,o'''.Que uni.. . erstlfe ne
ser.it luire chose Que le Muse de
l'homme rconcili ....ec lui-mtme et
1. nalurl

v,

les lails sociaux car,Ctfriss pat

I.ut mobilit' perm,nente, sont bien
des mlnilesletions de culture;
cest-'dire des objets culturels,
plrce Qu'ils sont sensibles' nos sens
et qu'ils sonl .ussi des fruits de 1'''11.
... it des hommes en ,apport lVec
d'Iutres homm.s .t Il n,ture L'an
Itlfopologie 1 dfjl large me nI dmon
Ir l'objectivit de crs ot'ljels cultu
reis. Mfme si celll objectjvit~ peul
v,rier selon la n.ture et la forme des
obj.tS Qui se p"sentenl nous. et
bien Qu'elle soil s)'nonyme d'imper.
Il,lit. de rlalit' ou d'uni ...ersalil', Il
reste Que c'eslloujour! A partir d'une
(tf1ain, comprhension concep
luelle el IhoriQuP Que nous lente
rons. par l'observation sensorielle el
perceptive. d',pprfhender les dlll.
rtnl, Uptell.
profond.ur. el les
art'Cul.flons de ces Objets Cu1tuII11
Ou l.ltS SOCI.UX que nous pr'''rons
appeler Obl'U socj,u. NOuS ons
tm~run1f l'eaprnsion CI Ri... itr .

'IS

1969).

C'est parc. Qu'''ulour dt' l'Objet

cultu,el ma l fIel se crrStallise une
cert,ine Qu.nhl' d'Ictivitls hum.l'
nes Que luI. nouS r,ppelons: obier
m.t."el soci,h,sl

.. les obltlS SOClU.-: mylhes.l,n

'Ques tt langages di ...ers. danses. rites.
chansons. mUSIques. ele .. el ."S ob
,ets m"'fl'Is soeialisf~: pirogul$,
m;)sQves. Ii ... rn, ...oitures, costumes,
elc .. forment c. qut nous ....ons .p
ptl pl vS haul. 1, dichotoml' cultu

relit En tanl Que fruits de l''Cli ...it'

humelne. ils sont des produits de
culture, des instruments d. culture.
des vehicules de cullure fi s)'mboles
de curt ure Ainsi. dlns toul a.
l'Homm. Clt.l'ur d. C.S Ob,.ls. n'est;;
Qu un intcrm'dl.ue d,ns celle Obl'C'
Il ..... I,on dv 10CI,I C'S deu. na'ur.s
(J obJeb ,"on1 (JI.lecliQuem.nl lites,
car. l'Objet ,"oci.l peut s'inSCrire dans
l'Objet matriel socialisf, .t l'objel
mat' riel ICcialisf peul r.j.i1Iir lur
l'objel SOCI.I: lulrem.nl dil, l'un peul
ser . . ir de lupport
pression de
r'ult . P.r cons'Qu.nl. Inslilullon
mus"'e, doni l'une des .Iches es
Hnlielles l'si l'inlfrpr61alion des
ph'nOm6 n es hum.ins et soci.".,
doit. avec Il, outils sci.nllfiques de SI
discipline m'r., "anthropologie.
lente- de r.....ler le monde des sign."
c ..tions ,ocla'es et hisloriques des
Objets mat"I.ls .0cia,lists l'OU ob
It'IS soci.u. d.ns leurs fll.tions dl'
lecl'Ques Cu objets, c'eslln l,nt Que
mmOlfe ou miroir d. 1. locit Que
nousleuppelons :-obiet3,'_moinlde
'i . . ,/,uflon Ils portent en eu. le f
moign.ge de l'uistence Il dIS f,,"es

des hommes. Nous 'nlendons donc

par "Objet-Itmoin .. , tout -obje' m.t

lIel sOcl'I.SO... ou lout .. ob;el Soci,l ..

"I..

Le muse. en devenanl un cent,e de

conservation el d'Int,rprftaiion des

oblets,lernornS de civilisation . im

pose .u. specl.leurs une "lallon

loute nou ....lIt .....ec ces produits

culturels l. situation l'thargiqui

dans l'Quelle sonl glrdlh ces objets

16mOlns dppuis le dbul.de r ....enlure

elhnOOlaphlQue,
conc:1uit au

jouldhui. cer1.ins ch.rcheurs t o

noncer celle p,atiQue mustOlogiQue

Qu'liS qualllleni de -dn.lur.lion .. et

de -mutil'Iion-. Il faut rlppeler ici,

Qul ut dhormais admis, d.ns It '1
nou"'f'lIemenl des Ih'ories et des
m-lhodes en sciences des SOCi~ls,
Que la meilleu,e .conn.i~Slnce des
10Cl(otfs humaInes pasu pat une
anal)'se des dlflt-rents phnomtnes
spcio-cullurels, dans leur spcifiCIt.,
leur filiatIon, leur compl"mentarit'
dialechQueet I.u' signific.tlon"ans la
dynamique sociale,
l.C'in de con~id~fer dens le mus~e.
uniquement. le caraclfE' esth~llque
.ccessoire de robjet-I'moln (II
glandt erreur de la mUSfoologl' trad.
honnI III), l'inll'pr.tation OlalaetlQue
le rh~era comme unI dritlble
source de conn,.ssances pour de.s
speet.tturs ttr,ngers son enYlron
nemen1 soelo-culturel, .t CKI, p,r
l'analyse, 1, prhentation ., rlnlma'
lion d.ns 1. cadre dun. t.pOll1ion
permanenlt, temporaire Ou hi""
rante.
Pour prsenter Ou e.postr un ob
jeHmo.n dans un c..dre mU~'I, il
I.ul d'abord l'ludier, l'.n.IY$oIr:
faut donc le connai"e er pou' C.l,. Il

faulle_d,f.nir; c'ul-'dlte en dglgE'r

10UI les "racl'Fles qui peu.... nl eider

les s~clat.urs. In p"'Mtr.r l'univers

10cio-culture' : C'es1 r.cli ...i1' de ~.
cherch, dans 1. . must... Cene "6fl
nilion mullidlmlnsionn.lle, Qui est un
prfa'eblt loute inl.rpr'la!ion mu
HOQr.phiQue, consislera lC'uler
rObjeH.moin en tanl Que signe.
Iymbole, ln ta ni . Que pOSStsseur
d'une histoire et d'une fonction sa
ci.le; ln t.n1 QUI posses$olu' ' .... ntu.l
de plusleurs CIf"""S (1$IhfllQue ..
sociologique, pelitique, 6conomiQue.
religieu., tic...), en I.nl Qui m.mbre
d'un sysltme d'otljets mu par 1. d)'.
namlQUI 10ci.I.,

Il s'.git pour Its musologutl ,Iri

c.ins, de ,ompre ....ec 'e discours im
posleur dl la mus.oloOI' tr.dll.on
ne Ile el de s',mploy.r l I,i" prend,e
conscience 6 la ,euness.' .n pa"lcu'
11er Il lous Ils membl'S CS. 1, 500
clt. de la n.cessit' de teconnallre.
Ot sauvega'der, de d.tendlt, d',lIus
"er el de menre en QlU"'" lous les
.'.m.nls d. nolfl p.trimoine culturel
et historiqu., -L. conscience de'cef'"
';'IiI~ .S( p}oli...... Elle 'Mr,tn'f'
d, p,4 ou d, force, 1, mu.s~opr,phje
(rt " musiOIOpie) , I f m,ni/ester
d,ns SI foncrion critique de culture.
SI (o"cfion ~,i1'b/e de SlvO", paf
une .d~qu."on , 1. '~.',tf Quot.
~ o,enne... (5 Adolt ... ,).

Le muse alricain dOIt connallle

nGen.irement 'des ,.pports dt"
complmentaril. It dl! compllc.tE'
...ec le syst.me 'duCitionnel Ou on
j'appeui -Cenlr. 'de (fcyc/'gE' hIS/O'
,ique~, ... Un'lI'.rs;t~, /!opu/'lfe..
Ou
.. Ce",re Cul1u'.I.. , te muste afric,lI'\
doil tir. If G,.nd Ihitt,e ou I~ patrl'
moine cultur.l,tl hislorlQue pOUf ra.l
se Ir.nsformer 10US r,ction de lous
les hommes. f,mmes.1 en1,nls. pour
la consiruchon d'une socitl mo
de,nt Ou dhrl 'tt~ .bsente Ioule
lo,m. d uplol'hon de I"Clmme par
l'homme

Anthropologue
musologue
aU minis1te
de la Cullure

L mu"ts ""ch.ppenl p" 1.

conh.dello" rond.ment.le d.. ln.
Ululonede c. g.nfl: ClU. d. tu" 1.
.18"lflcatlon de 1'0bJ.t en l'U1,..,.nt
d'Ion conie 111 propre, C' t CI qu'.

r....." M, O".m,n,

-Soler' M,ma .. ,

$ow

Hueh.rd

.nthropolo,,~mu

"ologu, lU mln"th. cre 1. Culture

qu'.ecueille nOh. rubrlqu. Fo
rvm~ Pour lui. 1.. ehereh.",r. Impll,
quit d.n. ce dom.lne 6oh'lnt lnl1l.r
un. nou .... II. pr.tlQu. mU"ologIQue
conform .lu. polltlQu,. de d' ....
loppem.nt du Etatt .IMc.ln .

149

2 Mariama Ndoye Mbengue

Le muse en question
dans le Soleil, Sngal le 4 mars 1983

l.rtlel. p"'U dln, l, 1"11I Fo,um du -sol.n- .n d". du 70 J"nvl.'

cou nt 1 .ltl,. no" " .....n "' pou, COu,. 1Toul d'Ibo,d l'''P'u,
oICII'I -obl.',"moln- nou, Il'11'1'61. EII ,".mml,u prol.... u'
J .." Glbu. du mu," d""'"o,rlphll d. N.uchat.1 qul.n nI d'In
Ilu.. Il plnl''', CI do ml... If u" 'ml".", ,"cl"n,," qui. du 'ull
p"rtlc"" 1't1lbo..non d.proj.' d. mu," d., Clvmlllloni nol,. .,
D'I"''' port, "01 Inlmullo... Ion' cnt.. nommt!".n' dh ,. p,.ml.'
pI.Illflph. d. l'irtleln qu."lIon, M, Bodl.1 Thllm, dlrecl.u, du
",ulh d"ln Il,lclln d. l'IFAN 1. l'ouv'''1 Ibl.'" pour flllon, d.
Mnlc:I, noua "OUI IU'.O"lIulo.al'" "pond,.' c.".lnlp.II.lIo"
puhq.. c"" III u....

'
IJ

~t,1PORTANCE

.110 r..
internationale
d. l'Inslilul londo

nomm~e

mental d'Afrique noire ne sont

.pl VS' d'montr.,. ni pou, obJ.c,

til p,.mi.,: -1'6tud. de l'homm.
Afrique occident. le. de
"histoire. de sa civllis.tion. de

~on

ses langues. d. ses orts. d.s

strvclu'.s d.s socitlts tradllion
neIles If des probltmes gtntrau.
que pose leur ~volution. Il comple
.m. vinglaine d. dtpart._nts
parmi lesquels, I.s dtpart.mmts
dln,hropologi. physIQu .
culture. juridique distincts run
de fa""',. de bolanique. de 100
l09ie. cfhistoire. de li"ralu~s et

cMlisations ngro.fricaines. Ce
sont 'l des dpartemenls part
.ntitre. or les mu5es ont un rOle
t iou~rqui n'est pas de remplieer
les services prt-titts ni de
-concocler- mal,droitement

leurs oc1ivilts. Rappeions Que 1.

rnvse pour vocation primor
diale laconservation intgrale des
:>bjets comme elCpression de

Ines) val.urs d. vilisations de la

&eur exposition. leur restauration
au besoin el leur enrichisse~nl

L. muste d. Dakar qui nous

inttft!sse plus partlculir.",.,nt
est le pr.mi.r mu'" dAlriQuo
oc:cIdento'., chronologiQu._rtt
parlant et sans doute aussi par la
nalur., le nombre .1 la b.. ut~ d.
S!"S coUitclions. Il regrou~ en

"el des obj.ls dart prove,,"",

de Il Clll. dlvoir. du Mail d.

GuiftH.f(onakry, du Gabon. du

Cat'IWroun. de Mauritanie. d\lli

bria. du Btnln, du Niger, de la

H;aul.Vol1o, du Ghano. d. Gui

~

Bissau, de Sierra-Leone et

mme de l'Angola, du Brtsil d.

Guyanne. du Maroc pour ne citer

que c.u.la. Environ

~OO

ethnips y sont tpprsentes.'IPs

pfincipoles "anl les Dogon. Se

150

noufo. Baoult, M.nd., Bcbo.

Fon, Fa"ll, Kuba. Bamoun, 11>0

danl pas se substituer aux socio

ethno-anthropo... et autres .....
logues- (qu. j. liens .n grand
respecl) et riSQuer .d'anonymer.
l'objet dans un fouillis sans nom
en youlant l'intgrer, Contentons

"ous donc d. '0 musologi.

C'est bicn assez. car "Qui 110r
embrasse mal treint ...

L.s probltm.s qui s. posenl l

nos muses n. I.ur sont pas sp
cifiqu.s. Le probltm. de r.spoc.

travets diffrents types dobjets

Qui vont du matriel de cuisine
au. insltuments de musique. ac
cessoires de chasse, ncessaires
domestiques en passant par les

n'est pas le moindre. Il n'est

dailleurs pas tranger au projet
du muse des civilisai ions noires.
Il faut en effet se poser la Question
de savoir quelle surface est n
cessaire et suffisante pour expo
ser vingtcinq mille objets

bijou,. jou.ls, objels d. dtco'a

(2~.OOO)

tian et d'artisanat traditionnel.

La conceplion du .muse soit
disant cimetitre .. n'es1 pas neuve.
O)l dansLArrique ambigue
Georges Balandier affirmait: .. Je
hais les objets. sur10ul ceux Que
l'on regard~ comme le produit
des ar1s. exils des relations Qui
leur donnaient une pleine signifi
calion. Ces objets en vilrine, aussi
impuissants devan! leurs visi
teurs que les morts devant les
foules de la Toussaint. les uns et
les autres sont .. sans defense ...
nous avons alors lnfinie pOSSibi
lit de les considerer et de les
trail.r .. nohe guise. Ils devien
nent des prtextes ... Pour notre
part, nous pensons Que l'inter
pr~talion d'un Czanne, ou d'une

rserves (1) cOmptiSes du muse

ll. d. rein.mre

d'II~,

dune

manire diffrente par chaQue

individu un enrichissement en
soi el unep reuve de J' intempo rali t
de l'obj.'' d. son immortalilt. Il
es1 beau par lui-mme et d'a1.ltant
plus objet de valeur Qu'un tre
ttranger Ala culture originelle de
l'objet en Question est pourtant
sensible Il son esthtique.
.11 e.iste plusieurs manires de
prsenter des collections dans un
mus~e d'art le regroupeme"ll
peut se faire: par ethnies plutOl
Que par pays les limiles ethniques
n'pousant pas touJou1s I~s
confins gographiques hrits de
la colonisai ion, par materiau
par thmes. par centres dnlrl
QuelconQues: Il m." faut cepen

(chiflr. des colleclions.

de Dakar), l raise el dans leur

contexte naturel et social...
Le problme des moyens est
propre au. pays en voie de dve
loppement. A nFAN comme ail
leurs. on cherche' travailler effi
cacement ayec ce Qu'on a,
c'est--dire en faisant la politique
de ses moyens.
Maintenant d'aulres dilemnes :
Comment visualiset le Beau, le
'irai. le sac t, le magique, l'inter
dit, notions courantes dans f'ar1

ngr.? En .fI.1 .nt.. comme

magiques. les uvres sonl per
ues comme esthtiques.. d'ou
leur place dans des muses. les
accessoires: cases d'habitation.
coslume de fibre Ou autres suffi

senli1s 6 rsoudre 1. probltm. ?

Manifestement non. Gardons
nous donc de faire de mau'iaises
Querelles. Comment vjsualie( la

faon donlle group. apprh.nd.

l'objet tant il est vrai Que .. l'objet
est tmoin de quelque chose et de
Que!Qu'un, individu. technique,
forme, fonction, et le plus souvent
de plusieurs choses' Ja fois- .
La prsen1ation au muse dt la
place Tascher a tent de se faire
par thmes el par e:hnies: on
multiolie les notes expli:alives.
mme la flote est intgre pour
re'ndre plus attrayante les visites,
Pour lte perfectible, la perfec
tion n'tant pas de ce monde, la
prlSsen1ation d~s collections y est
certainement originale. Nous
cherchons ~ r~pondre .. ratten1e

dun public de plus en hl

roclite el exigeant. l'exprience
de l'institution n'est pas ngli
geable, la prsence actuellement

tie stagiaires de RC.A du Togo et

du

Bnin. professionnels de Mu
se venus parfaire leur formation

chez nous n'est pas pour nous

dmentir.
Le muse africain comme on le

conoit actuellement esl

l'exemple du muse national de
Niamey. Une russite certes. il est
aussi le fruit d'une longue volu
tion. A son origine l'IFAN eh oui 1
toujours le mme la recherche
de la lumi~je. lux Mea Lex. dit le
sigle univ~rsilaile. On y trouve
des pavillons notamment de mu
5ique. de costumes. de bijoUJl:,
d'histoire. un mini-zoo. un \lillagc
d'artisans des types d'habitai tra
ditionnel. C'est un chaik Qui a ses

avantages parmi lesquels une

plus grande frquentation par un
public issl,. de toutes les couches
sociales. et ses Inconvnients,
p,ob1me de gardiennage. dln.
tendance. ralimentation el l'en
tretien des animaux ou leur non
adaptation...
Et puis. mtme Niamey, il y a
aussi des objectifs en vitrines et
c'est une bonne chose ne se {ait-ce
Que par mesure de securit et
cela ne les .. tuent .. aucunement.
On est bien contraint de mettre,
statique ou 'en mouvement
Qumporte! en tout cas l'abri
des mains baladeuses, un magni
fique pendentif touareg dont la
pierre ornementale en' corna lien
se fait de plus en plus rare tout
autant Que les orfvres talen
tueux. Estce manquer d'africa
nit ou d'enracinement que
dmiler en cela les Occiden
taux? Par ailleurs on ne peut pas
pour .. animer .. un muse, c'esl.
dire lui donner un souille vilal
comme le suggre le sens pre
mier du verbe, demander un
musicien de jouer de sa f1le lous
les jours que Dieu cre.

actuels de par le monde ... lu ne da

nu koo W3ra jox aqam- n'est-ce
pas 7 Nouus voulons lussi sur
tout contenter l'homme de la rue,
mais en r .. duquant ... de l' faire
du prestigieux ":!use de Dakar
un march. un jardin public, un
zoo. un Soumbdioune JI y 1 un
pas' ne pas franchir sous pr
lexte d'intgration, de .. sociali
sation .. ou d'enracinement. Tou
tefois, un mcne Qui offrirait un
quipement de laboratoire de
restauration. une video pour pas
ser dispostives et cassenes. des
moyens dditer un guide Ou une
brochure. un bar pour dsalt~rer
10 public. serait 10 bienvenu. Ce
serait un Investissem~nt humain
.u mm~ titre (je n~ parle pas d~
priorit~) Qu'un moulin' mil, un
forage. un appareil de dialyse pa'
e.emple car l'homme sngalal~
ne se nourrit pas seulement de riz
.. mens sana in corpore sano..
Ne b'lons donc pas ce Que
novs avons ador. Thedore Mo
nod, Grard Ouchemin, Alexan
dre Adande. Bodiel Thlam nonl
pas successivement travaill de
puis 1936, ce muse en pure
perte. Ils onl mis en place la cie
de vole, nous, novices du me
tier ri'apporter nos pierres pour
cC"''jer,~'!r l'difice. Pour ce faire.
plw~ r:k. censure aveugle ni de de
molition inlempeslive. sachons
raison et modestie garder.
Il s'agit d'une remise en cause
de la conceplion du muse en
gnral mais aprs tout, pour
parler culture, le muse tout

comme le thtre. le jazz Ou la

danse classique (les exemples
abondent) n'~st pas familier non
5eulemenl au Sngalais moyen.
mais encore' la grande malorit
des Africains, Estce dire que le
jazz, le thtre Ou la danse classi
Que sont. bannir ou ... cham
bouler .. ? le succs des pen
sionnaires de Sorano, l'origine
mme du jauet du folk song. Mu
dra-Afrique nous prouvent le
contraire. Il en est de m~me lJe la
ralit musale, La visite hebdo
madair~ au muse devrait dans
un~ dizaine d'2r!ne!; POU;"~I~
remplace/la course hippique. le
tour de lh. le malch de football
ou la matine disco. L'jd~al seraIl
que le Muse entre dans nos
murs pour cela Il doit eller au
peuple .travers raudiovisuel
mais dans le mme temps le peu
ple ne devraitil pas aussi aller au
muse pour s'abreuver ses
sources vives, mme si, discrles
et relgues derrire des mu's
poussireux (ce qui n'esl pas le
cas, venez-y-voir !).
Voil. sans ~ntrer dans des
donnes exhaustives e1 fastidieu
ses les rflexions que nous sug'
gre ce dbat dsormais ouvert el
que nous esprons fcond avec la
participation de tous. Un sUlel
port sur le .. forum .. n'es1-i1 pas
dsormais une .. Res Publica .. .,
Conllrv.'.ur lU mUllf
d'Irt .trltaln
pI'Ct Ch.ri.. Tuhfl
D,k.,

(n- Cu rfurv.. onl fololrnl un. bon", p.rtl, d ch,f.d'l2'uvr po.h

lU m;,u't dynamlqu. Ion du f t1v.l~ondl.1 dt. 1111 ntgr.

De la mme faon, nous nous

voyons mal reconstituant les fa

laises du Bandiagara pour -tout
masQue Dogol1, le Fcuta-DJi)lon
pour ia Nimba. la lort dense pour
le. masques du Pro ou du Sant
syslmaliquemenl 1
Tout compte fait. peulon en
vouloir au muse d'tre raffair~
de ceux qui savent ou,.. veulent
savoir? Ces derniers s':ls sont
crellement motivs ne devraient
pas tre rebuts par le silence
glac. l'almosph~ro lhr~e.
l'-impersonnalit- des muses

151

3 Ousmane Sow Huchard

La culture, ses objets-tmoins et la musologie en question

Apr~s notre r~flexion sur l'La Culture, ses objets-t~moins et l'action mus601o
giquc " parue' dans la rubrique "fORU~1" du Soleil du 20 janvier lQS3, nous avons lu,
dans le mme quol idien du 4 mars de la mme anne et avec beaucoup dt intrt,
l'article intitul "Le muse en question", qui se veut une rponse, selon son
aut~ur, notre dmarche qut~11e a considre comme une interpellation pour avoir
cit, ds le premier paragraphe, tous les muses placs sous la tutelle de l'Ins

titut fondamental d'Afrique noire (I.F.A.N.).

'"

C'est vrai que nous avons cit les institution~ .nusC2ales rattaches
}'l.F.A.N., pour situer l'avnement de celles-ci en Afrique noire et singulire
mpnt dans notre pays. Cependant nous n'avons rien contre l'l.F.A.N. dont "l'impor
tance et la renomme internationale ne sont plus dmontrer" comme on l'a si bien
soulign.
Alors ne nous cherchez pas sur le terrain du dnigrement gratuit, de la pol
mique strile, ni sur aucun autre terrain du mme esprit; vous ne nouS trouverpz
pas l-bas, car nous sommes ai lIeurs. Nous voulons, bien modestement, contribuer
au renouvellement des thories et des mthodes des sciences des socits et de
leurs institutions. Rejoignez-nous donc dans:
)

l'analyse de l'mergence, de la nature et de la dialectique de la culture;

b)

les systmes d'interprtation

tmoins de civilisation;

c)

la musologie travers tous les paramtres de sa dynamique.

et

les

mthodes

d 1 analyse

des

objets

A la suite de ce que nous avons dj dit sur la culture (cf. Le Soleil du 20

janvier 1983, p.9) et au moment o toutes les forces vives e notre pays sont
convies la rdaction d 1 une charte culturelle nationale, nous allons nous arr
ter un peu sur la problmatique de la culture. Loin d'tre une simple gymnastique
intellectuelle, cette analyse sommaire du phnomne culturel a pour modeste pr
tention, non seulement de prparer le terrain par quelques prmisses thoriques,
mais aussi de clarifier un sujet qui a t tellement rabch en Afrique noire,
plus particulirement au Sngal, qu'aprs le dpart du prsident Lopold Sdar
Senghor, qui en avait fait son principal cheval de bataille, d'aucuns onl: pens
qu'il fallait maintenant passer autre chose.
Il s'agit de montrer que la culture est au coeur de toute exprience humaine,
donc sociale; qu'elle est le moteur de tout processus cognitif et de conceptuali
sation; qu'elle est au centre de la dynamique sociale qui, elle, est le moteur de
toute activit conomique, politique, religieuse, etc .
Comment l'homme, cet animal parmi les autres animaux, est-il devenu un produc
teur de culture?
Il nC' fait plus de doute pour personne que la "tendance la croissance du
volume ct-r{>bral est en effet l'une des principales caractristiques de la ligne
humaine" (Vandcnneersch, 1979:1t:.).
L'homme n'est pas seulemC'nt un animal social, car beaucoup d'autres animaux
vivent aussi ('n socitv.. C't'Sl un animal qui a comnl('Tlct- p"r fabriquer dC's outils,
puis des tombC'Jux en dcvcn.111t un animal religieux. L'adoption dE' la bipdie et de
la vic t~rricole avec
les
risques qu'elles comportaient face aux nombreux
prdateurs, semble avoir t pour beaucoup dans l'apparition du psychisme humain,
source de capacits exceptionnellf:s qui allaient dterminer, inluctablement,
) '~volution de l'homme. "Ds que l'Homo se mtamorphose en Ilomosapiens, il devient

152

capable de penser les relations biologiques sous forme de systmes d' .''''posi tion l l
(Laplantine. 1974:51). Sa principale consquence est l'mergence \.0"': la pense
conceptuelle et symbolique dont la projection ou la n.anifestation donne le
produit cultllrel. Si le psychisme des autres animaux diffre de celui de l'homme,
c'est parce que "l'animal sait"
et "l'homme, lui, sait qu'il sait". C'est
l'accroissement du volume crbral (un quantitatif) qui, avec le temps, provoqua
le changement biologique (un qualitatif), qui a fait de l'homme un animal qui
apprhende les interactions du rel, rflchit, analyse et projecte ses ides de
plusieurs manires et sous diffrentes formes.
C'est parce que 1 'homme, pour sortir de son animalit. a bnfici travers
de nombreuses mutations, de l'mergence de deux caractres essentiels qui ponc
tuent et colorent toutes ses manifestations, et ceci certainement, depuis la
priode prhistorique. Ces caractres, mme s'ils existent embryonnairement chez
d'autres animaux, ne laissent aucune trace sur leur comportement. Ces deux carac
tres sont, pour !'1umford Lewis, non enregistrs et peut-tre mme non enregistra
bles; l'un, dit-il, "est le pouvoir de rver et surtout de transformer les concep
tions imagines en projets vritables; l'autre est le sens de la crainte et de la
vnration, qui ne sont pas sans angoisse, en prsence des forces qui sont hors de
porte de
l'intelligence de l'~ommelt (1956:19).
Si
l'homme est devenu un
producteur de culture, souligne encore l'anthropologue, c'est surtout parce qu'il
est "la seule crature avoir jamais eu l'intuition qu'il y a, dans la nature,
plus que ce que ne lui en disent ses yeux" (Idem).
Pour prouver ses capacits exceptionnelles, l'homme chasseur commencsa donc
par fabriquer des outils afin d' accrotre sa puissance d'intervention sur la
nature; la vie motionnelle dont il tait devenu le porteur le plongea dans un
univers color d'amour, de haine, de peur, d'angoisse, de rire, de larmes. C'est
parce qu'il a t capable d'exprimer et de communiquer ce qui l'habitait, que
l'homme est devenu un producteur de culture; et les produits de ses manifesta
tions, face son environnement, sont l pour en tmoigner.
Expression, communication. tmoignage,
lesquels repose le phnomne culturel.

voil

donc

les

trois

mots-cls

sur

Aprs avoir cr tout un monde de significations et de valeurs, la culture,

tout au long de l'volution de l'homme, allait reposer sur les capacits de ce
dernier convertir les matriaux bruts de l'existence, en une multitudes de
formes qui, dialectiquement, entretiennent la vie sociale et favorisent le dve
loppement de l'intelligence de l'homme lui-mme.
L~ culture ~st toujours action, mais une action qui enlraine toujours une ide
progrs, soulign'nt les anthropologues. C'est parce que la culture est un
pcrp(~tuel renouvellement que chaque gnration, debout sur les fondements de la
tr~dition, se doit de la rinventer; et c'est pourquoi, ses produits nous r~vlent
par
)purs
transformations morphologiques et
leur mobilit permanente,
les
spcificits de son dynamisme.

d<.>

E. Herriot disait que la "culture, c'est ce qui reste quand on a tout

oubli l l Face cette vision plus ou moins statique, nous opposons la conception
dynamique
sugg~ree
par
Schnelz
COmme
"le dveloppement de
l'ensemble des
virtualits de l'tre spirituel, matriel, intellectuel".
C'est donc sur le phnomne culturel que reposent les activits de toutes les
socitl
humaines. Cette culture qui n'est pas hrite dans les gnes, est
essentlellement fonde sur l'apprentissagej llducation, qui est le conditionne
ment conscient et inconscient par lequel des individus assimilent des modles
culturels; c'est ce qu'on appelle en d'autres termes: la culturalisation (Th.
Dobzansky), la socialisation (C. Lvi-Strauss), ou encore l'endoculturation (R.
Bastide).
Si nous sommes retourns aux fondements mme du phnomne culturel, c'est
aussi pour clairer davantage les concepts opratoires musologiques qui dcoulent

153

des trois mots-cls qui sous-tendent la culture: Expression, communication, et

tmoignage. Ces concepts que nous avons dj analyss (cf. Le Soleil du 20 janvier
1983, p. 9) sont: objet matriel socialis, objet social, objet-signe, objet
tmoin.
Contrairement ce qu'on a crit dans "le muse en question" (cf. Le Soleil du
4 mars 1983,
p.
6),
le professeur Jean Cabus, ancien directeur du Huse
d'ethnologie de Neuchatel (Suisse), qui, en tant que musographe, a travaill
l'laboration du projet du Muse des civilisations noires aux cts des archi
tectes Pedro Ramirez Vasquez (btisseur du clbre Muse d'anthropologie de Mexi
co), Jorge Campuzano Fernandez et Thierry Melot, nlest pas le parrain de "1'ex
pression": objet-tmoin; nous prfrons, quant nous, parler de concept d'obJet
tmoin. Car, comme le soulignait Grawitz: "le concept nlest pas seulement une aide
pour percevoir, mais une fa\on de concevoir. Il organise la ralit en retenant
les caractres distinctifs, significatifs des phnomnes. Il exerce un premier tri
au milieu du flot d'impressions qui assaillent le chercheur" 0974:373). Le
professeur Cabus, dont nous connaissons assez bien les travaux et publications,
dit lui-mme avoir emprunt le concept Jean Cocteau qui parlait des ondes que
ces objets dgagent; et il cite notamment Basile Uribe, qui lui, les qualifiait
"d'objets-diapasons" (cf. Gabus, 1975:27).
Nous connaissons aussi d'autres thoriciens des objets. Un des plus prolifi
gues est certainement le sociologue fonctionnaliste Jean Baudrillard qui s'int
resse particulirement la liturgie formelle des objets dans la socit de con
sommation cre par le mode de production capitaliste et qui ne procde qu' une
description synchronique des objets qu'il tudie. On peut citer aussi Pierre
Boudon: "Sur un statut de l'objet"; Henri Van Lier avec: "objet et esthtique"j
Violette Morin: "l'objet biographique" (cf. Communications 13). 11 Y a Kepes G.:
"l'objet cr par l'homme" (1968); H. Rheims: "la vie trange des objets" (1959);
cette liste n'est pas exhaustive. ~1ais les rflexions et les analyses les plus
profondes sur les objets que nous connaissons restent celles de Claude Rivire
avec "l'objet social: essai d'pistmologie sociologique" (1969), et celles de
Abraham A. Holes avec ilIa thorie des objets" (1972), "Sociodynamique de la
culturel! (1967) et "objet et communication" (in Communications 13, 1969). Tout en
reconnaissilnt aux objets une fonction de communication, au mme titre que les
organes de presse crite, Abraham A. Moles rduit, avec raison, cette fonction
ce que la smiotique et le cadre sociologique peuvent nous rvler en considrant
l'objet uniquement comme un objet-signe.
Pour tous ces auteurs, y compris J. Cabus, les objets dont ils parlent ne sont
que des objets culturels matriels. Claude Rivire, quant lui, a contribu la
construction des concepts opratoires fondamentaux "d'objet social" et "d'objet
matriel socialis". Le Robert tymologique nous dit que: " peu t tre considr
comme objet, tout c
vi se prsente nos sens"; autrement dit, toute manifes
tation sensible l un de nos cinq sens. Ainsi comme l'a soulign Henri Van Lier:
ilLe sens qu'ils (les objets) nous communiquent du seul fait qu'ils parlent la
sensation et la perception. t-lT:le si nous considrons leurs constructi.ons, leurs
fonctionnements, leurs dnominatil'ns par le langage, leurs relations l'espace,
au temps, la causalit, la substance, ce sera toujours partir de l'preuve
sensible que nous proposent leur prsence et leur utilisation"
(196'::1:90).
Puisque la manifestation c'est llaction de rendre sensible, une manifestation
culturelle, qui est une manifestation de culture, est par consquent un objet
culturel. Par oppostion l'objet naturel qui est le fruit de la dialectique de la
nature, l'objet culturel dcoule .des activits de l'homme en rapport avec la
nature ou d'autres hommes; il est observable, explorable et toujours sensible un
ou plusieurs de nos sens.
L'objet culturel: c'est ce que nous appelons, dans une perspective musologi
que, un objet-tmoin de culture ou de civilisationj la culture tant l'esprit de
la civilisation selon la formulation du prsident L. S. Senghor. Ce concept
d'objet-tmoin recouvre, non seulement l'objet matriel socialise (qui est tout

154

objet culturel matriel), parce qu'autour de l'objet culturel matriel se cristal

lise une certaine quantit dl activits sociales; mais aussi l'objet social (tout
fait social), puisqu'il y a aussi des manifestations culturelles qui ne requirent
pas de la matire pour son e>.pression, donc immatrielles; mais elles demeurent
sensibles nos sens.
Une telle construction
l'objet-tmoin.

conceptuelle

slloigne

de

la

vision

gabusienne

de

En fait. en procdant une smiotique de la culture, on ne peut qu'aboutir

une conception dichotomique de l'objet culturel, c 1 est--dire de llobjet-tmoin
(objet matriel socialis/objet social).
Nous pensons donc que, dans une perspective muso1ogique, le concept d'objet
tmoin,
applicable
tant
aux
"objets matriels
socialiss li
qu 1 aux
"objets
sociaux", renforcerait davantage le caractre pluridisciplinaire des activits
muso10giques et contribuerait la lutte contre la mutilation et la dnaturation
des objets-tmoins de civilisation dans les muses.
"Contentons-nous donc dc la musologie" nous dit-on! (in Le Soleil du 4 mars
198), p.6). C'cst sur ce terrain que nous sommes pourtant!
La musr-ologi' tant une sci'nce relativement rcente, il faut le reconnatre,
elle a forcment ses concepts opratoires, ses mthodes. ses outils d 1 analyses et
ses champs sppcialiss. L'intelligence humaine faisant chaque jour des conqutes,
les sciences voluent en cons6quence en raffinant leurs outils. Les rflexions et
les constructions thf:oriques et mthodologiques deviennent ainsi une activit
permanente du chercheur, pour une pratique plus sre, plus fiable. C'est Durkheim
qui soulignait que Ille savant doit d'abord dfinir le~ choses dont il traite afin
que lIon sache et qu'il sache bien de quoi il est question" (1968:34). Bien sr,
les dictionnaires regorgent de dfinitions, mais pour une ralit sociale, ou
mieux, sociologique. il ne s'agi
,jas de crer des mots nouveaux, mais de "mettre
la place de la conception usuelle, qui est confuse, une conception plus claire
et plus distincte" (Crawitz, 1974:61). Au milieu de tout a, nous resterons
conscients, commE nous le rappelait Gaston Rachelard, que "quand il se prsente
la culture scientifique, llesprit nlest jamais jeune. Il est mme trs vieux car
il a l'ge de ses prjugs. L'opinion pense mal, elle ne pense pas: elle traduit
des besoins en connaissances. L'esprit scientifique nous interdit d'avoir une
opinion sur des question~ que nous ne connaissons pas" (1970:14).
Dans les dbats qui animent les multiples rencontres des musologues membres
du Comit international de musologie de l'ICOM (International Council of Museums
UNESCO, dont nous sommes membres depuis 1978), il est de plus en plus question de
renouveler la musologie par des rflexions d'ordre thorique, mthodologique et
pluridisciplinaire. Cela a commenc Torgiano (Italie) du 22 au 26 octobre 1979;
puis il y a eu Nexico en 1980, ensuite se fut Paris du 23 au 26 octobre 1982.
Lors de
la premire rencontre des Comits nationaux africains du Conseil
international
des
muses,
il
a
t
retenu
l'organisation d'un
semlnaire
international pour la dfinition d'une nouvelle vision musologique. A cet effet,
le professeur H. Abranches. anthropologue-musologue angolais et nous-mmes, avons
t chargs de prparer des donnes de bases qui serviront de point de dpart aux
discussions sur ce thrT,e. En novembre 1983 Londres, lors de la Confrence
gnrale de l'ICOH, plusieurs musologues ont raffirm la ncessit de renouveler
la musologie et d'acclrer la rdaction d'un trait mondial de musologie.

Dans ce domaine, comme dans bien d'autres, l'Afrique se doit d'apporter sa

contribution, si modeste soit-elle. Pour notre part, nous intervenons dans ces
dbats sur les systmes dl interprtation et des mthodes d'analyse et d'exploita
tion musographique des objets-tmoins de civilisation.
Hais la musologie, c'est quoi mme? (comme dirait mon ami Koffi).

155

En fait, les activits musologiques s'articulent autour de la quadripartition

muse, son personnel, les objets-tmoins, le public. La musologie se prsente
ainsi, dans un premier te;np~s, comme la synthse des discours sur les rapports
dialectiques des quatre elements de cette quadripartition. Etant entendu que
MUSEOLOGIE vient du grec "MOUSEtON" (temple des Muses) + "LOGIA" (thorie) ou
"LOGOS" (discours).

10

LE MUSEE:
En faisant un peu d'heuristique musale, on dcouvre que le mot muse vient du
grec "l'10useon", nom qui dsignait le temple bti sur la colline de L'Hlicon
Athnes et qui tait ddi aux neuf Muses; ces desses de la mythologie
antique prsidaient aux Arts
libraux. Leurs noms et leurs disciplines
~taient:
Clio pour l'histoire;
Calliope pour l'loquence et la posie
h<?foiquC'j ~lclpomne pour la tragdie; Thal ie pour la comdie; Enterpe pour la
musique; Terpsichore pour 1.1 danse; Erato pour l'lgie; Polymnie pour le
lyrisme et Uranie pour l'astronomie. Nous voyons donc que le caractre
pluridisciplinaire des activits du muse dcoule de ses sources les plus
profondes. C'est pourquoi, pour se renouveler, la musologie se croit fonde
d'interpeller les 'socio-ethno-anthropo . et autres logues", comme dirait
l'autre (in Le Soleil du 4 mars 1983, p.
sans oublier les historiens, les
cologistes, les spcialistes de la communication et surtout les crateurs et
le grand public.

<,

L'difice musal, s'il n'adopte pas le cadre d'un btiment historique distrait
de sa fonction originelle, peut avoir une configuration sortie directement du
bureau d'tudes d'un architecte-btisseur de muses tel que Pedro Ramirez
Vasquez, le mexicain, ou l'allemand Manfred Lehmbruck, ancien lve de ~lies
van der Rohe, qui est certainement un des plus clbres (cf. sa thse sur IIl es
problmes fondamentaux de la construction musale contemporaine"), L'Afrique
compte aujourd'hui des architectes de talent capables de concevoir des espac~s
rnusaux partir de donnes fournies par des musologues. Au Sngal, tous les
muses ont pour cadre d'anciens btiments distraits de leur fonction premire,
l'exception du Muse Dynamique qui, lui, a t conu (1963-1966) partir de
donnes musographiques.
L'institution musale a connu, depuis le dbut de notre sicle, une volution
et un dveloppement remarquables, de par sa diffusion et sa conception. Son
nombre (environ trente cinq mille travers le monde) et son impact
socie-culturel ont donn naissance une vritable sociologie des muses.
Aujourd'hui,
la tendance qui se dessi~e dans
la plupart des pays du
Tiers-Monde, est de faire du muse un vritable "centre de recyclage
historique", comme lia suggere Stanislas Adotvi, pour les Amricains. le
muse doit devenir une "universit populaire l l Cependant, tous les muselogues
sont d'accord pour dire que la fonction essentielle du muse est de s'employer
faire prendre conscience tous les membres de la socit en gnral et la
jeunesse en particulier. de la ncessit de reconnatre, de sauvegarder, de
dfendre, d'illustrer et de mettre en oeuvre tous les lments du patrimoine
culturel; de stimuler la communication sociale.
Pour atteindre ces objectifs, le muse doit s'appuyer sur un personnel
conscient et comptent oeuvrant dans une bonne organisation des divers
services existants. Voir en Annexe II un exempl~ d'organisation: le muse
dynamique de Dakar cr en 1966 1'occasion du Premier Festival Mondial des
Arts
Ngres.
Clest
pourquoi,
pour dvelopper
une
vision critique de
l'institution musale: son image, son fonctionnement et ses fonctions, il est
recommand, dans le cadre d'un cours de musologie, de raliser avec les
tudiants l'tude d'un muse en activit;
Aujourd'hui, lravrrs le monde, pl\Jsieurs expriences tcntent de renouveler

l 'aclion mus6ale pour cn fain..' un olltil vrilable de connaissance ct d'duca

tion. Au Mexique, il y a l e programme des muses scolaires et le projet de la

156

"Casa deI museo" qui est une exprience de " mus e intgr~". Pour le premier
programme, il s'agit essentiellement d1aprs Larrawri Iker:
population

1a

10-

D'obt(.'ni r une large particip.Jtion volontaire de la

protee t ion et la sauvegarde du patrimoine culturel.

20-

De modifier radicalement le rapport traditionnel public-muses pour

faire de ces derniers un instrument culturel, efficace et populaire.

30-

De
doter
(1975:61).

les

coles,

indirectement,

d"

,',liaires

didactiques l l

Ce programme est d'envergure nationale car il doit s'tendre l'ensemble du

pays dans un dlai de huit ans. Des conditions de base ont t dfinies pour
soutenir cette tentative rvolutionnaire dans le domaine musal. Le programme
doit avoir une action permanellte et continue:
'Ill slappuie essentiellement sur l'action coordonne des lves
professeurs dans chaque cole avec le concours de la communaut ...

et

Les muses qui sont crs ne constituent pas des entits distinctes de
llcole; ils font partie intgrante du systme scolaire ...
Le programme est bas sur la participation volontaire.
autorits scolaires n'imposent son adoption ...

En aucun cas, les

La
cration,
l'organisation
et
la
gestion du muse scolaire sont
essentiellement l'oeuvre des lves; l'intervention des professeurs dans
les activits du muse scolaire consiste aider les lves et orienter
leurs dcisions sans imposer aucune autorit" (Idem).
Pour le second programme mexicain, il s'agit par toutes sortes d'activits:
sportives, artistiques, culturelles, d'animation par projection de films et de
diapositives,
des sances de musique populaire et de folklore
latioo
amricain, de thtre, de mime et de marionnettes" (Ordonez Garcia, 197.5:72)
dans le cadre d'un muse intgr directement dans une communaut citadine ou
villageoise, d'veiller les membres de cette dernire une prise de cor,s
cience de leur environement, de leurs potentialits propres de s'instruire, de
la nce5sit de s'unir dans un mme combat pour l'avnement d'une socit plus
juste. Selon Coral Ordonez Garcia, 1I1 es responsables de la "Casa deI ~1useo"
n'ont pas d10rdre logique, ni de chemin prcis suivre l l (Idem). Ils procdent
par ttonnements, ils corrigent, changent, examinent les suggestions, coutent
les critiques, c'est une exprience continue.
Mais coutons plut6t Mario Vasquez, l'initiateur de ce second programme d'ac
tion musologique: 'IAussi, nlest-il pas toujours facile de faire coincider la
thorie dont nous nous sommes inspirs au dpart avec ce que nous a appris la
la pratique; llide nlest pas (ollc, s.1ugrenue, ni fonde ~ur )cs problmes
que peut poser telle ou telle exposition temporaire? Elle est au contraire )e
fruit d'annes d'observ.:ttion et d'exprience concrte du (onctionnement d 1 un
mus~e,
d'annes
de
recherches
et
d'activits musographiqucs,
d'ann~cs
dlefforts dploys pour que le message du muse touche l'ensemble du pub} ie 1
sans distinction de niveau conomique ni de position sociale" (Ibid:74).
Les me:xicains ne sIen cachent pas; cette rvolution qulils tentent dans la
pratique musologique dcoule d'une volont vritable de prendre des distances
avec la viei Ile prat ique sans cesse dnonce dans les diverses renContres
internationales, notamment au sein du CClmit international de musologie de
l' 1COH-UNESCO. Ainsi, la Confrence gnrale de l' 1COH de 1971 Grenoble,
on a entendu plusieurs critiques l'endroit de 11 institution m'~';f.ale et de
son action,
telles
que:
"les
muses
ne
sont
pas
intgr
au monde
contemporain; la notion de muse est prime; le muse est litiste; les

157

muses doivent disparatre" (cf. "Le muse au service des hommp.s, aujourd'hui
e
et demain", actes de la g Confrence de l'ICOH-UNESCO). Ces dt:ux programmes
mexicains sont des tentatives de rponses aux affirmations que voil.
Une autre exprience intressante est celle du "muse de voisinage" d'Anacos
tia Washington D.C. Initialement finance par la Swithsonian Institution,
elle bnficie aujourd'hui de subventions prives et de crdits du gouverne
ment fdral des U.S.A. Ce muse est destin aux populations noires riveraines
de la rivire Anacostia qui se jette dans le Potomac Washington D.C., loges
dans des immeubles du type H.L.M. et vivant des prestations de la scurit
sociale. Cette exprience s'adresse aussi aux autres familles noires de classe
moyenne et de professions librales vivant la mme localit.

John R. Kinard et Esther Nighbert qui ont tudi srieusement cette exprience
(cf. Musum, vol. XXIV, no 2, 1972:103-109) rsument ainsi ses proccupations:
"De .,par ses diverses fonctions, un "muse de voisinage" embrasse tous les
aspects de l'existence de la population d'une localit donne, une population
directement concerne par son identit, ses origines,
ses ralisations
passes, son chelle de valeurs et ses besoins les plus pressants. Par ses
expositions, un muse de ce genre reflte les proccupDtions majeures dj
cernes par cette population et par d'autres institutions communautaires, et
peut ainsi prsenter les problmes qui demandent rflexion" (lbid::]03).
Nous connaissons aussi l'exemple du Muse d'art et d'essai se trouvant en
plein centre de Paris, quelques pas de la Tour Eiffel, au Palais de Tokyo.
Le Muse d'art et d'essai se veut avant tout " un muse didactique destin
des visiteurs qui ne veulent pas seulement voir mais cO:T:;::>rendre". (cf.
Connaissance des Arts, no 395, janvier 1985:53). L'un des aspects importants
de cette dmarche est le caractre pluridisciplinaire et comparatif de ses
expositions. Le Muse d'art et d'essai, souligne Pierre Kjellberg, est "un
muse qui ne se veut pas un conservatoire mais une vitrine sur la vie,
quelque poque qu'elle se droule et qui exige, pour s'y rendre, une certaine
motivation. Mais cette motivation n'est-elle pas, en dfinitive, la porte
de tous?" (Ibid:57).
Plus prs de nous, il y a l'exprience du Muse national du Niger Niamey
dont la dmarche heureuse tt'nte non seulement une intgration du muse dans
l'6conomie nationale, mais de faire de l'action mus~ologiquc un outil privil
gi au service de l'Unit nationale. P. Toucet, ralisateur et premier conser
vateur de ce muse, pose ainsi le dilemme auquel il fallait faire face: "Le
problme consistait crer un muse vivant, qui s'adapte au temprament de la
population, l'attire et exerce sur elle une action ducative multiple. Il nous
fallait, d'abord, concevoir un muse qui fasse venir lui le "pctit peuple",
car c'est lui, en dfinitive, qui avait le plus grand besoin d'tre aid".
(cf. Huses, imagination et ducation, UNESCO, 1973:33-34). Non seulement le
muse s'emploi la formation de bons artisans en centrant son action sur les
jeunes dsoeuvrs, mais il offre aussi aux artisans adultes confirms des
ateliers de travail et une cooprative pour la commercialisation de leurs
p
Jitsj toutes ces activits sont soutenues par un programme d'alphabptisa.
tion dans un pavillon de l'audio-visuel amnag cet effet.
Le 1I~lus5e en question" (cf. supra) dit notamment du Muse national du Niger:
"une russi~e certes, il est aussi le fruit d'une longue volution. A son
origine, l'IFAN; eh oui! toujours la recherche de la lumire". On est alors
tent de se demander, dans quel sens a volu, depuis sa cration, notre
fameux "muse en question" qui dpend aussi de l'lfAN? Autrement dit, dans
quel sens recherche-t-il la lumire ("Lux ma Lex!")? Cette lumire si
indispensable toute institut'ion qui se veut au service du public. Ah! nous
allions oublier que le "muse en question" se dbat encore dans une
contradiction qu'il exprime de la faon suivante: "Nous voulons aussi surtout
contenter l'homme de la rue mais en l'duguant; de l faire du prestigieux
muse de Dakar (sic) un march, un jardin public, un z.oo, un Soumbdioune, il

158

y a un pas ne pas franchir sous prtexte d'integration, de socialisation ou

d'enracinement".
Voyons! Arrtons donc de faire de l'esprit et laissons entrer la lumire
bienfaisante des nouvelles conqutes musologiques dans le temple de la Place
Tascher (devenue depuis 1986, Place Soweto) entour de sa belle verdure si
propice l'imagination cratrice.
Toutes les expriences musales que nous venons citer COmme des tentatives de
renouvellement de la pratique musologique, sont autant d'expriences sur
lesquelles les pays africains doivent mditer pour tenter les leurs propres
fondes sur leurs objectifs particuliers et en fonction des moyens dont ils
disposent.

20 LES OBJETS-TEMOINS:
Ce sont les "objets matriels socialiss" (masques, instruments de musique,
costumes. maisons, etc .. ), et les objets sociaux (langues et langages divers,
danses, sons musicaux,
rites,
. ). La prsence des objets-tmoins de
civilisations dans le muse implique plusieurs activits complmentaires
mettant en oeuvre, chacune, des concepts, des techniques et des mthodes:
l'enqute, l'acquisition pour la formation des collections; l'enregistrement,
la classificatio;l et le catalogage; l'tude et l'analyse; la protection, la
conservation et la restauration; l'interprtation et l'exposition (temporaire,
permanente ou itinrante); la diffusion, la publication, la vulgarisation,
l'animation culturelle et l'ducation.
Les objets-t<!moins en tant que produits de culture, instruments de culture,
vl-hiculcs de culture, symboles de culture, constituent le centre d'articula
tion de tout processus cognitif, car ils sont de vc=ritables sources de con
naissance. Tout le problme c'est de vouloir et de savoir les interroger.
Hais attention! Gardons-nous de leur porter un jugement trop esthtisant ne
cadrant pas avec leurs canons culturels; car la beaut est une notion
culturellement transmise chaque membre d'une socit. En effet tll'Art ngre"
est une invention des ethnologues occidentaux; et cette vision r~ductionniste
d'un bon nombre de nos objets-tmoins de civilisation continue de caractriser
le discours de la plupart des gens de muses europens. L'art, entendu comme
"l'expression de l'idal esthtique de l'homme '1 0U comme" l'ensemble des
activits humain'; cratrices visant cette expression", et si les fruits de
cette pratique f J~tent en eux leur propre justification, cet art est alors de
l'art pour l'art; et il ne saurait convenir pour qualifier nos "objets
matriels socialiss l l que sont les masques, statues,
Par contre, l'art
comme l'ensemble des moyens, des aptitudes (adresse, habilet, etc ... ) mis en
oeuvre pour la ralisation d'une manifestation culturelle quelconque, ou comme
"l'expression extrieure d'une ncessit intrieure", cette pratique univer
selle est l'apanage de tous les hommes, car elle dcoule directement de
l'mergence de la pense conceptuelle et symbolique qui a fait de l'homme ce
qu'il est aujourd'hui et que les autres animaux ne peuvent devenir.
Ainsi, l'art est une mthode ou une technique avec laquelle l' homme, fort de
sa pense conceptuelle et symbolique, met en oeuvre des donnes de la nature
pour communiquer, tout en s'appuyant sur les paramtres dynamiques de son
environnement, de son existence dans l'univers que sont l'Espace, le Temps,
l'Air et le Cosmos.
En analysant le processus cratif de certains objets-tmoins, on se rendra
compte que cette "ncessit intrieure" peut se rvler tre un intrieur
individuel, collectif donc social.
Si l'art occidental (la peinture et la sculpture essentiellement), pendant
plus de deux mille ans, s'est content d'imiter la nature, l'expression plas

159

tique chez les ngro-africains par contre, la sculpture principalement, s'est

trs tt attache une symbolisation pousse des formes, en rapport avec
leurs ralits sociales, religieuses, cosmogoniques, etc . Il n'est plus un
secret pour personne que la dcouverte de ces "curiosits", au dbut de notre
sicle, par des artistes europens tels que Picasso, Matisse, Vlamirck,
l'1odigliani .. contribua grandement la rvolution de la peinture moderne

occidentale. Jean Laude, dans sa thse: "La peinture franaise (1905-1914) et

l'Art ngre, ou contribution l'tude des sources du fauvisme et du cubisme"

(1968),

a,

rencontre

jusqu' ce
historique

jour,
qui

ralis

l'valuation

marqu

l'orientation

la plus complte de cette

nouvelle

de

la

cration

artistique du monde occidental. Ce que ces artistes occidentaux ont peru dans
ces "curiosits",
ce n'tait
que
leur "architecture" dans sa stricte
matrialit. Cette conception rductionniste du public europen l'endroit
des statues et des masques ngro-africains, qui consistait essentiellerr:ent
ne tenir compte que du caractre esthtique accessoire de ces objets-tmoins
de civilisations, a t certainement pour beaucoup dans leur mutilation et
leur dnaturation dans les muses. Seul leur langage plastique y tait pris en
considration alors que les autres dimensions constitues par d'autres objets
m.1tt5riels soci.:llisl's (>t un ensemble d'objets soci~ux (mythe, rite, danse,
musiqtlC', C'tc ... ) qui avaient prt-sido leur nai~sancc ct sans IcsquC'ls ces
objC'ls-l~moins n'ont
aucune signific~tion, ~taient purement et simplem~nt
ignors ou glacs.
Dans la perspective musologique (vers un~ nouvelle musologie), nous pensons
que c'est en tenant compte, dans l'analyse, du fait que l'objet matriel
socialis (l'objet-tmoin) est un signe, qu'il peut tre un symbole, qu'il a
une fonction sociale et une histoire, qu'il peut avoir plusieurs caractres
(sociologique, politique, conomique, religieux, esthtique, rituel, etc ... ),
qu'il appartient au systme d'objets et qu'il est essentiellement un proces
sus, que les gens de muses feront de leur discipline un membre part entire
de la grande famille des sciences des socits 1"'umaines. Sur cette grille
d'analyse, dont nous n'avons donn que les principaux axes, il ya certaine
ment d'autres clairages ~poorter afin de contrlbuer l'tude scientifique
des objets-tmoins de civil ;. ..Jtion.
Nous avons tent dans notre travail consacr la Kora comme objet-tmoin de
la civilisation mandingue (vu essai d'analyse smiotique d'un objet matriel
socialis:
une
harpe-luth
ngro
africaine;
thise de doctor~t Ph. D.,

Universit Laval de Qubec, 1984, 539 p.) une pareille analyse reposant sur la
thorie smiotique labore par Charles Sanders Peirce, voir en Annexe IV le
Triangle smiotique opratoire de Peirce appliqu la Kora et au Korafola. A
ct de cette analyse dialectique qui recouvre forcment les dimensions
diachroniques (gnalogie, filiation, histoire, .. ) et synchronique (distri
bution gographique, analyse comparative, opposition contextuelle: ville/cam
pagne, ... ), nous connaissons d'autres analyses qui, dans une perspective
musologique, constituent, notre humble avis, des visions rductionnistes
des objets-tmoins de civilisation. Il s'agit de l'analyse smio-technique

propose
~larguerite

par Bromberger (1979:105-140) et l'analyse smio-esthtique de

Dbilde (1979:148 p.). Les limites du prsent essai nous empchent

d'exposer dans les dtails les articulations de ces deux analyses; nOtlS vous y
renvoyons.
Quand on dit qu'il s'agit de recenser, reconnatre, classer, protger, conser
ver, restaurer, intel'prter et diffuser le patrimoine culturel et historique,
nous disons oui. Mais nous ajoutons que les lments qui constituent ce patri
moine, c'est--dire nos objets-tmoins de civilisation, doi\'erlt ~tre int~grs
et adapts notre vie quotidienne d'aujourd'hui. C'est sur ces objets
tmoins que doit reposer notre combat pour la libration nationale, l'affirma
tion de nolre identit culture!.le et l'unit des peuples africains.

160

30

LE PUBLIC:

Nous avons dj dit que le muse, en devenant un centre de conservation et

dl interprtation des objets-tmoins de civilisation, a impos aux spectateurs

(le public) une relation toute nouvelle avec ces produits culturels. Cela est
encore plus sensible dans notre socit o la majorit des gens ignore ce que
la notion de muse recouvre; d'autres qui en ont entendu parler, sans jamais y
tre alls une seule fois, s'interrogent sur l'utilit, du muse dans un pays
en dveloppement. Bien sr, ct de ceux-l, il)' a les l'initis'', les
chercheurs et autres intellectuels qui savent de quoi regorgent les muses et
qu'ils peuvent y puiser des donnes par la ralisation d'articles scientifi
ques, thses, etc Mais parmi ces derniers ceux qui visitent rgulirement
les muses, combien sont-ils? Peut-tre deux cents, cinq cents? Ou peut-tre
deux mille? Une enqute rcente au Sngal a dmontr qulils constituaient en
1982, une trs petite minorit. Ah! j'oubliais, il y a aussi les touristes qui
inscrivent gnralement les muses dans leur programme de visite.
Et pourtant on continue soutenir, comme le suggre d'ailleurs la dfinition
retenue par le Conseil international des muses de l'UNESCO, que le II mu se est
une institution but non lucratif, ouverte au public en gnral et admi
nistre dans son intrt, qui se consacre: llexposition de biens culturels,
leur collection, leur tude, leur interprtation, leur conservation,
et leur prsentation pour l'ducation et le plaisir du public l l Mais le
public d'ici, le sait-il? Est-ce qu'on le lui a dit souvent?
Les scnarios musographiques (s'il y en al) des diff~rentes collections
exposes dans "le muse en question'l (in Le Soleil du 4 mars 1983, p.6)
refltent-ils le visage rel de nos socits traditionnelles ou celui des

projets nationaux d'aujourd'hui? Symbolisent-ils ou illustrent-ils la dynami

que et les rsultats des multiples recherches qui s'effectuent travers le
territoire ~ational par les archologues, sociologues, anthropologues et
autres...
logues?
Contribuent-ils,
avec
les
matriaux
et
les
donnes
scientifiques rcemment accumuls par nos prhistoriens et historiens, la
rcriture de l'histoire de nos peuples et de notre continent?
C'est vrai qu'il nous faut des moyens. L'intelligence et llimagination sont
des sources inpuisables de moyens multiformes. Aussi la connaissance profonde
et la haute conscience qu'on doit avoir des tches multiples qui nous
incombent, dans quelques secteurs de la vie nationale o l'on se trouve, ne
constituent-elles pas les premiers des ~oyens conqurir? D'ailleurs, on dit
souvent, "qu'un problme bien pos est moiti rsolu l1
Les muses d'ici, doivent d'abord conqurir le public dlici. Pour cela, un
langage nouveau est inventer, des dmarches et des attitudes nouvelles
initier, un dialogue instaurer. Dans cette perspective, une animation
culturelle bien labore et applique par des animateurs culturels bien forms
sera l'outil privilgier, en mettant un accent particulier sur la jeunesse,
sans exclure les autres acteurs sociaux provenant de toutes les classes
sociales.
Dans le contexte qui prvaut aujourd'hui dans notre pays, o les crateurs et
le public se cherchent, le muse pourrait devenir valablement un terrain de
dialogue, de rconciliation, pour une plus grande co:nprhension et une unit
d'action sur le chemin de la construction de la "Grande cit". Alors ne
dormons pas sur les acquis du pass. Rflchissons ensemble sur les lments
de notre patrimoine culturel et historique et allons de l'avant, la main dans
la main, pour construire le Sngal et l'Afrique de nos rves.
L'analyse des articulations des lments de la quadripartition musologique
nous a permis de dgager, non seulement, le caractre pluridisciplinaire des
activits musologiques, mais aussi de montrer l'importance du r61e que
l'institution lnusale peut jouer dans la vie sociale, conomique et culturelle

de chaque pays.
161

Notre rc![lexion a-t-elle fourni des lments de rfponses aux qupstions que
nous nous sommes poss au sein du Comit international de muspologie de l'IeOM
depuis Torgiano en 1979? Nous vous laissons le soin d'en juger en rappel~nt
encore ces questions qui interpellent les gens de muses des cinq continents:
1

La musologie: science ou seul~m('nt activit pratique du muse.

L'interdisclpllnarit en musologie. La recherche de base et la recher

che applique en musologie.

Objet et mthode de la recherche musologique.

Les fonctions du muse peuvent-elles cu doivent-elles tre rgies au

moyen de la musologie?

A la lumire des discussions qui ont eu lieu lors de la Confrence gnrale de

Londre 1983, le Comit international de musclogie a dcid d'instaurer un
dbat permanent sur les activits musologiqut's en organisant, chaque anne,
un symposium ou un sminaire l'occasion de ses runions annuelles. Les
diverses publications musologiques de l'UNESCO doivent diffuser largement
toutes les contributions tendant clairer ce dbat. Il s'agit de:
1

"Huseological Working Papers" (Hu Wop).

"Nouvelles musologiques l l

JO

"Huseum".

Si le "Museological Working Papers" (Nu Wop) est surtout un (orum internatio

nal pour le dbat des questions courantes de la thorie et de la mthodologie
musologiques, les "Nouvelles musologiques" rendent surtout compte des diff
rents travaux et activits du Comit international de musologie.
Plusieurs thmes sont encore en discussion au sein de notre comit et tra
vers les diverses publications mentionnes ci-dessus:

1
2

JO
4

7
8

Le systme de la musologie.
Les collections du muse: objets du muse-thorie, mthodes et critres
du travail de la collecte du muse.
Le muse-institut de recherche.
Le muse-une banque d'information.
Le muse-mdia de masse.

La dfinition de l'objet.
La communication travers l'objet du muse.
Les muses et la socit: la sociologie des muses.

Musologie: manipulation ou auxiliaire?

10

Les muses et l'avenir - l'avenir des muses.

11

L'impact ducatif des objets.

12

Par del le temps:

vail des muses.

13

Communicati("ol1 illdi\'idu('ll~ ct t"ollf'Clivc d.1ns le muse.

14

La futurologie a-t-elle quelque chose offrir a la musologie?

15

L~ mus6ologie-

16

Musologie ct intgration sociale.

17

Musologie et intgration urbaine.

qU311d

introduction de la technologie nouvelle dans le tra

est-elle n6e et qu'est-ce qui l'a pr~c~d6e?

Au sein du Comit international de musologie, plusieurs de nos collgues ont

162

aussi propos des dfinitions du concept de musologie. Nous en livrons ici

quC'lques-unes tirl;es du rapport de la troisime session de notre comit tcnue
Torgiano (Italie) du 22 au 26 octobre 1979 (pp. 37 42).
1-

"Essai de dfinition du concept de musologie". par W.. Klausewitz

Nation-Museum und Forschnungs-Institut Senckenberg, 6000 frankfurt
Senckenberg-Anlage 25 (Rep. f. Allemagne)

du
1,

La musologie est un champ de recherches concernant les muses. ::J.le a trait

au muse en tant que phnomne socio-cul~urel et en tant qu1institution scien
tifique avec toutes ses fonctions spcifiques.
La musologie nlest pas uniquement une science mettant en pratique diffrentes
disciplines scientifiques, tches ducatives, mthodes sociologiques, ni une
formation pure et simple.
La musologie runit les aspects communs tous les muses, en utilisant pour
cela de fa~on interdisciplinaire des lments extrieurs: pdagogie, sociolo
gie, histoire, etc Malgr cela, la musologie est une science indpendante,
avec ses propres thories et mthodes spcifiques.
Les diffrentes parties de la musologie sont:
10

La musologie gnrale, qui a une orientation thorique. Elle comprend

l'histoire des muses, la thorie de la musologie, les fonctions scienti
fiques des muses, etc.

20

La musologie applique, qui a une orientation plus pratique. Elle com

prend toutes les questions concernant les activits dans le domaine des
collections, la docmentation sur les objets, la publication, la pdagogie
et les mthodes didactiques du muse, la sociologie et la psychologie.

30 La musologie spciale, qui comprend les problmes musologiques de tous

les diffrents types de muses.
40

La musographie, qui a une orientation purement technique. Elle comprend

les techniques et mthodes relatives la scurit et aux collections et
avant tous les diffrents systmes techniques d1exposition.

La recherche musologique comprend les activits de recherche de base et les

tudes appliques en diffrents domaines qui sont utiles tous les types de
muses.
La musologie couvre tous les rsultats de base et appliqus avec un systme
scientifique propre.

1I-

liEs sai de dfinition du concept de musologie'l par Villy Taft-Jensen,

Museum Stjenesten, Sjorwpvej l, Lysgard, DK 8800, VIBORG, (Danemark)

La musologie est une science qui prend pour objet de sa recherche la slec
tion, la recherche et la diffusion de la connaissance de toutes les "choses",
y compris leurs corrlations, que l'homme juge assez pr~cieuses pour tre
protges et prserves en vue de l'avenir.
Le musre tant la seule institution qui r~n'l)lisst.? toutes les fonctions socio
culturelles ci-dessus, la musologie pourrait aussi tre dfinie comme la
science du muse et de ses rles et fonctions d~ns la collectivit.
La musologie est donc un~ science indpendante, possdant son propre ensemble
spcifique de thories et de mthodes qui, unifies en un systme, sont la
base du fonctionnement correct du muse.
La musologie peut tre subdivise en:
A)

Musologie gnrale, qui comprend

thories indpendantes telles que:
a)- les thories

ou

forme

le

cadre

d'un

qui se rapportent aux fonct ions du muse:

slection, thorie de la documentation, etc ...

ensemble

de

thorie de la
163

b)- les thories qui- le muse n 1 tant pas dfini, caractris uniquement
par ses ionctions- se rapportent i l'histoire du muse et ~ ses r6le~
en tant qu'institution.
COnlTle l'indique le terme "gnrale'l, ces thories doivent &tre valable!.:.
pour tous les types de muses, quelle que soit leur spcialis~tion.

B) Musologie spCiale, qui doit tre considre comme la thorie de l'appli

cation de la musologie gnrale aux branches scientifiques intervenant au
muse.
Lors de la mise au point de la thorie musologique, il sera ncessaire d'y
intgrer les acquis des autres sciences. La mthodologie de la musologie est
donc de caractre interdisciplinaire.
IlI-

Essai de dfinition du concept de musologie", par Vinos Sofka, Hi5to

riska Museet, P.O. Box 5405, 11484 STOCKHOLM <Sude)

La musologie est la sciende du muse et des activits du muse.

Objet d'tude de la musologie:
En tant que discipline scientifique indpendante, la musologie a pour objet
de son tude 11 ac tivit humaine qui s'exerce par le moyen de l'institution
muse et d'autres institutions analogues dans le but de conserver, d'tudier
et de mettre en lumire le patrimoine naturel et culturel du monde et(ou) de
certaines parties du monde-pays, rgions ou autres communauts.
Cette activit aux aspects multiples donne l'institution muse le caractre
d'un remarquable compos de rservoir d'objets originaux et de base d'informa
tion, d'institution de recherche et dans le mme temps de lnoyen d'ducation de
masse. C'est pourquoi, le muse en tant qu'institution socio-culturelle
- l'ide du muse et sa philosophie, les objectifs du muse, ses tches, son
organisation, son volution et son rle dans la collectivit - est au premier
plan de la musologie et de la recherche musologique et lui a donn son nom.
Objectif de la musologie

L'objectif de la musologie est:

d'acqurir, par l'examen, l'analyse, l'tude du mllse'et de son activit,
des connaissances et une exprience qui puissent tre gnralises et
intgres en un systme scientifique de formuler des objectifs, d'laborer
des mthodes et de proposer les voies et moyens d'activits du muse, de
rsoudre ses diffrents problmes et de crer une base pour son volution
ultrieure.
Caract~te

et m6thode de la rechercllc musologique

La multiplicit des fonctions du muse:

pr~servcr

en

colle~tionnant,

rn enregistrant, en emmagasinant et en con

servant;
tudier en examinant, en tablissant une documentation, en valuant, et
mettre en lumi~re en exposarlt, en enseignant, en informant et en publiant
la multiplicit des domaines qui forment ensemble le patrimoine naturel et
cultu.el font que la mthode de la recherche musologique est de caractre
fortement interdisciplinaire.
A ct de cette recherche musologique de base, il existe une vaste recherche
applique.
La recherche r l,;,~ologique de base se consacre l'lucidation des questions
communes tous les muses et n'entrant pas dans le chlmp d'activit d'une
autre branche scientifique.
La rech~rche ~pplique centralise l'intrt des autres branches scientifiques,
pour le muse et son activit, engage des recherches sur des questions
164

touchant celles-ci et applique les rsultats des autres branches de

recherche son propre objet d'tude. A cet gard, la musologie joue un rle
de coordination.

Systme de la musologie
Selon son caractre,
subdivise en:

champ

d'activit et son usage,

la musologie peut tre

musologie gnrale qui est la science gnrale du muse applicable tous

les types de muses et leur activit;
musologie spciale qui,

prenant pour la musologie gnrale, l'approfon

dit

pour

et(ou)

la

modifie

l'appliquer

es

phnomnes

spcifiques

reprsentatifs de certains types de muses et d'activits du muse et la

mus~ologie

applique, galement appele musographie, qui. subordonne

la musologie gnrale et rgie par ses conclusions, s'occupe de la
technique musologique pratique, qui est utilise par le muse pour rem
plir ses fonctions.
Rsum:
Sur la base Je ce qui a t dit ci-dessus, nous pouvons constater en rsum
que la musologie en tant que science gnrale du muse est une discipline
scientifique indpendante ayant ses propres objectifs, objet d'tude et tho
rie, champ d'activit et mthode, ainsi que son systme propre. La multiplici
t des fonctions et des domaines de collection fait de la musologie une
discipline ayant un fort caractre d'interdisciplinarit et ncessitant une
collaboration avec d'autres branches scientifiques, en faisant converger leur
intrt sur l'objet d'tude commun: le muse et son activit.

IV-

IIDfinition de la discipline scientifique musologie, son objet et sa

structure" par A.M. Razgon, Muse historique d'Etat, Krasnaya Ploscad

1 2, Moscou (U.R.S.S.)
La musologie est une discipline scientifique qui examine les lois de la
naissance et du dveloppement des muses, les fonctions sociales des muses et
leur
ralisation
concrte
dans
les
diffrents
systmes
sociaux,
dans
l'activit de recherches, de conservation, d'ducation et culturelle.
L'objet de l~ mus~ologie comprend les l&ments suivants:
A.

Le systme de muse et le muse lui-mme en tant qu'institution sociale

conditionne historiquement, sa fonction et son organisation intrieure.

B.

Les traits spcifiques des sources primaires qui sont concentres dans les
collections des muses pour tre conserves et utilises pour les buts
scientifiques, culturels et pour les propres buts des muses.

c.

Les aspects particuliers dans l'examen des vinements et phnomnes natu

rels et sociaux, qui rpondent au profil du muse.

Les lments susmentionns se caractrisent comme suit:

A.

La musologie examine la naissance et l'origine des muses, leur place

dans la vie de diff&ren. ;;ystmes sociaux, la formation de la loi concer
nant le muse) la classification et la typologie des muses; leur organi
sation interne, la connexion de cette organisation avec l'volution des
disciplines scientifiques et les besoins sociaux de llpoque.

La musologie examine la spcificit fonctionnelle de l'activit des muses:

a)

la concentration des objets, qui est lie l'examen des sources primaires
documentant les systmes dj morts ou vivants,

b)

la classification scientifique,

lltude des sources primaires et la cra

165

tion d'une banque d' i nf orma t i on scientifique, qui sert aux besoins
disciplines professionnelles et l'activit ducative et culturelle,

des

c)

la conservation des sources primaires,

ct)

les activits scientifico-ducatives et scientifico-culturelles.

B.

La musologie examine les objets de la ralit, les sources primaires qui

font galement ltobjet d'intrt d'autres sciences, mais elle a ~a propre
vue de ces objets, ce qui distingue la musologie des autres sciences.
L'tude des sources primaires rpond aux besoins de l'information sur les
phnomnes naturels et sociaux. Les sources sont considrer comme des
signaux porteurs d'informations, et l'information elle-mme comme le trait
substantiel de la communication reflte, qui est la proprit gnrale de
la masse.
La musologie examine dans les sources notamment l'aspect d'information de
masse et n~>n l'aspect objectif et nergtique. Vu que les sources nous
communiquent quelque chose, la musologie examine leur "fonction communi
cative".
Parmi les objets spcifiquement musologiques, il faut mentionner aussi
les traits susment ionns de ces sources et les aspects particuliers de
leur tude:

a)

l'tude des sources primaires en vue de dvoiler leurs fonctions communi

catives et sources, afin de constater les phnomnes, les lois que la
source donne documente et par consquent de dcider du bien-fond de sa
rception dans les collections du muse, et ce, dans les collections d'un
muse profil concret,

b)

l'0tudc des
tion et les

S0urces primaires en vu(' de d6termincr le rt>gime de conserva

de cons~rvation ct de restauration,

m~tl)odes

c)

la documentation scientifique minutieuse des sources primaires en liaison

troite avec les tches de la protection scientifique des monuments et
avec leur prparation pour l'utilisation optimale, scientifique, ducati
ve et culturelle,

d)

l'examen des possibilits communicatives des objets de muse dans leur

application pour les buts ducatifs et instructifs et avant tout pour
la forme de publicit spcifique du muse: l'exposition. Une telle tude
offre ainsi les critres de la slection des objets de muse dans le
cadre interne des collections.

c.

L'tude musologique de la nature et de la socit est spcifiquement

oriente vers la dtermination des .;nements documents par le muse,
ainsi que vers les objets qui docullll.ntent eux-mmes ces processus, c'est
pourquoi ils sont compris dans les collections du muse. Ils deviennellt
ainsi les objets de mus~t:. Cela se manifeste dans l'tude typique pour
le muse, dans le collectionnement scientifique.
Les lments structuraux de la musologie sont:

a)

la thorie de la musologie;

b)

l'histoire de la musologie;

c)

la science musologique concernant les sources;

d)

les mthodes scientifiques de tous les traits spcifiques des muses;

e)

l'historiographie de la musologie.
Tous ces lments se caractrisent par la liaison troite et par leur
enchevtrement.
Les diffrents lments,
qui
existent effectivement,
ne peuvent dans aucun cas tre spars dans la pratique des travaux de
recherches.

166

La complexit objective de la musologie conditionne le caractre multi

forme de sa liaiS'on d'autres disciplines scientifiques. La position
de la musologie dans le systme des sciences nlest pas univoque. La
musologie est une science marginale. Sa liaison aux disciplines apparen
tes, la science sur les sources et aux nombreuses disciplines spcifi
ques et auxiliaires, prsente le caractre de l'INTEGRATION, bien que
la musologie acquiert les traits d'une science indpendante.
Cette caractristique s'applique la musologie gnrale.
Outre

la musologie gnrale,

ciales.

Celles-ci examinent

il exi:ite des musologies partielles,

sp

les problmes des diffrentes sortes de mu

ses: musologie des muses d'histoire, musologie des muses d 1art,

musologie des muses techniques et technico-conomiques, musologie
des muses de littrature, etc

Les musologies partielles peuvent examiner galement les problmes selon

les diffrentes sortes d'activit des muses.
Pour la mise au point de la musologie gnrale, il est possible naturel
lement de traiter les problmes spciaux qui sont propres aux diffrents
lments de sa structure: thorie, mthodes, historiographie, etc ..

v
'lfinition de certaines conceptions musologiques" extrait du petit diction
naire de musologie de l'Institut pour la musologie, 1162-BERLIN, Muggelsee
damm 200, par Mr. Rolf Kiau, directeur de 11Institut
La musuologie, marxiste-lniniste:
Discipline socio-scientifique dont les lments sont la thorie de musologie,
la mthode de musologie et l 'histoire de musologie. L'objet de ses tudes
est le rapport
socit-muse, ainsi que l'activit spcifique, scienti
fico-culturelle du muse.

Par ses travaux de recherches, elle cre les bases thoriques et les critres
pour le collectionnement, la documentation, la cons :", ...ilion et pour d'autres
forrr,es d'utilisation des muses par la socit. Elle se proccupe de ses
rapports l'gard de muse. Elle analyse la structure de muse et le rseau
des muses. Contribue la cration des conditions pour la gestion, la plani
fication et la solution des problmes, de la musologie socialiste. Elle
traite de faon critique les rsultats de la science musologique bourgeoise
de conception avance et fait face idologiquement aux conceptions raction
naires et rvisionnistes.
La musologie rsume ses rsultats en systme.
La musographie:
terme utilis sur le plan international, de signification
varie, qui englobe soit la description de la structure et du travail de
muse, soit l'activit technique de muse. En outre, le terme musographie est
utilis comme un synonyme de la musologie. En R.D.A. ce terme n'est pas
courant.
Thorie de musologie:
Partie de la musologie, qui se proccupe du systme
des lois relatives l'ensemble des rapports socit-muse - document matriel

de

muse.

La

thorie

musologique

englobe

la

thorie

des

sphres

fonc

tionnelles suivantes: thorie du travail culturel et ducatif et de l'activit

d'exposition, thorie de la documentation de muse, thorie, ventuellement
cration de l'inventaire de muse. L'objet de connaissance spciale de la
thorie de musologie est l'tude de l'importance des objets de muse. La
thorie gnrale de musologie se proccupe des problmes thoriques de tous
les muses, alors que la thorie spciale de musologie se proccupe des
problmes thoriques d'une sorte de muse, de la fonction du muse donne.

167

ES~I

S"1STEhftT/SliTfON

ut

SCIENCE

"

ktJ$E"O/....OC1C)tJe

Al) 111 rJ LS T RA TI 0 N
0

~ (2..0 ~fHU1 ~T 1{) N

...

K. OUSE/oN

CR

Mr

~ I1V-{Jeo)

C~)(91RAlJj)V). J'BOUILHeT,~. C/fq'n) I~--e. ~ ,J-fc'..

/-a- c1cev..J-",ev.fc;l..-!-t-O\-\. -t-O-V\ ~ / p. g. re.o.f'ht)~,

168

f~

v-t,?a%

Auteurs ct ouvrages

c.:..te. s

Vandcrmcersch, Dcembre 1979, NO hors srie NO 129, Science et vie,

tlComment l'esprit'vint nos anctres", p.l.
Laplantine F. (1974) Les 50 mots cls de l'anthropologie, Paris, Privat,

MuJ':'tfor'

p.~l.

'1956:19) Les transformations de l'Homme, Paris, Payot.

Grawitz, (1974) Mthodes des sciences sociales, Paris, Dolloz, p.373.

Gabus J., (1975) L'objet-tmoin: les rfrences d'une civilisation par l'objet,
Neuchatel, De la Baconnire, p.27.

Moles A.A.,

(1969) "Les objets" in Communications 13, Paris, Seuil.

Durkhein E., (1968) Rgles de la mthode sociologique.

Gaston Bachelard, (1970) La fonction de l'esprit
scientifique, Paris, T. Vrin.

Bromberger C., (1979) Technologie et analyse smantique des objets: pour une

smio-technologie" in L"homme, Janvier-Mars 1979, XlX (1) pp. 105-140.

Dehilde M., (1979) Marques d'Afrique et pouvoir mle, essai de sem,otique

esthtique, Thse de matrise en anthropologie l'Universit Laval, 148 p.

Larrawri lker, (1975) "Le programme des muses scolaires au ""exique" in Museum,
o

Vol. XXVll, N

2.

Ordonez Garcia Coral, (1975) IILa Casa deI Musee Mexico O.f .", in Museum,

o
Vol. XXVll, N 2.

Kinard J.R., Nighbert E., (1972) "Le muse de voisinage Swithsonian Institution,
Washington D.C." in Museum, Vol. XXIV, NO 2.

UNESCO, (1973) Muses, imagination et ducation, Paris,

Coll. Mus~es et Monuments XV.

169

170

Isabel Laumonier - Buenos Aires, Argentina

MUSIDLOGY WR UNDEVELOPED roUNTRIES

Museology i8 not an end but a way to convey culture.

This paper tends to demonstrate that there is more than
"a Culture", and Bo:--much so in countries which has been
dominated and where local developement has been suffocated.
Museums must help to the rehabilitation of cultures submerged
by the ones representing the "official standard".
Upon these premises we tr,y to expose what is the actual
situation of the cultural policie in Argentina.

UNE HUSIDLOGIE POUR LES PAYS EN VOIE DE DEVELLOPPD1ENT

Pour aborder le theme propos : "Quelle contribution la mU~~2

logie peut-elle offrir aux pays en voie de dveloppement? il
faudrait peut-etre avancer petit petit.
En premier lieu: la musologie n'est pas une fin en soi, mais
simplement un moyen. Un moyen pour quoi? rour transmettre, pour
montrer, pour mettre en relief la culture par l'entremise des
muses.

Oui, mais quelle culture? Existe-t-il un grand (et unique) pa

quet symbolique dnomm culture? La culture n'est-elle, pas le
produit de l'enlacement de trois ve~teurs: espace (gographie),
temps (histoire) et socit[,s?,
171

Que ce passe-t-il alors dans les pays en voie de developpement

o~ l'espace a t boulevers par des raisons politiques ext~
rieures, ou simplement dtermin ad-hoc par des puissances
trangeres? Que ce passe-t-il la o~ l'histoire a souffert une:
csure marque par la colonisation d'abord et par l'indpendan
ce politique aprs et o~ les socits ont t boulverses par
le mlange d'ethnies de diverses procdences? Peut - on parler
tranquilement d'un seul paquet s.ymbolique?
Si l'on applique cette question' l'Argentine, le theme des
"deux pays" surgit immdiatement: il y a l'Argentine des r
gions de l'intrieur, crole et indigene (tres peu, apreE
l'extintion quasi totale des ethnies locales), et l'Argentine
portuaire ou de la "pampa hu.meda", tourne des son origine vers
la culture europenne et bien plus', partir de la fin du]IX
eiecle: alors l'avalanche des migrations (ita~i2nne, espagnole
et juive particulierement) a permis, pendant quelques annes,
que la quantit d'trangers peuplant la capitale (Buenos Aires)
surpasse en nombre celle des natifs.
Sur cette ralit sociale composite, une politique dirige par
une lite europisante a tach d'imposer un patron culturel
"classique" dont les muses ont t, pendant tres longtemps,
les reprsentants officiels.
D'une autre part, les muses ethnographiques rasselllplaient
les restes d'un pass indigene vu, depuis Buenos Aires, co~
me le temoignage d'une histoire surpasse. C'est a dire que
la aussi les muses n'informaient pas sur la ralite, mais
sur un mythe culturel const:roit sur un patron pr-determin
par une classe sociale dominante, celle de l'Argentine du
port et des exportations '("Remember, it is often the local
elites ",ho etart museums". Ed",ard L. Ba",es, lOOPOH '86).
A partir du retour la dmocratie (dcembre '83), ils souf
flent de nouveaux vents en ce qui concerne la vision de la
culture, qui a perdu son "CR majuscule et a gagn une part
de ralit. Les differentes cultures regionales tachent d'
e~erger et de se manifester: la tradition crole'ou indige
ne du nord-ouest contraste evidemment avec celle qui se pro
dui t a l'est guaranithique ou, au sud de la Patagonie. Bue
nos Aires lui-merne est un patch-work, chantillonage vari
172

des groupes,migrants qui ne se sont pas forcment amalga

ms dans le fameux melting-pot, si souvent proclam.
Il faut donner une voix a toutes ces cultures. Il faut trans
mettre avant tout qu'il s'agit d'une force vivante et non fi
g~e; actuellement les collectivits cherchent a r~cup~rer
la m~oire de l'odysse de leurs souffrances et leur dra
cinement: il faut 'trouver un espac~ pour ces manifestations.
Sur la base de cette ralit~ : quelle contribution la muso
logie peut-elle offrir aux pays en voie de dveloppement?
Avant tout. rvaloriser les cultures locales et leurs manifes
tations ( there are some (objets) which gain symbolic con
tent whenthey are placed in the Museum". (i;.id.). A niveau
international les pays developpes peuvent s'intresser aux
programmes musologiques des collectivits de leurs pays'!
l'tranger; acroitre le nombre d'changes de collections. me
me dans les cas ou ces changes ne so~ent pas symtriques en
ce qui concerne la valeur formelle des objets en change.
Egalement les muses devraient ouvrir plus gnereusement leurs
portes aux initiatives des "profanes" (c'est
dire ceux qui
"font" la culture que les musologues codifieront plus tard)
et stimu~er la formation des crations collectives, permetant
ainsi de rcuperer les traditions (indignes ou bien des col
lectivits) dans le but de prserver la mmoire et les raci
nes des differentes ethnies.

173

174

Lynn Maranda -

Vancouver, BC, Canada

DEFINITIONS:
The question posed by the symposium topic is, in
fact, one of a utilitarian economic nature. Generally, the
phrase "developing country" is perceived as an economic term,
that is, the criteria by vhich a country is labelled as being
either "developing" or "developed" is normally based on the state
of its economy. While it May be argued that other factors, such
as social or political development could be taken into
consideration, nevertheless, it remains that economics is the
Most promlnent bench-mark used vhen making an assessment of
development. Further, the phrase "developing countries" is often
used synonymously vith the "third world". While "developing"
suggests an egalitarianism whereby countries are trying-to-catch
up-but-are-not-quite-there, "third world" relegates to its
membership a poorer status designation in which a lover economic
level of development is accepted as the status quo. However,
whether poorer countries are defined by some standards as
developing or are recognized to be in an economic-political
sphere of the third world, they are, in fact, being measured by
those countries which are considered developed. It would continue
to be the case both philosophically and logically , that
developing countries will be forever developing as they try to
catch up to the level of developed countries which are themselves
continually advancing their economic and technological basis.
A part of the question being asked is whether or not
museology has a rightful role to play with the economic
development of a poorer status country, but more fundamentally we
are being asked to consider whether or not museology as a science
in the exploration and application of a field of human knowledge
can be legitimately employed in the shaping of human economy.
Huseology is also an applied science of techniques and
methodology for the handling and preservation of heritage
materials. The general perception is that the techniques of
museology are not as significant to the realm of human commerce
175

~hen

as are other 1nfluences of human endeavour. Even

cons1der1ng

the aspect of kno~ledge, 1t 1s doubtful that museology has as

much 1mport on the domains of human activ1ty as do the specifie
items of heritage

it is concerned.

~ith ~hich

Ho~ever,

the topic

of discussion implies that these techniques of museum practice

represent a unique discipline

~hich

econom1c location to another and

is transferable from one

~hich

is therefore of a standard

to influence the econom1c condit10n of developing countr1es.

What 1s deemed

~orthy

of preservat10n for the future,

and 1s therefore "her1tage material", is the result of a

discernment made by every l1v1ng culture. Items are g1ven the1r
historical meaning by those cultures interpret1ng them. Thus, the
social importance of an item shifts from one culture to another,
and sh1fts
soc1ety

~1th

gro~s

a cultural re1nterpretat1on of an item's use as a

through phases of development. The value of

~hat

should be preserved 1s a determination of a culture's

contemporary perspect1ve
an ephemeral qual1ty.

~hich

suggests that

"~orth",

at best, 1s

Further, it is noted that for a culture to

admit that such items need preservation 1s in fact an adm1ssion

that such items no longer have a pract1cal

~orth,

and that a

d1stanc1ng has taken place separat1ng these 1tems from util1ty to

one of 1nheritance value, a d1stancing
society but

~hich

~h1ch

1s perce1ved by a

is cont1ngent upon its economic stature and

current mores.
ECONOMICS:
Museology def1n1tely has an econom1c bas1s. Th1s 1s so
not only because museums acqu1re objects of vealth, but also
because they requ1re the fund1ng suppl1ed to them by a healthy
economy in order to funct10n. By definition, developing countries
lack suff1c1ent econom1c strength to effect1vely undertake the
full range of activities required by the science of museology.
Further, vhat 1s deemed to be "museum vorthy" qu1te probably 1s
different vhen seen through the eyes of a Western expert than
through the eyes of a th1rd vorld 1nhab1tant.

Many third

~orld

and developing countries are v1eved by the advanced nat10ns as

being culture r1ch provinces

~hile

at the same time people in

such countries are often struggling vith the basics of survival

and accept their cultural basis as a simple inherited facto
The
notion of "developing" has an implication

~ithin

its verbal

boundar1es for 1t suggests that a distance can be measured

between a prior and a current existence by vh1ch an evolution is
176

ln progress. An economlc "development" ls one ln vhlch the means

of productlon of a people have evolved. It ls for thls baslc
reason, the reason that the dlstance of evolutlon as percelved by
dlfferent cultural groups may not be as great nor as less as the
term "developlng" Implles, that questlons the vhole notlon of
bestovlng museum studles as though It could contrlbute dlrect
beneflt to the economy of a developlng country.
Huseology per se ls not an economlc force; It ls an
area of study. The disclpllnes vhlch comprlse museum actlvlty
contrlbute to the vealth of human knovledge, and by thls fact, It
could be Interpreted that museology Indlrectly asslsts an economy
as any knovledge vll1 contribute to the vell belng of a people
and their culture. Hovever, the practice of museology Is costly
to flnance and the economics of encouraglng the grovth of these
dlsclpllnes over others vith more d1rect econom1c benefit may be
questionable. Certainly 1t does not seem probable that the
acqulsltlon of sophlsticated museum practlces vould be hlgh on
the prlorlty 11st of thlrd vorld countries vhose means of
survival is at a subs1stence level.
The museum, a concept synonymous vlth the developed
Industrlalized west, has become influentlal ln settlng standards
of collectabllity, aesthetlc appreclatlon and market-place value
of cultural materials. Huseums have become not only hoarders of
vealth but also because of their actlvities, "brokers" ln the
burgeoning market-place trading of cultural goods. In this vay,
museums have helped to foster an acceleration ln the competition
for increaslng scarce resources and thereby created an
inflationary cost for indigenous items, a cost not affordable by
"developing countrles". consequently, these practices have
enabled museums to Increase the monetary value of their ovn
vealth vith the result that simllar acqulsitions of collectable
objects are veritably not affordable by th1rd vorld countrles.
HUSEOLOGY:

Huseology as a science has set disclplinary standards

not only vh1ch effect the practlces of collectlng and
preservatlon, but also vhlch indlrectly effect the perspectlve of
vhat ls collectable and vhat should be preserved.
When talking about a unlversal museology, ve are as
vell deallng vith a sclence of technology. That is to say, any
general application of an approach to museum york must be founded
upon technlques related to, for example, the handllng and
177

preservation of materials. The theoretical concepts involved in

such established disciplines as ethnology and history, vary with
the cultural milieu of their origin.

HERITAGE:
There is no universal standard of "value" whether it is
found in a living culture or taken in appreciation of sorne
historical importance. What is deemed collectable either by an
individual or by a science brings with it a kind of prejudice for
what is considered to have value in a collection. Which more
importantly suggests that our Western knowledge of collectability
is a combined networking of facts held together in meaningful
cohesion by a social perspective of what is "worthy". Thus, in
the field of museology, our contemporary advanced industrial
nations collect indigenous materials from around the world making
value-selections of what is worthy of collection. By the same
reason, it is se en that developing countries, whose knowledge
perspective of the world is considerably varied, would not
necessarily value the preservation of the same items. Western
museums might quite easily des ire to place one enormous plastic
bubble over West Africa, for example, to keep its entire society
under a "working-past-culture" heading and to parade this culture
before the knowledgeable eyes of Western science. However, the
many wooden implements and camel driven economies of this region
wou Id not consider the tools of their livlihood as candidates for
museum retirement.
Should the disciplines of our most advanced museology
be undertaken by an impoverished people, we would expect that
these peoples would recognize a separation from the living
cultural items which surround them as they place such artifacts
in museum situations. There is a difference between a living
culture and a museum culture. To suggest that developing
countries wou Id want a parallel museology means people wou Id be
separating themselves from a living culture and housing it. The
result of such activity might cause a more sever economic
hardship in that items of livlihood would have to be replaced, or
else it might, as the most generous benefit, help these people
spawn the b1rth of their own economic miracle. It could be argued
that the introduction of a universal standard museum practlce
would assist people of a developing country by having them come
178

to understand the nature of their current condition. And thus, as

the kno~ledge of their present condition is a paramount
prerequisite for making improvements, the introduction of such
sound museum practices ~ould naturally result in economic
benefit.
It is of interest to note that if one uses the term
"developing" as a heritage modIfier rather than an economic one,
then it is seen that, for example, Canada, after only a fe~
hundred years of existence, might ~ell be considered a developing
country and Egypt, ~ith its long and important cultural history,
the developed country. It should be remembered that President
Nasser caused the As~an dam to be built - a major economic step
for contemporary Egypt - thus creating a man-made lake ~hich
threatened many priceless monuments of human heritage, and that
these items ~ere saved by the efforts of foreign and
scientific expertise and funding, ~hereas the Egyptian economy
~ould have been financially unable to preserve the relics. The
morality and economics of the then current Egyptian policy placed
the building of the dam at a much higher priority than the
preservation of heritage materials.

MORALITY AND HISTORY:

The techniques for housing and caring for museum
collections is expensive and so the recommendation that
developing countries assume similar costs in maintaining the
practices of museology is an imposition vhich they can ill
afford. Clearly there exists in many countries priorities for
economic survival vhich do not include the expenses of housing
cultural heritage. Basically, this is an issue of morality.
Many Western and European museums have vast collectIons
of cultural materials acquired from the third ~orld. This
material has been secured, in economic terms, as a form of
Imperial expansion and colonization. Museums ~orking under such
circumstances have served as storehouses of Imperial booty. The
thought of repatriation of cultural materials, or the "proper"
location of artifacts, or vho "really" ovns vhat, are questions
of politics and not questions of museology. Or ~hether the
return of the Elgin Marbles to Athens, for example, ~ould aid the
economy of modern day Greece, is certainly very moot, and i5 a
very different question than "should the Elgin Marble5 be
returned to Greece?".
179

SUMMARY:
The importation of museology into economically
impoverished lands, can in the best scenario alter the
perspective of national peoples concerning their history, their
current economlc position, their environment, and can offer ideas
as to improving the basic means of economic production. whether
that museum knovledge is of such Import as to effect a change of
economic strength for an impoverished country is moot, and it is
suggested that other, more direct economy producing disciplines
should be employed to foster economic grovth - disciplines such
as agriculture, engineering, chemistry, marketing, etcetera
vhich lay legitimate claim to primary economic development.
It is Interestlng that museology vould vant to place
its discipline in relationship to economics, in that it begs the
question as to vhether or not there is a relationship betveen
this scientific study and the livelihood and economy of a people.
The question could have been posed," Can museology beneflt a
thlrd vorld museum?" The ansver vou Id have to be, Oyes"~, as one
vould expect the latest techniques in, for example, caring for
artifacts could be readily use fuI to an established institution,
though It exists in the third vorld. Hovever, It is questionable
vhether or not these technlques can assist a country to develop.
It can be interpreted that to assist development at thls level is
verltably a klnd of manlpulatlon by vhlch countries not as
commltted to a partlcular forms of economlc actlvlty become
Induced to partlcipate ln slmllar forms of pursult.
There is an Inherent difflculty exportlng museum
perspectives to other countrles, especlally to those of a lesser
economlc status, for the actlvlty of such human Industriousness
15 usually done for selflsh reasons. That 15, ultimately, we, as
human belngs, are alvays dolng things for ourselves. The actlvlty
of Amerlcan museums ln restoratlon vork in Mexlco 15 a good
example of hov foreign expertlse can galn posltive knovledge for
Its ovn discipllne vhile engaged in foreign programmes. Hovever,
there are spln off beneflts for expandlng Museum practices ln
developlng countries and these might be: a general educatlve
beneflt vhlch vould raise the social avareness of a struggllng
peoplei the reinforcement of cultural identities and nationalism
ln areas of dlversltYi and the encouragement of a tourlsm
industry through the creation of polnts of destination.

180

Peter van Mensch -

Leiden, Netherlands

What contribution has museology to offer to the developing countries?

Sorne remarks.

The theme of ICOFOM's symposium can be discussed on three levels:

the level of the museologists,

the level of the museologica~ institutes (Le. museums),

the level of museological theory and methodology.

1 will try to arrange my remarks according to this division.

a
b
c

What contribution have museologists to offer to the developing countries?

A question like this evokes of course the old problem: what is a
museologist? Is it someone with a special academic training? Is it
someone who is working in a museum? Is it a theoretician by
profession? This is not the place to define the professional identity
of a museologist. Rather 1 would turn my attention to the organization
of museologists par excellence: the International Committee for
Museology.
Future historiographers of the profess~nn will perhaps agree with
Vinos Sofka (as 1 do) that "the year 1988 seems to be the Year of the
Great Museology Break Through" (Circular Letter, 1 March, 198B). Ir
is significant that in this year the annual conference of ICOFOM will
take place in India.
What has been the relationship between ICOFOM and developing countries
before 1988?
In its eleven years of existence (1977-1987) the International Commit tee
for Museology has organised a remarkable series of open debates on the
content of museology. These 12 debates about as many different themes
produced 20 introductory and "provocative" papers, 216 "basic" papers,
56 comments and 12 summaries and analyses. This corpus of 304 papers
was the result of the efforts of 113 museologists from 35 different
countries.
It is interesting to analyse the geographical distribution of these
museologists:
Africa (Ghana, Senegal, Mali, Tanzania)
North America (Canada, USA)
Middle & South America (Argentina, 8rasil, Chile,
Mexico, Puerto Rico, Venezuela)
West Asia (Isral, Syrial
East & South Asia (India, Japanl
Australia (Australia, New Zealandl
East Europe (Czechoslovakia, German Democratie
Republic, Poland, Soviet Union, Yugoslavial
West & South Europe (Denmark, Federal Republic
of Germany, Finland, France, Greece, Italy,
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden,
United Kingdom)

4 <3,5 %)
22 (19,5 %l

16 (14,2 Il
2 0,8 Il
8 (7,1 %l
3 (2,6 %)
31 (27,4 %l

48 (42,S I)

This table is revealing. It shows the eurocentricity of the committee

(79 authors from Europe = 69,9 I) and the dominance of "western
181

thinking" (74 authors from West Europe, North America, Israel and
Australia ~ 65,5 %). If we follow the traditional division of the
world into "First World" (mainly West Europe and North America),
"Second World" (socialist countries in East Europe) and "Third
World" (developing countries), we see a very uneven distribution
of those museologists that participated in the museology discussion:
IIFirst World"
"Second World ll
"Third World"

.. 60 %

.. 20 %
.. 20 %

Comparing the figures from the first periode of the committee with
those of the second periode gives next result:
1977-1982
"First World"
"Second World ll
lIThird World ll

56 %
35 %
9 %

1983-1987
54 %
18 %
28 %

Within the "First World" the share of North America diminished:

from 21 % in the first period to 14 % in the second one. At the
same time the committee attracted more authors from West Europe:
38 % in the second period against 30 in the first one. The increase
fo "Third World" authors can partly be explained from the 1986
symposium. the share of Latin American contributors increased
dramatically: from 5 % in the first period to 16 % in the second
one.

In the context of the theme of this symposium it is interesting

(and promising!) to notice that despite afore mentioned dominance
of Europe and "western thinking" the work of the committee seems
to attract a growing number of colleagues from countries outside
Europe and North America.
The annual meeting in 8uenos Aires in 1986 has contributed enormously
to the break through of the committee outside its traditional, familiar
base. That's why l opened my speech on behalf of the committee at the
second interdisciplinary session at the plenary ICOM Conference in
8uenos Aires with the phrase: "La semilla ha sido sembrada", the seed
has been planted. It seems as if the seed has sprouted!
In the meantime only 45 from the 304 papers produced in the context
of the committee explicitly deal with the situation in developing
countries. The majority of these 45 papers cornes from Argentina/Brasil
and India. This can, of course, not been seen apart from the meeting
in Buenos Aires and the invitation to come to India this year. Because
of these papers the committee members are rather weIl informed about
the state of museology and museums in both parts of the world. But did
the committee as a whole take a real interest in the problems and
draw-backs that were communicated by the papers? To be honest: l doubt
it. It is not to me to judge whether colleagues from developing
countries did benefit by participating in ICOFOM discussions, but l
would like to point at Laumonier's remarks in her basic papers for
the symposium in 1987. Referring to the symposium in 1986 she wrote:
"Si ceci en est ainsi, autour de la table de l'ICOFOM on coutera
toujours -et surtout- les memes voix discutant leurs problems-maison"
(always the same voices are heard, discussing their own home problems).
Summarizing Laumonier stated: "La discussion concernant les problemes
de la musologie et des muses ne peut se maintenir 'in abstracto' et
comme un totum; il faut dcouper les thmes et les zones d'application".
The discussions should not be too abstract and well-defined themes should
be discussed regionally.
The idea of regional meetings has been proposed and supported by the
ICOFOM board too. Sorne experience is needed in order to conclude whether
this working method proves to be a real solution.
It is not by coincidence that Laumonier combines her criticism of the
abstraction level of ~he discussion with a proposaI to decentralize
182

the discussion. The lower the abstraction level, the stronger the
wish/need to restrict the discussion geographically/culturally. Here
a wrong expectation about the objectives of ICOFOM does avenge itself.
The misson of the committee in the context of ICOM as a whole, is to
develop the the ory of museology. This implies discussions on a high
abstraction level.
What contribution have museums to offer to the developing countries?
In their contributions to the symposium "Museology and museums" <1987>
Abramo and Masao pointed at the difference in history and- social
significance of museums in their part of the world (Brazil and
Tanzania) compared with the "First World". Apart from the lack of
funds and absence of means, it is mainly a difference in purpose.
"Brst World" museums are mostly occupied with the preservation of
collections, while "Third World" museums are seen as instruments
of social change (Abramo).
It is however not without reason that Sofka in his invitation let ter
mentioned the aspect of historical development. As Masao pointed out:
the museum as a formaI institution is alien in African traditional
societies. The idea was imported (or perhaps it is better to say:
exportedl from (byl the centres of colonial power. For understanding
the world wide variation of the museum idea it is not without
significance that the centres of colonial power could be found in
Western Europe.
Museums that were founded in European colonies during the 19th and
early 20st century reflected the dominant museum concept in Western
Europe. This concept was different from the dominant museum concept
that was developed in the United States. American museums were by
definition educational institutions. In the course of their development
American museums grew more preservation-aware, while European museums
became more educational, but in principle it can be said that the
traditional American museum is based on a different philosophy than
the tradit~ European museum. Brown Goode's well-known adagium
about an efficient educational museum "as a collection of instructive
labels, each illustrated by a well-selected specimen" (in The museums
of the future, 1891) could never have been said by a European museum
director in that time (at least not in the Netherlandsl.
After the revolution a new approach to museums was developed in Soviet
Russia. This concept however failed to influence the development of
museums in Europe before the Second World War. In order to improve
their awakened educational awareness, European museum directors turned
to the United States.
Much more could be said about this, but 1 would rather point at an
important development during the 1960s and early 70s. Almost simulta
nourly a new museum concept was formulated in different parts of the
world. In 1967 the Anacostia Neighbourhood Museum was founded by the
Smithsonian Institution (Washington), in 1971 Rivire and D~ Varine
developed the idea of the 'ecomuseum', in 1972 the concept of
'integrated museum' was formulated at a meeting of Latin American
museologists in Santiago de Chile. Neighbourhood museum, ecomuseum,
integrated museum, community museum, decentralized Museum, etc.
are but variants of a new concept. This new concept has been described
by Maure as follows:
"The decentralized ~useum places itself entirely at the service of the
community in which it is established. Its task is no longer to
transmit a universal message tc an undefined audience, but to put
the local population in contact with their own history, their own
traditions, their own values, etc. Through its activities the museum
contributes to the community's awareness of its own identity - an
identity that has been more or less denied for historical, social,
racial or other reasons, or disrupted by centralization, urbanization,
etc." (in ICOM Education 8, 1977/78l.
183

In similar wording the mission of museums has been described by many

authors contributing to ICOrOM's symposiums of 1986 and 1987. There
is no need to repeat this here.
Not wrongly the integrated museum concept and the traditional European
collection-based museum concept are seen as opposites. During the
discussion in course of the symposium "Museology and museums" in
Espoo (Helsinki) it was found that the apparent diversity in the
museum field could be reduced to two fundamental types:
- the collection-based type,
- the community-based type.
During the symposium in 1987 it was discussed whether these types
both could be called museum. In view of the theme of the symposium
in 1988 the question can be asked: do both types serve the needs of
developing countries?
In my view there are three basic museological "functions", Le. groups
of activities: preservation, research and communication. Usually the
discussion about the social relevance of museums concentrate of the
communication aspect (the museum as educational institute, the museum
as agent for social change). The other functions are seen as of
derived importance. 1 think this is, museologically seen, an unjust
s impl ification.
All three functions have social significance, "even" preservation.
Only extremists reject any form of preservation. 8ut the validity
of the concept of the sacrosanctity of the heritage as often found
among conserva tors can likewise be questioned. The crux of the
matter is the degree of socialization: who decides what and how
and for whom sorne object is preserved.
During the 18th and 19th century in Europe and North America the
museum was developed as specialized institute to formalize
preservation in connexion with research and communication. The
balanced combinat ion of aIl three functions is still the core of
the ICOM definition of museum.
In other cultures less formaI forms were developed. In his basic
paper to the symposium "Museology and museums" Masao showed that
in African traditional societies objects were collected and
preserved. those preserved objects however were hardI y made
available to other people outside the immediate social unit.
Similar situations were described by Mead for Oceania (in Museum 35,
1983,2). Obviously the ide a of preserving objects is not typical
European, only the institutional form. With Gregorova (basic paper
1987) 1 distinguish institute from institution. Institution is the
structuralistic category that empirically on1y can be observed as a
historical and socio-cultural defined institute. As institution
the "museum-relationship of man to reality" (Stransky) can be found
outside Europe. But is there a need to renew and actualize this
institution in present-day society?
Coming from a western European country l will not answer this
question for developing countries. But l would like to take the
opportunity to point at what in my view will be the most decisive
force behind museum deve10pments in the near future: tourism.
Tourism is a growth-industry. With tourism the collection-based
type of museum acquires new legitimacy. Preservation pays. Not
withour reason one speaks about "the Heritage Business" or "the
Heritage Industry" (R. Hewison: The heritage industry, 1987).
"Le Creusot" is history, "Beamish" is the future 1 Pseudo-events
overtake real experiences. "Religion was once the opiate of the
materially poor, heritage has now become the opiate of the
spiritually deprived, intoxicated by bogus history".
184

What contribution has museological theory the offer to the

developing countries?
In the present, formative stage of the discipline, there are almost
as many museologies as museologists. However, despite the many
differences there seems to be much consistency as to the parameters.
Those basic parameters are: the cultural and natural heritage (the
collection), the institute (the building and personnel) and the
society (the public). There is also much consistency as to the set
of activities characteristic for the domain of museology: preservation
(including collecting, registration, documentation, conservation and
restoration), research,
communication (including exhibition and
education) and management. As a theory
museology provides a frame
of reference for the implementation and mutual attuning of these
activities in relation to the basic parameters. Provided sorne
significance is attributed to the preservation of cultural and
natural heritage, museology,as described here, has a world wide
relevance.

A scientific discipline aims at substantional rationality and/or

functional rationality. When museology aims at substantional
rationality it tries to understand the museological phenomena in
their historical and socio-cultural contexts. Its usefulness is
primarily heuristic. When museology aims at functional rationality
it tries to develop adequate means (methods, techniques, procedures)
to realize ends that are defined beforehand. This practical approach
aims at applicability.
When our aim is substantional rationality there is, in my opinion,
no need for geographically restricted museologies. The same analytic
methodologies can be applied everywhere. When our aim is functional
rationality much depends on the level of abstraction. At their lowest
abstraction level museological models can only be applied at individual
institutes.
As stated above it is not the aime of ICOFOM to provide applicable
models on the level of individual institutions, not even on the level
of museum categories. There are other international commit tees
dealing with this. It is not clear whether there is a role for ICOFDM
in developing functional rationality on the level of country or
continent. Should this be left to national museuro associations?
There certainly is a task for ICDFDM on the highest abstraction level.
This is the main mission of the committee in the context of ICOM. But
in order to "translate" models from a higher abstraction level to a
lower abstraction level, and vice versa, it might be necessary to
organise national and regional working groups within ICOFOM.
Another possibility is to create a working group for "comparative
museology" to compare different museological approaches and models
on different levels of abstraction. These comparisons will enrich the
knowledge on the higher abstraction level. But at the same time these
comparisons will enrich knowledge on lower abstraction levels too.
As such museological theory can offer a contribution to aIl countries.

185

186

Wolfgang Mey -

Stuttgart, FRG

A Museum Promotes Change

The Ambalangoda Mask Museum, Sri Lanka

Originally 1 wanted to give a descriptive account of

strategies of sur vi val of a local culture in the south
west-coast area of Sri Lanka and the contributions of
museological anthropology to this process.
But the more 1 read about regional museums the more 1
felt that 1 should link these two issues.
To begin with, 1 shall articulate my disagreement with
the ideology of regional museums in the context of their
contribution to the development of a National Culture in
general. Then 1 will point at shortcomings of current
approaches of regional museums in the light of the case
of the Mask Museum Ambalangoda, Sri Lanka. Third, l will
present a description of the results of the working of
the Ambalangoda Mask Museum in its cultural setting.
1 intend to outline the strategies a particular aspect of
a local culture, e.g. mask carving and -dancing had
chosen in order to survive and show what strategies
museological anthropology has adopted to support the
preservation of culture.
1 want to make clear right at the beginning that the
interpretations with regard to this case are mine and do
not necessarily reflect the opinion of my counterparts
in Sri Lanka.
The way "regional" or "provincial" museums are given a

task by national museums in national and international

museology in the perspective of contributing to state
and nation-building implies as stable consensus regarding
mutally valid and accepted notions of functions and
perspectives of museums.
Without hesitation regional and provincial museums are
given the task to support the development of a National
Culture by representatives of national museums,
cultural department and ministries. The discussion
regarding the function of regional and provincial museums
in national and international museology follows this type
of argument. This strategy implies a silent agreement of
regional and provincial museums to this task.
Contradictions between these types of museums are neither
discussed nor conceptualized. Thus, this attitude has
conveniently become the working basis of both national
and international museology in theory and practice.
Correspondingly, the foundation and working of museums,
be they national, regional or provincial institutions, lS
discussed in the perspective of their contribution to the
mainstream of national culture. And if ever regional
ethnie varieties in museological context are emphasized
187

then only to declare them a part of the grand total, as a

dependant variable of Cultural Notions of the State.
It may be of a considerable diplomatie value to go on
like this, but it is of ev en greater damage to the
course of disinterested scholarly endeavour and
truthfulness not to discuss contradictory issues between
the two types of museums.
l will develop this argument by discussing the case of
the Ambalangoda Mask Museum.
Ambalangoda is a small town in the south-west coast area
of Sri Lanka. This area, the so-called Low Country, used
to be famous for its arts of mask carving and dancing.
These mask performances aim at either honouring the gods
or at dispelling the influences of disease bringing
demons, and for the famous Kolam Dances, a type of rural
drama which exposes a.o. the injustice and oppressiveness
of Singhalese society in colonial times.
Today, only very few old and weIl carved masks exist in
Sri Lanka. This deficit is conveniently and thoughtlessly
attributed.to collectors'activities.
Certainly, museum collectors started acquiring
comparatively large collections from the 1870es onwards.
But these masks were usually carved for the customers
and the purchases did not result in selling out the
masks used by the various troupes.
Today, most ethnographie museums in the west own good
collections from this area, though only very few are
sufficiently weIl documented.
The threat to mask culture came, however,
sides.

from different

1. Modernization in colonial and postcolonial times

created an athmosphere which outspokenly declared

mask rituals a part of a past darkened by

superstitious customs. The carvers were left with

little to live on and were forced to sell their old

stock.

2. Cultural traditions of the Up Country, reflecting

the "aristocratie" past of the last kingdoms and

the grandeur of earlier dynasties were regarded as

THE National Culture, the traditions of the Low

Country, explicitly mask performances, were of no

concern to official cultural ideology.

In 1950, the last Kolam Dance was performed in Ambalangoda,

the very place considered the "home of the Kolam", where
these dances in their historically known form had been
developed.

As a strategy of survival, most carvers sold the old

stock at nominal priees to tourists after independence
and turned to other activities to make a living. Only
few though facing impoverishment, kept on carving. The
Increase of tourism in the late 60es and more marked in
the 70es provided a brighter outlook for the carvers.
Mask carving survived as a cottage industry.
188

This was the general situation when l came to Ambalangoda

in 1984 to do research with Ariyapala Gurunnanse, a

carver, ri tuaI and medical specialist of an immense

knowledge and a very high reputation. He is over 87 years

of age now, head of a family of three sons and two

daughters. The sons got aIl their training in carving,

dancing and drumming, the daughters in dancing and

drumming.

Facing the steady decline of the mask tradition due to

reasons mentioned above, the sons went into business;

the money which was earned by mask sales in the 60es and

70es was weIl invested and the family got comparatively

rich. Today, only his eldest son 8andu who had insisted

upon an education in classical and low country dance

preserves this aspect of his father's tradition. Apart

from attending his business he works as a dancing teacher

in a college of Ambalangoda.

Masks carved in the workshop near the house and sold in

the salesroom used to be the only surviving indicators of

a once flourishing tradition of carving, dancing, drumming

and healing, handed over from generation to generation

and developed into perfection.

The Old Man, however, witnessed the breakdown of his

tradition.

One afternoon, while discussing this situation we had the

idea to build a museum for documentation and exhibition

of masks and costumes of the family tradition. The project

was discussed in the family and accepted. Two complete

sets of ri tuaI masks and costumes were provided. Funds

were raised, the Department of Cultural Aid of the Federal

Republic of Germany agreed to cover the costs for the

building, conservation of masks and scientific

consultation and the purchase of another house to be used

as a dancing school. Preparations were made in Sri Lanka

and Germany and were mutually discussed. In April 1987,

the Ambalangoda Mask Museum was opened to the public.

The museum consists of three sections:

An introductory section provides informations about mask

carving and the family tradition. AlI available literature

on masks and mask ri tuaI in Sri Lanka is being collected

and kept for research and information. A catalogue informs

about mask carving and rituals.

The next room displays a Kolam Dance and in the third

room a healing ri tuaI is documented.

Individual visitors and groups are given a guided tour

free of charge by a young receptionist.

The foundation of this museum gave incentives for a

manifold spectrum of activities in the field of

preservation of local culture and traditions.

1. Organisation
-A Mask Museum Council was founded to run the museum.
-A Kolam Society was founded to serve as a supporting
institution. Culturally active teachers, dancers and
other artists are invited to use this institution as
a platform for their activities.

189

-A Devale Committee was founded. Ariyapala Gurunnanse,

the head of the family had a local shrine reconstructed
in his earlier years. During the lest 5 years the
shrine area has been settled by squatters and cannot
be used for ri tuaI purposes anymore. Together with
the Urban Council the family plans the relocation
and compensation of the squatters and the
reconstruction of the compound.
-A Belfry Committee was founded. The grandfather of
Ariyapala Gurunnanse had the construction of a huge
belfry for the local Buddhist House organised. This
construction is of a considerable artistic and
historical value. No preservation work had been do ne
50 far end the belfry is showing signs of rapid
decay. The Committee raises funds and starts to
organise the restauration of the monument.
2. Carving and Research
-Bandu Wijesooriya, the eldest son has visited aIl
car vers of the south-west coast area and studies the
details of the different regional styles.
-He has started to collect ritual texts for

preservation and research.

-A biography of Ariyapala Gurunnanse has been written

by a local teacher and presented to him at his 87th
anniversary.
-A Colombo-based non-profit organisation has produced
a video film to document carving and ri tuaI
techniques of the area.
3. Dancing
-In 1950, the last Kolam Dance was performed in
Ambalangoda. But between 1984 and 1988, six Kolam
Dances were perfomed by Bandu Wijesooriya's troupe.
-Since 1987, a Low Country Dancing School in being run
by 8andu Wijesooriya opposite the museum. This school,
run on a subsidary basis and free of charge for the
students started with 10 Kolam dancers. Today, aIl
types of Low Country Dances, drumming and aIl sorts
of musical instruments are being taught there to more
than 150 students.
4. Conservation
-As mentioned earlier, two committees are organising
the conservation of important cultural buildings of
the town.
The years 1986 and 1987 marked a decisive change in the
understanding of local cultural traditions both to this
particular family and a large number of teachers and
artists of the town.
Among traditionally minded (not necessarily conservative)
people of the town the museum and the dancing school in
spite of their limited capacity and outreach are
considered major stepping stones for the preservation
of the particular local art that has made Ambalangoda
famous and, more generally speaking, a renaissance of
local culture.
When l asked the parents who brought their children to
the dancing school, why they were 50 eager to have them
190

learn dancing, few replied that the y hoped to find a job

for their children easier with some more marks in
cultural education. This possibility was dismissed by
other parents, still, this attitude seems to be a part
of the ideology of education. There were also answers
that emphasised a different motivation. These parents
referred to their own experiencing of their cultural
pasto They were fascinated by the notion of modernization
after independence and identified themselves with the
National Culture. This implied the neglect of their own
regional customs, arts and crafts.
Thus, the time after independence, but especially the

last 15 years have been characterised by a number of

mutually linked processes:

-Westernization has gained today a hitherto unknown

momentum with consequent drastic socio-economic

changes and disruption.

-Living conditions have been deteriorating,

-Political parties, government itself and the official
ideology of The National Culture have been suffering
From a continuously increasing loss of legitimation,
-Regional cultural awareness has been growing.
Facing this development, the parents said, they wanted to
facilitate an access to their own customs and culture to
their children. These customs had helped to solve
especially social problems in locally adjusted ways, an
experience the y had lost in the pasto
l like to support this growing awareness with one example
only.
About 15 kilometers to the south Ambalangoda lies
Hikkaduwa, formerly a really poor Fisher village,
nowadays a beach resort with aIl kinds of touristic
amenities and problems.
Last year, a delegation From one of the hamlets in the
hinterland of Hikkaduwa approached Ban du Wijesooriya.
The delegation stated that formerly they had a Kolam
tradition of their own. After independence, this art
fell into disuse, the masks were sold to tourists.
Encouraged by the Ambalangoda example they had
decided to link up with this tradition again and came
to ask Bandu Wijesooriya for instruction in the Kolam
Dances. This was readily given and last year a Kolam
Dance was performed there with an enormous success.
This much may suffice to account for recent developments
in the field of cultural preservation and survival.
l wish to return to my initial issue regarding the task
given to regional and provincial museums with regard to
their contribution to National Culture.
In the light of the case of the Ambalangoda Mask Museum
and the Dancing School, however, l am forced to realize
that official theory regarding the functional task of
regional museums differ From political and social reality.
l further conclude that regional approaches towards
strategies of survival and preservation of local cultures
191

must be perceived in the frame of confligating, even

antagonistic socio-cultural processes and when it cames
ta the question of museological theory, we are bound ta
reckon with bath national and regional ideologies and
interpretations of cultural processes.
Had 1 evaluated the impact of the Ambalangoda Mask Museum
and the Law Country Dancing School in the perspective
of their contribution ta a National Singhalese Culture,
1 would have certainly bypassed basic local feelings and
interpretations.
Resuming, 1 like ta say that according ta my feeling and
reasoning museological theory cannat, in the long run,
avoid a critical test of its hypotheses. 1 favour the
critical discussion of our basic notions in terms of
inconsistencies rather than appeasement.

192

Martin Prosler - Tbingen, FRG

Regional Museums and the Strengtrrening of Local Traditions.

The Ambalangoda Mask Museum

Referring to the preceding paper, l take up the case of the

Ambalangoda Mask Museum aga in and discuss some basic issues

connected with the theory and practice of this museum :

1. some observations concerning the users of the museum,

2. the situation of the museum in the context of cultural

change, and

3. some ideas with a broader out look on a necessary change in

future museums' research and, consequently, concepts.

l use a simplifying model of dichotomy between 'tradition' and

'modernity' which is obviously an insufficient theoretical

approach but for the scope of this paper suitable.

After the opening of the Mask Museum in April '87 there had
been in the first two months more than 2200 visitors. After the
beginning period there are coming regularly between 200 and 400
local visitors per month and, in addition, the same number of
tourists. This is, related to the 15 000 inhabitants of Ambalan
goda,a quite successful result.
To get a clear picture, regarding the users of the museum and
their expectations, we distributed questionaires to the local
visitors one year after the opening. The result, maybe not sur
prising when compared with other museums in the country, is
that about 80% of the visitors are schoolchildren. They come in
small groups studying intensively, or in big crouds, sometimes
busloads of pupils rush through the museum. Another 10% of the
visitors are pilgrims, passing Ambalangoda on their way to
places of worship. The remaining 10% are an inhomogenous group,
consisting of people with a quite high formaI education who
hold "good" jobs, they are coming from predominantly urban
areas. But the data referring to the last mentioned group are
statistically not yet representative.
This visitor pattern seems to match with experiences in other
regional museums, with a lower percentage of pupils and a
higher percent age of pilgrims.
In interviews l tried to find out the relevance of museums in
general for the people in the town and the area, and learnt
that there is no relevance at aIl for most of the adults.
The difficult political and economical situation of the country
today may account for this to a large degree. But this is, of
course, not a sufficient explanation. The public acceptance
and use of this museum de pends on some situationspecific con
ditions : in the perception of the people it seems to be more a
private institution, as it is situated in a priva te house, and
seems to be run by a certain group of families; the connection
with tourist business made its own contribution to the barriers.
And, a typical situation for many regional and local museums,
the masks are still well-knownj at least some of them.
This the specifie situation in Ambalangoda. In a wider context
we have to keep in mind that most of the other museums in the
country are historically oriented, and are perceived 50. More
over, the re-interpretation of the Sinhala term for 'museum',
'kautu ka gare', means 'a place where to keep old, very old
things', and the colloquial form 'kautu ge' me ans 'bone house'.
Seeing aIl these predeterminations of the museum l asked my
self: who are the people who benefit from 'bone houses' and
193

'old, old things'. l posed this question to a large number of

Sri Lankans. The first and decisive answer was - pupils!
Realizing such facts museum makers should think, if it is not
only consequent to adjust the concepts and lay-outs of exhibi
tions to a larger extent to the needs of this very important
target group (show-cases, concepts, contents, ... ).
In our case the notion of a stronger pupil-oriented museum seems
to be a necessary and interesting approach, especially as there
are more than la 000 pupils coming daily to the schools and
colleges in Ambalangoda. Maybe it is especially important when
we consider that during the last years the schoolsubjects re
garding Sri Lankan history and culture had been reduced in the
curriculum.
One of the consequences we draw for our Mask Museum concerns the
catalogue that we had publishedj as it is too expensive for
children we want to start the production of cheap and small
leaflets to limited subject matters referring to the exhibition
and to local traditions in general. This could be a reasonible
working material for the small groups of pupils who come for
study and research. It is more difficult to cope with the expec
tations of larger groups of pupils. We plan to find a room and
work with video which is everytime requested by the local people
and to provide materials for touching and playing.
But, of course, l don't consider a museum only as an extention
of school work. But, how to deal with other target groups, and
- how to attract them?
In the connection with the museum our friend Bandu Wijesooriya
opened a Dancing School. This dancing school is very attractive
for the young as weIl as for the parents who send their chi ld
ren there. As opposed to the museum, the students are coming
from aIl social levels.
The Low Country Dancing School shows the continuity of a tra
dition : Bandu Wijesooriya's father, some de cades ago has
trained dancers for certain mask plays; the son today offers a
broad spectrum of music and dancing classes in his school.
Thus, the Dancing School reflects on a small scale aspects of
the transition of the society in generaI. Bandu Wijesooriya
continues the tradition in a more institutionalized frame than
his father; for example, the organizational form has changed,
likewise the process of recruitation, ...
Comparing the local interest in the dancing school with bhe

interest in the museum, l asked myself : what can a museum pre

serve de facto, what is the specifie advantage of a museu~ in

view of preservation and survival of traditions in a community?

Referring to the healing rituals which are displayed in our

museum - the cultural change doesn't stop in front of the

face of a dangerous demon. The belief system is changing, the

traditional modeIs of explaining diseases and curing are

loosing their significance and power, paralleI to the ex

pansion of the wetern medical system and the western ratio

nalism. Moreover the economic and ecological basis of the

rituals is breaking.

What can the museum preserve?

Can it preserve only the objects and the memory of the

traditional way of life through a good documentation?

From the point of view of preservation, the museum is a con

tradicting institution in itself. It is a part and an ex

pression of the cultural change that the society is under

going today and it simultaneously promotes this change.

Linking the issue with the Mask Museum this means :

194

1. A family of specialists in the traditional arts, crafts and

sciences opens up its knowledge to the public; this means,
what had been formerly the .knowledge of a family or clan be
comes now, to a certain extent, the knowledge of the public.
This is an indication of change of transmitting (traditional)
knowledge in the society and how the clan- and caste-based
division of labour looses its significance in the changing
society.
2. For museums in general : formerly certain groups of the
society had been excluded from seeing certain objects, e.g.
seeing a special type of mask that had been considered
dangerous for a pregnant woman, today it may be se en in a
museum. This is the reflection of a changing social structure
- the groups are not more excluded or, the excluding barriers
are more permeable. This process shows the expansion of "ratio
nalism" in face of these objects and the loss of the depth of
the ritual significance.
The museum thus offers and in the same way promotes a "ratio
nalistic" way of how to look at and to deal with the objects
of the own culture and its symbols.
3. To bring objects into a museum means to take them out of
their original context, and to place them into a museum-speci
fic, artificial context; but, as it's artificial, it's every
time an interpretation and a new creation of reality.
ln the museum, the interpretation is mostly done in the per
spective of "modernity". This can be seen, for example, in a
leaflet for a special exhibition of the National Museum,
Colombo, 1988, about Sri Lankan masks (1).
The text of the leaflet says : "Next we see a halfcut mask
variety which are used in the exorcistic ritual, ( ... ), which
are psychotherapeutic in effect."
This point of view, ta interprete these rituals as psychothera
peutie would not be expressed or shared by a peasant in the
countryside, where these rituals are still performed today.
Another passage in the leaflet states that "this is an
apport unit y which the art lover whether local or foreign
should not miss." The peasant, however, does not perceive the
masks, especially those used in a healing ritual as art objects
- the y are abjects in a functional context. Thus, the per
ception of traditional culture by the museum makers, and con
sequently the presentation, is linked with concepts taken from
the "modern" side, and, l would say, ta a certain extent wi th
western perspectives.
The way of displaying the abjects and of the interpretation
offers a guideline for the people in perceiving and reflecting
their own culture, a guideline in the competetive conflict of
two explanatory models of reality.
A careful analysis of the users' notions and expectations in
museums might show that - apart from schoolchildren - most of
the vi sitars have a so-called "modern" background with a high
formal education, a "good" job, and sa on. They represent a
certain group within the society which has obviously made its
decision between the two explanatory models but still has
affection and links with their cultural roots.
According ta my understanding, the museum is an institution
which deals in a more "rationalistic" or "aesthetical" way
with cultural symbols that are still meaningful ta the people.
Herin lies ~ limitation of the museum (but also its chance),
especially when we consider it in view of their target groups.
Within the parameters : "rationalism", cultural symbols,
195

societal change, and guideline of perception we can further

develop - in view of the target groups - the traditional form
of museums, if the cultural concept 'museum' itself should have
a chance to survive.
This is also the turning point where the whole problem becomes
inverted and we should not ask : how can the non-western
culture support the survival of the western tradition of making
museums.
With this inversion 1 want to come to an important assumption,
a western projection, underlying the concept 'museum' under its
aspect of preservation.
Obviously, we seldom know what the mere presentation of the own
history and culture means to the non-western person who looks
at it (and what it evokes in him). But, obviously, we hope to
achieve an uplifting of the value of the objects that are
placed in museums and an uplifting of the concepts behind them.
But this idea needs a frame,in Goffman's sense (2), of esteem
and high regard towards objects in museums.
5uch a frame has been developed in Europe in a dialectic pro
cess of society wi th museums. If the frame develops from "bone
houses" and "old, old things are lying there", this may very
weIl mean, that these objects are perceived as useless and "we
have new and better ones and ways today". 50, the frame might
be contra-productive or at best neutral for our intention, and
the visitor turns away disappointedly - if he turns up at aIl,
because of this framing.
It is obvious that the ideology of conservation is underlying
most concepts of museums. Correspondingly, the visitors do not
find sufficient links with their lifes and actual situations to
have a critical or good look at their traditions in museums.
Accordingly, the parameter of conservation should be replaced
by the parameter of change. For example, ta king up this theme
in the exhibition, taking up the breaks of the tradition, the
conflict between "tradition" and "modernity". This is, of
course, mu ch closer to everyday needs and problems of people.
The museum must not necessarily give answers or offer solutions
but it can develop an institutional frame of dealing with con
flicts - and therefore with the continuity - of traditional
aspects, rather than dealing with the "old, old things" only.
As museums are connected with chaQge of the own culture and its
perception, in Sri Lanka as weIl as in other countries of the
developing world, the y give theircontribution ta the
"modernization" of the society. 50, we should explore with
which kind of modernization theory museum work is connected in
the concrete case. And, our attention should go beyond our
scope of preserving material abjects. We also have to focus on
strategies of social and cultural change, as museums, willingly
or unwillingly, are a factor of change, especially in develop
ing countries.

Notes
(1)
(2)

196

Leaflet, published for: An Exhibition of Traditional Sri

Lankan Masks and Exorcistic Rituals.
February 27 - March 9, 1988
Goffman, Erving : Frame Analysis. An Essay on the
Organization of Experience. New York, London 1974

Alain Nicolas - Paris, France

Quelques bonnes vieilles ides ...

Le colloque de l'ICOFOM New Delhi est une fois encore

pav de bonnes intentions! Comme toujours, aussi, est
lude la question de fond: quelle fonction sociale remplit,
dans nos socits, le muse, de mme qu'une autre question,
symtrique: quelle fonction sociale doit remplir un muse
dans un P.E.D (Pays En Dveloppement)?

Comme toujours, deux clans de sourds sont en prsence:

ma droite,

les adeptes d'un muse au-dessus de toute

contingence et, ma gauche,

les partisans d'un muse

politique et rpublicain, aux sens etymologiques des

termes. Ce n'est pas en Inde que les oreilles s'ouvriront
("il n'est pas de pire sourd que celui qui ne veut pas
entendre", vieux proverbe indien, pourtant ... ). et mes
amis sont plutt ma gauche. Re-disons quelques vrits,
au cas o tout le monde ne serait pas encore atteint d'une
surdit qui semble bien tre congnitale, et voyons si,
dans le dbat propos, il est possible d'tre positif.

1/ Les PED ont un besoin considrable en formation la

musologie (science du muse ou applique au muse). Cel,
nous le savons. Mais quelle musologie?

2/ La plante est "coca-colise" depuis longtemps: les

PED ont-ils vraiment besoin de muses eux-mmes coca
coliss (coca-coloniss?) coups de chefs-d'oeuvres
197

extirps de leur fonction religieuse, sociologique,

conomique, etc ... ?

31 Je suis pour la cration d'un muse PLANETAIRE dont le

thme serait grosso modo "l'Homme et sa plante", car il
faut en finir une bonne fois pour toutes avec tous les
racismes: question trs actuelle ... Muse clat, bien
sr, dans tous les pays du monde.

41 Il faut viter de tomber dans le pige, grand ouvert

quand on ne parle que de "chefs d'oeuvres" ("le mien est
plus beau que le tien"), de la cration de muses trop
NATIONALISTES: du muse de Cologne nos muses franchouil
lards ... Je sais bien qu'un muse peut avoir un rle
jouer, qui peut parfois tre salutaire, dans une prise de
conscience de type national, et je sais aussi que la marge
de manoeuvre est mince, entre l'identit et le particu
larisme: muse ouvert ou muse ferm? Centrifuge ou
centripte" (R.RIVARD)?

51 Dans sa fonction de transmission de connaissances. il

pourrait y avoir consensus, comme on dit en France en ce
moment. Merveilleux outil pdagogique (voir le Science
Museum de Londres,

le Palais de la Dcouverte Paris,

le

Space Museum de Washington, et, dans un tout autre registre,

la Fondation Maeght de Saint Paul, etc),

~e

muse peut

expliquer tout habitant de la plante, sous quelque

latitude qu'il soit, une quantit de choses importantes
voire vitales pour lui, depuis la protection de son envi
ronnement naturel et culturel jusqu' la lutte contre les
maladies, en passant par l'histoire des arts.
198

6/ Quand on parle de musologie et de PED, il faut aussi

regarder ce que nos musologues ont ralis chez nous
concernant les muses d'art "ngre", "d'art africain",
"d'arts africains et ocaniens" ou, plus simplement "de
l'Homme". Nous continuons visiter des muses "exotiques"
qui nous renvoient, dans l'norme majorit des cas,
nous-mmes, c'est--dire soit aux sources de notre art
moderne et contemporain, soit carrment celles de notre
civilisation et de sa prhistoire. Il y a autre chose
faire,

7/ En tant que technique ou ensemble de techniques appli

ques au muse, la musographie est plus neutre, plus
"innocente", et tout le monde a quelquechose gagner dans
une bonne connaissance de ces techniques. A la condition.
videmment, de ne pas en oublier certaines comme, par
exemple, les techniques de communication. Nous dtenons,
semble-t-il, des connaissances et des technologies dont
nous pourrions faire profiter nos collgues des PED.

8/ Le retour des biens culturels dans leurs pays d'origine,

cette tarte la crme pourtant vote l'unanimit par
l'UNESCO Nairobi: le colloque de l'ICOFOM pourrait peut
tre faire un nouveau point, ..

9/ Si notre muse est une structure mise en place par des

socits tradition ECRITE (c'est. me semble-t-il. un
beau sujet de thse!), et si les socits tradition
orale qui se sont, jusqu' prsent fort bien passes des
muses de type occidental. en viennent galement des
telles structures, cel peut nous amener au moins deux
rflexions:
199

1_ Que le muse est un signe (un symbole?) de progrs

(qu'est-ce-que le progrs?) ou de dveloppement (qu'est
ee-que le dveloppement?)
2_ que la musologie est, comme la musique,

les mathma

tiques ou l'esperanto. un langage universel.

Je ne crois, videmment, aucune des deux hypothses, sauf
preuve du contraire! J'ai plutOt tendance penser que
l'instauration de muses dans les PED participe de la
coca-colisation, et que le muse risque, une fois encore
si l'on ne modifie pas nos comportements, de servir de
cimetires des arts et des pratiques de gens dpasss
par les problmes de leur avenir.

A moins que ...

1/ ... les musologues occidentaux suggrent leurs

collgues des PED que le muse traditionnel n'est pas
forcment la solution la mieux adapte la conservation
des biens et des ides culturels.

2/ ... ces mmes musologues se mettent tout coup tre

attentifs aux problmes considrables des PED avant tout
simplement de commencer parler de musologie: qu'ils
soient plus engags et plus responsables, autrement dit.

3/ ... des solutions soient imagines par les PED eux-mmes.

Encore faut-il ne pas tre sourd ...

200

A LIRE ET A RELIRE

Les livres de MIRCEA ELLIADE

JAMIN Jean (1985): Les objets ethnographiques sont-ils des

choses perdues? J.Hainard et R.KAEHR.ed. Muse d'Ethnogra
phie de Neuchatel (extrait de: "Temps perdu-Temps retrouv")

DE VARINE Hughes (1983): Vol et viol des cultures: un

aspect de la dgradation des termes de l'change culturel
entre les nations. MUSEUM vol. XXXV n03. pp 152-157

Nouvelles Musologies (1986). Ouvrage collectif sous la

direction d'A. NICOLAS, et plus particulirement mon
article (pp. 167-190), et l'introduction-gniale- d'Hughes
de Varine (pp. 3-4). Ed. MNES. Marseille.

A SUIVRE: le MINOM (Mouvement International pour une

Nouvelle Musologie). Adresse: CP 324. Dpot N? Montral
Qu. Canada. H2X 3M4

201

202

Mohan L Nigam -

Hyderabad, India

MUSEOLOGY AND THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

YESTERDAY. TODAY AND TOMORROW

Museology, like any other science, tends to discover

the total social facts of life in the past to link it with
the present to shape a better future. The past must inspire
the present and provide guide-lines to make the future
better.
Whereas Museology is a science.

museums are its

workshops to invent and standar9ise multiple concepts and

practices and convert them into well accepted principles.
The museums and museology are thus closely inter-related
which supplement and complement each other to achieve
the desired goal.
Yet, museology and museums are only the means and
not the end in themselves. Hence, their collections.
whatever may be the nature, are also the me ans to fulfil
the ultimate social obligation. The relevant information
or the knowledge contained in such collections have to
be obtained through inter-disciplinary researches and to
be made available to the people who are at the receiving
end. Hence, the type of information which has to be co
mmunicat.ed and the people whom i t has to be communicated
ought to be the prime concern of museums and museology.
203

It must, however, be noted that the museological con

cepts and museum practices need be frequently reviewed and
revised, keeping in mind the changed socio-cultural and
political conditions. In Indian context, and so also in
the context of other developing countries, the concepts
and practices of museology must be reviewed and recast to
suit the changed socio-economic conditions and to make
the museums more effective and meaningful to a developing
society.
Origin of the concept:

The concept of museology in India is no doubt, deep

rooted.

For instance,

the carved mythological scenes

on the outer railings and walls of the Buddhist stupas

and Hindu temples were meant to be viewed, understood
and enjoyed by the people of aIl walks of life to gain
knowledge about the history of their respective sects.
There was no age-bar or time-bar and people from aIl
walks of life had free access to such places which acted
as museums and art galleries to enlighten people of their
cultural heritage. The carved sculptural panels at
Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi and Amaravati, aIl places of
Buddhist worship right from 2nd c, B.e. - 3rd A.D. are
also inscribed with labels in early Prakrit language
and Brahmi script which helped the devotees to under
stand and enjoy such carvings. The responsibility of
execution, preservation and interpretation of these
carved panels, which form part of our cultural heritage
today, rested with the samgha (Buddhist monastic organi
sation) which managed these shrines. Later, the illus
trated palm-Ieaf manuscripts and Pata-chitras (painted
scroll) kept in such Buddhist and Hindu shrines, acted
204

as visual-aids with paintings and texts given side by

side. The tradition seems to have continued till the
medieval era of Indian history. The carvings on the
outer walls of temples of the Vijayanagar period would
confirm this statement.
After the establishment of colonial rule in India
during the latter half of 18th and early 19th centuries,
Indian society witnessed a major political change. The
age-old social structure, socio-cultural norms, the
inherent values of life and traditions were greatly
affected by the sudden political change. Although sorne
of the existing museums in India were established only
during the British rule yet, the very purpose of esta
blishing these cultural institutions by the colonial
power was to gain knowledge about three dimensional
objects of history, socio-cultural norms, ideals and
motivations of the Indian people which gave them insight
to strengthen their rule on Indian soil. These museums
acted more or less as Research Institutes where only the
handful of intellectual and white-collared people worked
in half-lit dingy rooms to pur sue researches and bring
out scholarly publications. The idea of public service
and involvement of the common people with these institu
tions were found lacking.
Since Independence, the museum-movement in India
has witnessed a considerable progress. There are more
than four hundred museums in the country devoted to Art,
Archaeology, History, Ethnology, Natural History, Health,
Industry, Agriculture and other Applied Sciences. The
majority of these museums are administered by the Union
or state Governments, Autonomous Boards, Universities,
205

Charitable Trusts and other Private organisations. The

Archaeological Survey of India has also opened a chain
of site museums throughout the country to preserve and
interpret the collections brought out of the excavated
sites. Besides the Traditional Museums, new types of
institutes like INTACH, The

Heritage Trust at Baroda,

AlI India Handicrafts Board, The Vikram Sarabhai Science

Centre and Nehru Science Centre, etc., sharing a common
concern to preserve the Indian heritage, have also come
up during the recent years.

The National Research

Laboratory for Conservation of Cultural Property at

Lucknow is a prestigious centre for research and training
in Conservation for India and South East Asia. A number
of Universities, such as Baroda, Benaras, Aligarh, Bhopal,
Calcutta and Osmania, Hyderabad, etc. are running courses
in Museology leading to a Degree or Diploma. The Museums
Association of India is the main National forum which
meets annually at different places in the country to
discuss the professional matters and the related problems.
It brings out an Annual Journal and other publications
covering various aspects of Museology.

The Indian National

Committee for ICOM is another important professional body

to establish a close liason between the museums of India
and abroad.
The Department of Culture, Government of India, has
also appointed a Central Advisory Board of Museums with
the Union Minister of State for Culture as its Chairman
to formulate new policies and fresh programmes for the
development of Indian museums and other sister institu
tions. There exist a large number of cultural exchange
programmes between India and the developed Nations, which

206

enable the Indian museum personnel to acquaint themselves

with the latest museological trends abroad.
Yet another healthy and encouraging sign is marked
by a sudden change in the attitude of general public
towards museums and art-galleries.

Due to increase in per

capita income of the people, developed emans of transport

and new thrust in domestic and foreign tourism, a large
influx of people, illiterate and literate, both

from the

rural and urban areas, are pouring in museums and art

galleries every day to know more about their history and
culture. Indian museums can no longer afford to ignore
the masses who, by virtue of their own right, put pressing
demands on museums to make them aware of their cultural
heritage and to provide them social identity.
It need not be over-emphasised that India is in the
fore-front among the developing Nations of the world
today. In the four decades since Independence, India has
developed from a largely agrarian society into one of
the world's major industrial nations. Food production
has trebled and India is not only self-sufficient in
this area but is also an exporter of foodgrains. Keeping
pace with the great strides in science and technology
abroad,

India is making headway in advanced discipline

energy applications, computers, genetics and space

technology.

In the drive towards self-reliance, India's

advanced industries and great reservoir of scientific

and technical manpower, ranking third in the world,
provide the base.
Ill-effects of Development:
Yet, the development does not mean the technolo
207

gical development alone.

Culture, which is inseparable

part of any development, provides life and blood to it.

The growth of

culture

is like the growth of a plant

which does not stop, if properly planned and nurtured.

Hence, the development and culture go hand in hand, re

flecting the day-to-day problems and the related human

approach to solve them.

Technology is only one of the

means to human development.

culture, has no meaning.

Thus the development minus

As Roland Colin, a noted

economist, puts it, "Development can only be concretely

defined for a people by that people itself and in the

language of its own culture".

Hence, the development does not consist of advan

tages alone.

A large number of new serious problems,

unseen and unheard of initially, cr op up during develop

mental process.

Besides, the rapid growth of industry

and technology, which are indispensable parts of modern

development, causes further cultural disruption.

For

example, the movement of rural population towards the

urban areas in all the developing countries,is over
crowding the cities and towns.

The rural folk thus

uprooted and crowded into cities are apt to loose a

great part of their culture, their traditional values
which are the foundation of their spiritual life.
The village-based arts and crafts are fast dis
appearing due to the availability of cheap mechanical
products.

Thirdly,

the large exodus of population

towards big cities in search of new avenues of better life,

is causing innumerable fresh problems of sanitation,
hygiene and other health-hazards in big urban areas.
208

Another very serious problem, which aIl the develo

ping countries of the Third World are facing today, is
the environmental and ecological imbalance.

Due to

heavy industrialisation, urbanisation and deforestation,

the protection of environment and ecology has often
been overlooked in the course of development of Asian
countries.

The big industrial plants are polluting

the atmosphere whereas the rapid deforestation is de

trimental to Natural wealth, i.e. flora and fauna of the
developing countries.

Even the industrially most

advanced countries, like Japan and South Korea, have

sadly neglected this aspect.

The other developing

countries, like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,

Philippines and Thailand, etc., are falling prey to
this menace due to heavy urbanisation.
It is, therefore, vital that the cultural and
educational institutions of the developing countries
must be developed so as to give a new orientation to
culture, keeping in mind the underlying elements of
culture as the potential source of development and so
also the laws of development. Even more important is
to frame new cultural policies by the countries of the
Third World so as to concentrate more on the grass roots
the people who are still cut off the main stream of the
cultural life.

At the same time, new museological con

cepts or probably the new approach to museology should

be evolved by using new paradigms or models which might
be of different types discharging different responsibi
lities towards creating awareness among the people and
providing safeguard to the fading culture of these
countries.
209

It must also be remembered that the Traditional

Museums of the developing countries have still not com
pletely lost their validity and relevance. Being the
repositories of the objects of 'materialised' culture
and nature, they are still worthy of producing the
"Validated Experience"
semi-literate visitors.

in the minds of illiterate and

The Traditional Museums of

the developing countries, with their fresh innovative

programmes, on one hand, and the new models, keeping
in mind the ideals and aspirations of the people, on
the other, will go a long way to fulfil their social

obligation.

As mentioned earlier, the museums and museology

are only the means and not the end. Museology, which
helps museums through its validated concepts and
practices to fulfil their objective, is a Science still
in its formative stage. As Tomislave Sola puts it,
"Museology is not a defined Science or, more clearly,
there are a few definitions but no consensus".

It is

high time that the countries of the Third World evolve

fresh approach to museology and develop new paradigms
or models, on one hand, and reorient their traditional
museums, on the other, by making them people-oriented
and using new technological innovations

50

that the y

can meet the changing needs of developing society.

NEED FOR NEW MUSEOLOGY:
There is, however, an universal unrest among
people against the limited,

50

to say, passive role

played by the Traditional Museums

50

far. Everywhere

in the west, new types of Institutes are coming up

210

which can not be called 'museums' under the defini tion

given by ICOM. The 50-far laid down definition of a

museum is falling short to meet the requirements of

newly developed institutions.

Each region and each

country has specific problems in view of the une ven

developmental changes which occurred at different times

and in different regions of the world. For example,

Industrial and Technological development, which took

place during IBth - 19th centuries in the West, did

not reach the countries of the Third World till the

beginning of 20th century.

As a matter of fact the

socio-economic conditions of the West are quite different

ascompared to those of the countries of the Third World.
It will be therefore, hoping against hope, to have
uniform concepts and practices for Museology which
can be applicable everywhere and in all circumstances.
What is possible in this pluralistic variation is to
develop a fresh approach which can evolve new concepts
and techniques within the general frame-work of museology
so as to solve different problems under changed conditions.
Museology is not a static science and it must have fle
xibility and adaptability to cope up with new situations
arising out of the vexed developmental changes in
different places and times.
There is apparent need to evolve more new paradigms
or models, dedicated to new disciplines, like Agriculture,
Industry, Transport, Marine Archaeology, Health, Family
Planning and other Applied Sciences which will take up
vital social issues based on their collections and
present them in tangible forms before the people for
their understanding and debate.

It need not be over

211

empahsised that the over-flow of new technology and

scientific inventions from outside world are reaching
the countries of the Third World at a time when people
are not fully prepared to understand and accept their
credibility. It should be the dutY of the new models to
interpret and propagate these new ideas and inventions
for better understanding of the masses. The new net-work
of Science Centres in India, even if they differ from
the Traditional Museums, have been doing a commendable
job in this direction.

Yet,many more such new models

in different fields are urgently needed to create

awareness in the Society.
It is not the objects of material culture alone
that warrant timely action towards their collection,
preservation and interpretation. They are, of course,
important, being the only available evidence of our
past heritage. Yet, the underlying values and traditions
behind such objects are equally important. What is
needed more is to preserve these inherent social values
and traditions and also the performing arts, tribal
arts and crafts, oral traditions and folk lores which
are the basic elements of culture and which should provide
the base

for future development. Unlike the developed

countries of the West, where even the recent past has

been totally wiped off, the countries of the Third
World have maintained the continuity of their culture
which is endowed with the centuries-old traditions, ideals
and aspirations of their people.

These social values

and traditions still inspire the people and therefore

must be preserved for posterity.
Let us not forget that the objects of material
212

culture will not last for ever as they are made of

perishable materials. Again, they reflect the bye-gone
pasto However, the aim of museology is not to know the
past alone but to link the past with present to guide
future destiny of mankind.

It is only the inherent

values and underlying traditions behind the objects

of materialised culture which can link tendencies
of the past with the present for future and hence,
the y really ought to be properly interpreted and
presented for posterity.
In fact, no object was ever made to be kept in a
museum. Every object, when it is removed from its
original context or environment, loses its inner
identity and social relevance.

To cite an example,

Indian sculpture, being an integral part of temple

architecture, has a fixed position and

context~al

role to play within the framework of a temple. Once

uprooted from its original position and context,
Indian sculpture is bound to lose its inherent value
and tradition.

It should be the prime concern of

new museology to preserve the underlying values and

traditions which concrete objects of culture truly
represent.
Should we not adopt and convert old and delapidated
temples into new museums which will not only.highlight the
underlying values of Indian sculptures in their right
perspective but will also provide them proper protection?
The life in a temple in the past was not confined to
religious practices alone. The whole gamut of social
activity, i.e. marriages, community feasts, dance, music,
fairs and festivals centred around the se religious
213

shrines. The carved sculptures of a temple, representing

divinity, were closely associated with all these social
ceremonies. With the help f new innovative devices
and manipulations, such as the 'Sound and Light' pro
grammes, documentaries, video films and recorded
commentaries and meaningful exhibition techniques,
the new Temple Museums can reconstruct the past, re
create earlier
to

atmosphere and bring out traditions back

lif~.

Similarly, ancient forts and palaces, being the

examples of secular architecture, still preserve
innumerable threads of indigenously grown science
and technology of the past which can be found cheaper
and better-suited to our conditions. Due to the easy
availability of ready-made packages of technology of
the developed countries, the countries of the Third
World have unfortunately ignored their age-old
indigenous scientific devices and technological skills.
For instance, the ancient mode of building construction,
developed water-systems, metallurgy, foundries,
carpentry, pottery making and other crafts, which ex
ploited the local natural resources to great advantage,
have been ignored. A large number of forts and palaces
still preserving these earlier traditions, if developed
as open-air museums, can provide better models not only
for creating awareness about the past but will also
provide clues to future development of the people in
the language of their own culture.
Identity Crisis:
There has been a constant concern in India and
214

in other developing countries to bring the different

tribes and other minorities to the main stream of
Indian social life.

Inspite of all governmental

efforts and developmental plans to improve their

living conditions, the members of these communities
are hesitant to accept the new socio-economic
benefits for fear of losing their own identity. They
have their age-old social customs and traditions,
arts and crafts, myths and superistitions which they
have cherished through the ages and do not wish to
lose them once the y are assimilated in main stream
of modern life.

Thus, the diversity of languages, dialects,

climatic conditions, varied social customs, traditions,
arts and crafts provide a distinct identity to each
region and people within each developing country. How
to preserve and project the National identity in the
midst of group identities is a difficult problem con
fronting the Indian museums. Each country has, thus
manifold parallel identities viz., regional and
National.

All are vital in the life of a Nation. The

regional or group identities will be highlighted by

collecting, preserving and interpreting the objects
of their culture as part of one National identity
which imbibes various cultural trends, adapts them
and synthesise them in its own mixed reality.

It

should be the responsibility of museums to collect,

preserve and interpret the fragments of culture,
i.e. history, archaeology, anthropology, art and
crafts of each distinctive group or community and
weave them into one National fabric through their
215

innovative programmes and de vi ces to present Unit y

in Diversity.

Besides, the lofty peaks of the Himalayas, the

sacred rivers, like Ganga, the holy places, flora and

fauna, fairs and festivals have Nation-wide appeal

and emotional involvement of the people at aIl levels

and of aIl castes and creed.

They have stood as perennial

source of inspiration to people and as symbols of our

National culture.

It will be worthwhile to incorporate

this living imagery in the manifold educational and

cultural programmes of our museums to project the
National identity which will be acceptable to aIl
sections of the Indian society.
To conclude, the museums and museology in the
developing countries need a drastic change in view
of the fast changing socio-economic conditions. Museology
and museums are only the means to unveil the past
reality which, in other words, reflects the thinking,
creative urge and cultural advancement of mankind in
material and spiritual spheres.

Although, the museum

collections, in general, relate to a byegone era yet,

the latest scientific knowledge and technological
aids must be fully used and employed to highlight
the cultural heritage.

Whereas, museums approach

should be more people-oriented than object-oriented,

the museology must lay more emphasis on the continuity
and revival of ancient social values and traditions
which are the backbone of our culture.

No doubt,

the objects of material culture, being the only

available evidence to reveal the past, are of vital
importance to museums and museology yet, the ideas
216

behind such objects is much more important to link the

past with present for a better future.

Meanwhile, the

developing Nations, which are at the verge of socio

economic transformation, must not altogether ignore
their past technological, scientific and cultural
achievements and adopt ready-made packages of new science
and technology of the West which look more glamorous
and convenient for new development.

Every development

must be made by the people of a region. keeping in

mind their own socio-economic conditions, needs and, more
vitally, in the language of their own culture.

The

cultural institutions of the developing countries,

thus, need be moulded and re-oriented to play a
dynamic role in developing a new culture which will
draw inspiration from the past but, at the same time,
synthesise the past with the trends of modern deve
lopment to safeguard the cultural identity of each
group of people, region and the Nation.

In order

to achieve this aim, it is necessary that the

Traditional Museums of each developing country,
which still have not altogether lost their social
relevance, be strengthened with new approach and
innovative devices to catch the imagination of
illiterate and semi-literate public and, simulta
neously, the new models or paradigms, suiting the
cultural needs of people, be developedwith the help
of modern scientific inventions and new technological
devices to fulfil the new social obligation. The
people of the Third World, who have of late got
freedom from the prolonged colonial clutches, must get
fresh air in the free and fresh cultural environment
of their own.
217

218

Manjushree Rao -

Bhopal, India

Museology in Developing Countries- he\p of manipulation 18 an

interesting theme for a critical assessment in this conference.
The topic may be explained in the definite tenus that the count
ries, which have been trying to organise their museums for the
past several decades, have been able to follow the foots teps of
the developed countries or have evolved their own stan.:3ards and
norms of museology.

India is one of these developing countr1es.

There are museums in Ind1a who have developed themsel ves w1 th

the guide-I1nes received directly or ind1rectly fram foregin mu
seums.

They ma1nta1n staff membe: who were deputed abroad for

museological training.
receiv1ng/
These membe: on their retum from abroad
reorganised the1r museums and revi tal1sed the whole or part

the system.

of

There is another category of the museums who have

util1sed the infonuation given in the literature produced on

museums from time to time and w1th the help of their staff mem
bers aM workshops they have attained an appreciable advanceme
nt.

But the museums of these two categories are very few

number.

in

Host of the In.:31an museums do not have tra1ned staff

and they, therefore, are lagging beh1n.:3 in many respects. Hain

reason behin.:3 this logback is (1) the l ack of funds and
awareness about museology.

(2)

The museums wh1ch have adequate

funds become aware about their requirements.

Their awarness

seeks new fields of museology and with the help of new ideas
and teachniques they ach1eve their cherished goal slowly but
steadily.

The museums which do not have adequate resources

also are aware about the advancements made by resourceful mu

219

seUlllS but for want of desired resourees they are unable to

come forward and emerge as leading muse\.Ulls.

In India, there are many hurdles which the

museUIIIS

have to face, for example, sufficient land, its location, su

fflcient art objects, adequate funds, proper building,trained
staff, work's-shops, storage, library, laboratory, transport
electriflcatlon, garden, nearby bus-stand or railway station
publications, mobile van etc.

There are very few museums whi

ch possess all these resources.

Delhi.

There are good museums in New

The National Museum of Arehaeology on the Janpath

the National Museum of Natural History on the Barakhamba

and
Road

are first - rate museums and they claim to be the most repres
entative museums in the country.

But they have achieved their

present shape and size in several decades and not in a year or

two.

On the other hand, there are museums in the heart of the

country which are nothing more than dumpy godowns.lndian museu

ms possess this kind of diversity which cannot be understood in
its true perspective without visiting thern in l'erson.

No doubt

it is very difficul t to see the museums that have cropped up in

the interiors of the country.

Even the owners or organisers of

these museums hardly remain there throughout the year.

what about their advancernent.
behind in this respect.

Then

Even the state authorities

lag

All of their museums are not housed in

proper buildings, nor are they properly organised.

Staff

15

lacking: security is scareel exhibits are amassed in the galle

ries.

They do not attach any importance te scientific methods,

style or technique. Supervision is lacking because thete i5 no

-ii
intarest or iniative. The Dlrectors are, generally l .A.S. Off
J..

lcials who have no knowledge of Iodia's cultural heritage or

lts histery and organisation of museums or arehaeology.

These

Directors are frequently transferred and therefore they have no

220

t.1Jne to look to the bare necessities of the museums.

In

it is the Most vital point as to who is the Manager.

Dictor.

Curator, Secretary of the Museum.

India.,

In IlIOst of the Indian Museums

trained Museum man is never the man on the top post and therefo
,
re the museum runs pell- mell according to the liJs aoo dislils
of the official on the top-level.
for the museum.

The resul t is always

ruinous

Progress i5 nil or very slow aDj that too unsc

ientific in nature.
In India, museology hardly plays any roll in our educati
on.

We are very proud of our cultural heritage but we have

not

given proper attention to the preservation, exhibition and inte

rpretation of our art objects.

The authorities at the

helm

of

affairs think that Indian museums are just liJ white elephants
which yield nothing but go on consumming everything.

Because of

this notion, museology is being taught only at six centers

India. ttudents of museology rOI)lll from place for jobs and
dissatisfied for the major part of their life.

in
remain

Even at the cent

re, the authorities have an India wide Archaeological

Survey but

they have not opened a museological set-up of any kind.

In short it is a fact to say that there is vexy little
urge or awareness about museology in India.

Museological activi

ties are mostly confined to large cities aOO towos.

Recently some

states have started district Museums but the coooitions in these

Museums are far frcrn satisfactory.

Every Museum goes its own way

because there is hardly any effective supervision or guidance.

This is how we understand the theme of discussion.
India we have not been able to do mueh for the people.

In

The pri

vate sector has done a little in this direction but until and un
less the central as well as State Governments recognise museology
as a major educational science, the future of museology is likely
to remain dark for a long time to come.

May l request the al1tho

221

rities of the ICOFOM to address the Goverrunent of India and the

States to recognise the importance of museology and include it in
the regular educational system of the country.
With this background in view l would like to infoon the
distinguished gathering here, that the Birla Museum has now bec
orne an institution of international fame.

It possesses a number

of outstanding pieces of art, sorne of which have been exhibited

abroad on the occasion of the Festival of India.
As you are already aware, every museum has its own probl

ems.

Birla Museum at Bhopal, where l have been worlcing sinee

1972, has also been facing s ome problems which l an placing before
you all with a view to explore possibilities of solutions and

quidance.
(1)

Liqhtinq in the Galleriesl

We have arranged tube-llghting in every gallery.

light enters only from th.: entrances.
or windows.
lighting.

Day

There are no ventilators

But the tube-lightlng serves only as general room

We have tried spot lighting also but i t creates rings

around the exhibits

50

we have stopped it.

We des ire our exhib

its to he se",n in the llght and shade effect

50

as to highlight

their relief effect and dynamism.

(2)

Birla Museum is open to a11 types of visitors from

children to the aged.

tegories.

the

Display remains the same for all the ca

Is i t possible to cater different types with dlffer

ent kind of dis play ?

(3)

Birla Museum contains mostly stone sculptures in relief.

Being reliefs, they have been arranged against longer walls

in

the gallerles giving an impression of toughness of ml1itary or

der, thus not providing scope for fluidity in the arrangement.
222

carved in round sculptures have been installed in the centre of

the galleries framing a thirrl parallel row.
lIllple vacant space in the gallery.

Even then there i5

On the other hand wall space

above the exhibits is aIl vacant.

(4)

We have a scheme of depicting pre and proto historie life

through dioramas as is the case with the Natural History Museums.

cao we go for dioramas for sculptures a150 ?
(5)

Kindly suggest effective burglar and fire e.larms which can

render reliable service to our musel.

(6)

Kindly name the international museums associations and or

ganisations with whom we can exchange our publications and keep

in touch with them.
(7)

Indian Museuns need your c:ontinuous guidance in reshaping

their galleries, workshops, storage, security etc.

There is tre

mendous scope for your experts to open an international off ice,

in a Centrally located city like Bhopal, Nagpur oft Hyderabad from
wher~

the experts can visi t the needy museums and advise them on

the spot according te the local conditions and the resources ava
il able for them.

This will he real service te the Indian Museums.

When sorne of the museums have been renovated or reorganised as per

your standarrls, other museums in the neighbourhood may he asked
to follow suit.

When the museums of a region have heen improved,

you can shift your office to another centrally located city with
the same purpose.

You can take up this challaging job only when

you are prepared to rue your office in India on a regular foot

ing like the American Institute of Indian Studies at Ram

Nagar,

Varanasi.

223

224

Norma Rusconi de Meyer -

Bahia Blanca, Argentine

L'E BUT PRIMORDIAL DE LA MUSEO

LOGIE DOIT TRE L' IIUCIATION AU ]"l--:CIIERCHE DES VA
LEURS

AunNTI~UES

L'HOMME

:E LA

CULTURE.VALEURS,~UI

COr,IT;JUN DES POINTS D'APPROCHE

OFFR:SNT

SA COMMU

NITE.
ELLE DOIT SE REtillRE COMPTE AUSSI
TT,QUE SON DEVOIR NE S'ACHvE DANS LA BONlill APLI
CATION DES TECIlNI:lUES.AU CONTRAIRE , ELLE DOIT SURGIR
ET S'AFPEIDIR DANS LE ~IALOGUE PEru~ArillNT ET CORRECT
ENTRE LE MUSEOLOGUE ET LA REGION OU IL TRAVAILLE.
SANS DOUTE,LA

MU:;~OLOGIE

DlI'ER1L,

TIO?iALE COMl'TE ASSEZ D'ANNES D' K:rERI::;I~CE ,\ VEC DES

RESULTATS ECLATANTES A PROPOS DE LA ll":::CUP'mATION ET
DE LA DIFFUSION CULTUREL,AU MILIEU DES PAYS HAUTE
MENT D:VELOPPES .PAYS

o'u L'ECONOMIE, LA CULTURE ET

L' EDUC:,TION SONT CON:JIDERES LE~; PONDEMENTS D'UN

PHOGRES GLOBAL.
PAR CCNTRE,DANS NO:j l'AYS, "PAYS EN
VOIE DE DVELOPPEMZNT-I1,OU ENCORE L'ECONOMIE EST PRI
ORITAIRE EN FACE DES PROYECTS CULTURELS,LE DEVOIR DE
LA MUS:OLOGIE EST PLUS PNIBLEj D'A30RD,ELLE DOIT
TROUVER LA liL\NIERE "T L;;;S MOYENS D' AIDER SAN:, MAIH
IOULER; APRS ELLE DOIT PHOCURER L' A1"FBIilATION DES
PRINCIPm5 D'

UN"~

CULTURE NA'l'IONAL

'~UE

DANS UN 7UTUR

PERMETTRA LIER DANS UNE UKI',U::: VAI,ORATION LE l'ilO

GRS ECONOlH2UE 'NE l';OUS Il';, VOl13 l'A:" ET LE PlIOG\S
CUL'i'UiL ~~U'OI'1 A,lo'llmS :2U'ON IeriORE.
L\l'lLICATION DES l'lUNCIPES DE BASE DE
LA MUS~OLOGn: mTBInI,'-.TlmIAL DAli:> LE,; PAYS :\1': 'IOIE
225

DE DEVELOPPY.,rF.r1T N" FAIT PAS W:2STION PHOrOS DE:';

VERITES

FO!rnj~NTALES,MAIS ELLE

NE

P~UT

FAS VIVRE

SA PROPRE VIE Isor,FEDU DOI.lAII'i DES CIENCIES DE L'

l!01UJ~ O DES CIENCIES DE LA CULTURE,AUXQUE1LES EL

LE APPARTI~NT CAUSE DU UILIEU OU ELLE TRAVAILLE.

POURTANT, ELLE DOIT PENSER A LA n;TE
GRATION CONSTANTE DZ LA TCmn:IUE ADAPTE SELOn DES
CON~ITION3

VARIABLES

~U

PATRIMOINE ET DES ETRES.

CETTE ADAl'TATION

L:~

1'ERME'2TRA DEVE

InR UN' "OUTIL UTIL" DANS DES DIVERSES nmTITUTIONS

-.

OU

JOtJ}~RA

UN ROLE IMPORTANTE DE ?ORW'lTION ET D EDU

CATION .ROLE INEVITABLE PAR L' INCORPOR;,TION DE LA

,
CULTURE ET L IDENTITE
DAN~) DES PAYS "EN VOIE DE DE
A
_
~

VELOPPE" ,ET I.1EME DANS DES PAYS HAUTEMENT DEVELOPPES.

226

Bahia Blanca, Argentina

Norma Rusconi de Meyer -

MUSEOLOGIA y
PAISES EN
AYUDA 0 MANIPULACION ?

DESARROLLO:

Encaramos bajo este titulo,un

problema muy especifico que puede llevar a plantearnos el siguiente
interrogante : es la HUSEOLOGIA una

ciencia?

Es la HUSEOLOGIA

un conjuntode tcnicas especificas modificable.o adaptables segun la

regin en que se aplican ?Pareciera que,si la HUSEOLOGIA fuera una
ciencia,sus objetivos generales y especificos deberian ser aplicables
universalmente,obteniendo con elle la conservacin,la puesta en real

ce y la difusin de los objetos culturales atesorados en los diferen

tes museos deI mundo,segun cons ta en su definicin tradicional.
El plantearnos si la HUSEOLOGIA pue
de considerarse como ayuda

manipulacin en determinados paises lla

mados hoy "en desarrollo",puede obligarnos a pensar que ella no puede

ser empleada segun cdigos universales.Veremos en qu medida sto pue
de afectar 0 no,a su definici6n como ciencia,8 su aplicabilidad uni
versaI.

q~

deno=ina=os

paises

en

desarro

llo_

1Ceniendo en cuenta la rbita desde

dnde se los analiza,el concepto de desarrollo puede diferenciar los
paises en

-altamente desarrollados
sl1bdesarrollados
-en desarrollo.
Seria obvio definir a los primeros.
Salvo,insistir que el concepto

de desarrollo est intimamente liga

do a la economia y no asus contextos culturales.Por ende llamamos

subdesarrollados a aqullos que por oposicin a los primeros,sufren
un atraso notable en sus fuentes de producci6n y comercializacin,

desfavoreciendo con elle a los niveles sociales de supervivencia.Es

227

tos paises suelen padecer ademas,fuertes presiones ideologicas por

parte de sus Estados,creando situaciones

de autocontrol y aislamien

to que provocan incomunicacion,pasividad y masificacion.En ellos es

casi imposible esperar proyectos de futuro que permitan entrver sali
das a corto

largo plazo.
~os

paises en desarrollo,se diferen

cian de stos ultimos solo en el hecho que sus politicas de democra

tizaci6n permiten que la sociedad pueda apreciar el estado de crisis
econ6mica-social en el que estan sumergidos y proyectar planes de po
sible superaci6n.
~uestro

pais,Argentina,pertenece a es

te tipo de sociedad,pero contando con un Estado Democrtico demasiado

reciente,parece tener una problemtica propia que la diferencia de
atros paises rotulados con ella, lien desarrollo".

C~lt~ra

desarrollo

Ed~caci6n

ca=bio
~

co=o

agentes

de

social.

seis anos de la instauraci6n deI

Gobierno Democrtico,la sociedad

argentina padece aun la intranqui

lidad de una crisis que recin hoy gracias al resultado deI ejercicio
de pautas participativas,puede vivenciar en plenitud,pero;superar.
~a

historia universal 10 confirma,seis

afios no son suficientes para ver con claridad objetivos y metas.Y,so

bre

todo

para pretender evaluar resultados sobre los que deberia pla

nificarse el futuro.
l?reocupados

por obtener un desarrollo

econ6mico de autosubsistencia hemos descuidado un planteo de base

"el papel que juega en ana sociedad de subdesarrollo econ6mico,la cultura
en general y la educaci6n en particular "
I)ebo insistir en que el problema que nos
ocupa no puede ser considerado desde un

lI

enfoque parcialll.El cuestiona

miento debe ser dirigido a analizar en qu medida la economia ha inter

feride e interfiere en el desarrollo cultural,y,de qu manera "nuestra

cultura" afianz6 las pautas econ6micas deI subdesarrollo.

~o

podemos negar que ha habido un

inters especial por parte de los responsables de las "nuevas po

liticas" .culturales,en modificar conceptos y actitudes,planeando estra
tegias de participaci6n.Pero no ignoramos que el problema econ6mico por
un lado y la carencia de un reconocimiento claro de 10 que intentamos

228

llamar "cultura nacional".limita a los entes oficiales en sus proyectos

de apoyo.La POLITICA MUSEOLOGICA integrada a los planes de reforma edu
cativa sufre por tante las mismas limitaciones.

Politica

=~seologica

ed~caci6n

en

ARGENTINA.

. ~a educaci6n argentina.pese a sus

grandes pedagogos.admirados por el reste de Latinoamerica.subsiste a
travs de proyectos cerrados que no se han desestructurado pese al em
puje de las nuevas corrientes pedagogicas.De stas solo fructifican las
innovaciones formalistas que no llegan a modificar contenidos.Y,por 10
tanto,no logran la formaci6n realista deI educando.
~a

educaci6n argentina.ha des cu

bierto demasiado tarde una problemtica bsica para la formaci6n deI ciu
dadano: cales son las raices culturales .aqullas que hacen a

su afin

camiento real ?
-Debe reivindicar poblaciones indigenas ?
-Debe insistir en una cultura europea de lite,que alguna vez le
vali6 el reconocimiento internacional ?

-Debe recuperar la cultura de inmigraci6n obrera,fabril

rural,que

en varias oportunidades modific sus pautas de conducta,sus valoracio

nes y hasta su lenguaje ?

Este problema.que no es nuevo,pero

que hoy tiene una actualidad acuciante.condiciona todas las propuestas
educativas.incluyendo sin lugar a dudas.aqullas que emanan de los en
tes oficiales que rigen la aplicaci6n de pautas museo16gicas adecuadas.
La MUSEOLOGIA ARGENTINA,sufre pues la misma crisis que la educaci6n y
la misma que se manifiesta en ese contexto heterogneo,y an no asimi
la do como tal.que es su "Cultura Nacional".

Evidentemente,nada puede lograrse

a travs de la manipulacin,menos en un mbito tan problemtico come el

de nuestro pais,que recin salido de un largo periodo de dominaci6n ideo

229

lgica,intenta dar los primeros pasos en el mundo de la participacin y

deI dialogo cons tructivo.
~n

realidad no es desde los entes ofi

ciales desde dnde tiene que llegar la solucin al enigma.Una buena

PO

LITICA MUSEOLOGICA,s610 debe apoyar e incitar la bsqueda de salidas perso

nales e institucionales independientes.Nuestro pais es tan extenso como
disimil.Cada regin tiene su propio problema,pero sin lugar a dudas,tambin
su propia sa1ida.Por otra parte,si estamos decididos a facilitar el proceso
de participacin,debemos saber aceptar las propuestas que pueden sugir

de

cada comunidad,permitiendo de este modo que cada una de e11as encuentre

su propia vertiente cultural,aqulla con la que se identifica rea1mente.
tJna adecuada formacin en MUSEOLOGIA
debe pues tener en cuenta que la implementacin de sus tcnicas es de vi
tal importancia en los paises "en desarro110",pues mediante las mismas se
a

podra 10grar la aplicacin correcta de una educacin no-formaI

~ravs

de la cual se apoyaran los proyectos nacionales de educacin

en la consolidacin conjunta de una llcultura nacional tl propia y asurnida.

~l

manejo de lenguajes nuevos,apro

piados para poner en evidencia valores culturales y pautas de conducta

que a
gias

veces pasan desapercibidas en sociedades masificadas por ideolo

de imposicin,hacen de la MUSEOLOGIA el ambito ideal para proyec

tas de futuro ,en stos nuestros paises

Contrib~ciones

los

paises

en

de

la

,1

en desarrollo".

M~seologia

en

desarrollo.

~l

fin primordial de la MUSEOLOGIA

debe ser!incitar a la bsqueda y el encuentro de autnticos valores cul

turales que ofrezcan al ciudadano comn,puntos de coincidencia para su
consolidacin como integrante de una naci6n:

l)ebe tener en cuenta adems.que su

trea no se agota en la aplicacin adecuada de una tcnica mediante la

cual pone en re1ieve la importancia de un objeto patrimonial que recon
ceptualizara todo el entorno;ella debe surgir y mantenerse por el dialo
go constante y adecuado con los habitantes de la regin en la que traba
ja.
~,finalmente

debe desarrollar el do

ble lenguaje que le permita descubrir los valores deI contexto y que le
posibilite a su vez la correcta exhibicin deI "sentido recuperado".
230

~o

hay duda de que la MUSEOLOGIA

INTERNACIONAL,tiene los suficientes anos de experiencia y puesta en prac

tica,con resultados exitosos en la recuperaci6n y difusin de la cultura,

en paises dnde la politica econmica la cultura y la educacin son pi

lares deI desarrollo.Pero,en nuestros paises dnde todavia se consideran
como prioridades distintas el desarrollo econmico y el desarrollo cultu
ral,la tarea de la MUSEOLOGIA es mas ardua.En principio debe encontrar el
modo y los medios para apoyar sin manipulear el afianzamiento de una cul
tura nacional que en un futuro permit ira aunar en una nica valoracin el
progreso econ6mico que no poseemos,y el progreso cultural que poseemos,pero
que ignoramos.

El

papel

de

los

=edios

la

=~seologia.-

~os

for=adores

de

medios formadores de la MUSEOLOGIA

deben tender ha desarrollar los contenidos y los medios que permitan:

-convertir a un amante de la cosa museolgica,en un digno ejecutor
de la CIENCIA MUSEOLOGICA.
En nuestro pais,por ejemplo,la forma
cin de un museologo no puede perder de vista nuestra realidad general
oculta por el centralismo que ejercen las grandes capitales:
-no poseemos una formacin socio-cultural adecuada para abordar
el tratamiento de temas hist6rico-nacionales.
-no poseemos experiencia suficiente para la prctica de investigaciones
socio-culturales.
-nuestras fuentes bibliogrficas son escasas.(Es admirable la cantidad
de autores extranjeros que han podido analizar nuestro pais,utilizando
datos estadisticos indiscutibles;en cambio,los argentinos solemos cho
car con archivos descuidados,documentos no fichados,quemados y
gunos cases

en al

pocas precisas.negados.)

-nuestra formacin,aun la acadmiea,ha sida en la mayoria de los cases

parcializada.Y,ello nos ha hecho descubrir tardiamente que los aconteci

mientos culturales no son paralelos,sino perpendiculares a los hechos
histricos.
<:oncluyendo: una vez puestas en evidencia
sas,nuestras falencias de formacin general,el mbito de la MUSEOLOGIA
deber ademas de intentar suplirlas,dotar a los futuros muselogos de
las tcnicas bsicas para la puesta en relieve deI objeto cultural,insis
tiendo en el respeto por la libertad de participacin.
231

Existe

~~a

=~seologia

ge~eral

Esta ultima pregunta nos lleva a travs

de un camino circular al cuestionamiento inicial.Si hablamos de especia
lizacin,convertiriam061a Ciencia Museologies en un conglomerado de meras

tcnicas modificables segun el mbito al que se dirigen

~reo

del que surgen ?

que esta suficientemente probabado

el valor de la HUSEOLOGlA como ClENClA,en cuanto posee objetivos precisos,

mtodos propios y hasta un lenguaje que la caracteriza.Pero,cada une de
est os elementos solo conforman su inmfraestructura general.Si su aspiracin
es integrar el mbito de las Ciencias Humanas

,0

de l~s Ciencias

de la

Cultura,debera tener presente una constante adecuacin entre sus elementos

forma les y el medio humano al que se dirige y con el que cuenta.Tal adecua
cion le permitira el enriquecimiento experimental necesario para ocupar

une de los roles mas importantes en la tarea educativa.Tarea que fructifi

cara no solo en los paises "en desarrollo" sine tambin en aqullos que de
tentan hoy el grade mas alto de maduracin econmica y cultural.

232

Martin R Scharer -

Vevey, Switzerland

Hunger in the Showcase

Developing countries and Museology - Information and Manipulation
Of the varied topics that are on the programme at this symposium, the one we
are interested in here is that of deve10ping countries as the subject of ex
hibitions in museums of the industria1ised wor1d, with the accent on the
prob1em of hunger in the world. So we are not concerned with Third-World
museums nor with their possible ro1e in the search for national or cultural
identity, the reconstituting of cultural heritages or the exchange of ex
hibitions, museologica1 deve10pment aid or the elaboration of a special
museology for the Third Wor1d. What we are primarily interested in here is
the matter of information (and the manipulation that inevitably goes with
it) about developing countries as an orientation aid to museum visitors in
the industrialised world.
The immediate reason for our interest in this topic is the preparations
for a "Hunger" section to be opened as permanent display of the Food
Museum (the Alimentarium) in Vevey, Switzer1and, in 1989. It is extremely
rare to find this highly controversial subject, much discussed in all the
other media, dealt with in the complex medium of the museum; and in the
Third World itself, hunger is hard1y the subject of exhibitions.

*
As se1f-appointed custodians of a1ien cultures, the cura tors of ethnological
museums have - not to put too fine a point on a critical opinion - taken it
upon themselves to make a valid representation of distant civilisations in
a different cultural setting for visitors who are not directly involved.
Most museum objects are subjectively chosen from collections assembled
during colonial times. We may therefore wonder whether it is at all possible
to depict non-European ethnologies adequately, bearing also in mind the
tota1ly different connotations attaching to those objects, which may be at
the centre of attraction here whi1e being a mere utensi1 for dai1y use
there ? Too often, we single out objects only by their esthetic value and
ne91ect other aspects as for instance their adapted techno10gy in harmony
with the environment.
The task is harder now than it was a few decades ago, for two reasons.
First, because the c10sed colonial world-picture (lucki1y) no longer
exists and the peop1es depicted in the museum have now become independent
partners (if, regrettably, sometimes more in theory than in practice),
233

and, second, because not only are visitors now much better informed (this
ought to make our task easier) but their ideas of far-away countries are
very often wildly distorted - think only of the experiences of European
tourists:
It is here that ethnological museums (and all other institutions involved
in providing information about non-European civilisations) must earnestly
try to foster a sense of understanding for other value systems (within
our own society, too, by anal ogy), respect and tolerance (which is by no
means the same.as condoning, say, unjust power structures), help in dis
mantling Eurocentric prejudices, and put familiar cultural behaviour
patterns into perspective by adopting a comparative approach. In so doing,
it also seems to us extremely important to thematise the very nature of
the problems involved in putting on such exhibitions,
that is to say to sensitise the visitor to the difficulties inherent in
handling distant cultures, to show him that there is also a question of
ethics involved. Ooes respect for a foreign culture mean, for instance,
that sacred objects from that culture which were originally hidden from
prying eyes should not be put on show for a now-profane western society?
What is wanted, then, is not a representation of a peaceful, exotic idyll
that enhances strange phenomena instead of searching common issues, but
self-illustrative information emanating from the object. Oespite some
reservations which will not go away, an exhibition may in such
circumstances be deemed to legitimately portray an unfamiliar civilisation.
The question of principle as to whether it is part of an ethnological
museum's mission to feature Third-World problems in their exhibitions, is
hardly at issue any more, though ethnological museums do have difficulty
in getting to grips with the present. There is a clash of opinions - most
noticeable recently in German museum ethnologist circles - about the
manner of representation, not least because it is a matter concerning
existential human problems. In such cases the danger of an exhibition's
bearing an ideological or partisan stamp is just as great as the applicat
ion of a development concept idealising industrialised society and
proclaiming it as a model.
The key issues in the designing of Third-World exhibitions are of a
political and ethical nature and revolve around the notion of the museo
logist's responsibility, in whatever form, for the depicted ethnology
(by analogy, for example, with that of museum biologists for the environ
ment). Can the author of an exhibition treat an existential issue in a
234

"neutral. detached and emotionless manner. especially as he is not writing

a scientific article but dealing with a museum, equipped with objects which
also impinge on the feelings, and where the very physical path through the
exhibition concerns the whole person ? Since it is in any case impossible
to be objective and neutral, and as any act is political, would he not do
better to declare his solidarity with the oppressed peoples right from
the start, make himself the advocate of the suffering and design an ex
hibition committed to the uncovering of injustices? We think not.
Wouldn't this simply turn the museum into a plaything for development
politics ? Wouldn't the museum lose its claim to scientific validity ?

Closely linked with this is the demand, also raised at the last ICOM
Conference, to involve "those concerned" in exhibitions. There may be
something to be said for this well-meaning suggestion when it is minorities
in our own part of the world that are concerned. but it is hardly a
viable proposition for exhibitions dealing with the Third World. Or can
the educated local elite be considered as "those concerned" ? And the
macabre issue of a partner for an exhibition on the problems of hunger is
totally beyond the pale. Let us not forget that exhibitions about non
European civilisations are intended not for the people they depict but
for First-World visitors in whose "cultural language" they have to be
conceived and whose world they always reflect. Every creator, will,
incidentally, in his very best own interests, look for (interdisciplinary)
experience in colleagues and personal insight in the countries concerned,
even though, however rich his fund of knowledge, he can still only show
what the

world looks like, never how it actually is.

The idea of incorporating elements of our own background, in the form of

comparisons with like (or unlike) phenomena such as European "rituals",
migrant workers, power structures, organic farmers, etc., is appealling
and perilous at the same time. It can be a help to understanding - by
providing a link to something known - but it can also make understanding
more difficult - by narrowing the perspective.
*
Everything 1 have said so far is particularly relevant in regard to
"hunger" as an exhibition topic. "Hunger" therefore provides us with a
convenient means of defining more clearly our present theme and discuss
ing problems of visualisation. There is hardly any topic that is so charg
ed with emotion; sel dom are so many political slogans bandied about;
235

rarely does the visitor (and certainly, also, the author of the exhibition)
have more preconceived ideas, false information, stereotypes and a
one-sided knowledge of the subject, while at the same time being convinced
that he knows why hunger exists in the world. All this is compounded by
the important and total lack of any personal experience of hunger, something
which a museum cannot convey neither. Because in representing world hunger
it is the very existence of man that is at stake, his sheer survival, not
an objet d'art, culture, "beautiful" artefacts, etc. Finally, there are
no objects immediate1y pertaining to hunger; so in view of a11 these
difficu1ties the basic question arises: can this topic be represented in
a museum at al1 ?
Let US take a short look at the process of visualisation. Exhibition creat
ors transfer a wor1d, a rea1ity, to a museum thousands of miles away; and
the link to rea1 life is 10st right there. The exhibition is no longer
true reality, not even the finest, super-rea1istic diorama: In the museum
a new, fictitious, and hence inevitably manipu1ated rea1ity is created.
This phenomenon 1ends itself admirably to an interpretation in semiotic
terms : the museologist creates symbols for realities which exist elsewhere.
Even an object in a museum is no longer true reality, because it 1acks an
organic context; it is a symbo1 for something. It is impossible to show the
real wor1d in a museum. And we believe that ;t ;s precisely in such an
abstract and complex subject as world hunger that it is abso1ute1y essential
to make sure the visitor rea1ises this.
The first problem when it cornes to representing hunger is how to depict
the lack of food, in other words the absence of something for which the
specificity of museums, three-dimensional objects, is 1acking. Moreover,
it is desired to presend hunger, as any theme, in its geographica1,
cultural and economic contexts, and for that objects have to be found
(i .e. from slum dwellings, ritual objects, etc.). Didactic productions
using artificia1 objects can be used to represent abstract conditions. In
order to depict hunger in history, for example, the A1imentarium shows on
a large wall the shrinkage of purchasing power during the 1816/17 suppl y
crisis by means of graphics using papier-mch loaves of bread with the
missing 10aves shown in black. This disp1ay is accompanied by a 1uminous
panel on which other famine years are scrolled. Commemorative meda1s round
out the disp1ay. Means of representation do, then, exist, and we do not
have to depend sole1y on books and electronics, which turn a museum into
something more like an information centre.
236

Another problem, that of the committed exhibition, becomes more acute when
we are dealing with hunger, and it places the author before well-nigh
insuperable problems. Is it a museum's role to attach blame, to foment
unrest, to point the way to change? Should the visitor be held responsible
and exhorted to act within the realm of his possibilities (by making donat
ions, changing his own eating habits, etc.) ? Doesn't a sober, detached
objectivity and a scientifically oriented representation of the kind we
wish to plead for here seem somewhat inappropriate ? When all is said and
done, wouldn't it be better simply to send the money that would go into the
project to the starving areas ? This question is easy to answer. There are
always two sides to aid : in the Third World itself, and - as information
and enlightenment - in the First World. This information should be present
ed in as objective a manner as possible, drawing on the whole arsenal of
visualisation means available, in such a way as to reflect ones own posit
ion, and if possible thematising the exhibition itself. This also has the
advantage of preventing the museum from being put to false uses. And this
is the great risk in exhibitions which depart from a sober approach, so
important in regard to this problem, and end up purveying polemics instead
of information. Mistakes, past and present, made in the industrialised
world should be depicted in such a way that they speak for themselves, but
without pointing a finger. Reasonable informative aids should be consider
ed (partly in order to counteract the widespread feeling of resignation
that there is nothing to be done) but without mounting an attack on any
one stated guilty party .. It goes without saying that an exhibition dealing
with Third-World problems must be inderdisciplinary and dynamic, that is
to say it must incorporate the past and indicate possible developments. It
is in this particular area that it seems to US extremely important to
address the visitor. his notions, his emotions, to make an impact on him,
to provoke a critical discussion of widespread preconceived ideas, slogans
and patent remedies, thereby perhaps helping him to deeper insights.
With such thoughts in mind, we at Vevey are working on a concept for a new
"Hunger" sector in our food museum. The idea is to integrate it into the
existin9 exhibition with its three sections - Nutrition, Ethnology, and
History. And this we can do, physically as well, because the sector will
be situated on a mezzanine within easy view to any part of the museum. We
can set up direct links to our consumer behaviour, world trade. and history.
It is extremely important to integrate this theme with its worldwide
ramifications in this manner. The aim of the exhibition - small, but which
takes advantage of a very high, airy space - it to show that hunger is the
237

result of a comolex interolay between many important and regionally varied

natural, sociocultural, economic, political and historical factors. After
something of an Emotive start with a partial reconstruction of a slum
quarter and ten life-size but very abstract figures (three of them over
nourished, three with just sufficient to eat, three undernourished, and
one suffering from hunger), the main message is conveyed by means of a
commented large-size projection discussing also some stereotyped ideas,
and simulation games for individual use. It is intended to round out the
exhibition with characteristic objects from certain regions and some hints
on how to go about improving matters (but without proposing any recipes
for success).
Obviously, we are still far from having a scenario; we are still only at
the ideas stage, and these ideas are being intensively discussed. They come
in a very wide variety of forms : should we perhaps train a spotlight on an
abstract technical model representing the interplay of various factors
(i.e. with moving beads or weights, intercommunicating tubes, etc.), with
the possibility of injecting problems at will? Would it be a good solution
to create a contradictory exhibition? To what extent ought we to incorporate
the Experience of famine in our own country 200 years ago, or the daily
news? These are only some of the ideas we are looking at. One thing seems
to be clear : the new sector must stand out from the rest of the exhibits
by its attractive museography. It must not be just one section like any
other; it must be something very special, something eye-catching. This is
the only way we can be sure that this thorny problem will really be brought
home to the visitor.

238

REFERENCES

AUER Hermann (ed.), Das Museum und die Dritte Welt. ICOM-Symposium Lindau
-1979, Mnchen 1981; ~.: KOLOSS Hans-Joachim. Funktion und Per
spektiven des Volkerkunde-Museums in der heutigen Zeit, pp. 210
220
8AER Gerhard. Museum und Volkerkunde. in: Ethnologisehe Zeitschrift Zrich,
-1972. 1. pp. 17-24
EVANS Bruce H. By Example and By Exhibition: The Museum as Advocate. in:
- - Museum News. 58. 4 (1980). pp. 22-26
GANSLMAYR Herbert. Volkerkundemuseen und Vorurteile, in: Museum Information
Forschung. 4 (l975). pp. 21-27
LOHSE Wulf. Vos sen Rdiger. Ganslmayr Herbert, Rammow Helga (eds.). Volker
-kunde-Museen. in: Zeitsehrift fr Ethnologie. lOI. 2 (1976).
pp. 197-313; ~.: VOSSEN Rdiger et al.. Bilanz und Zukunft der
Volkerkunde-Museen. pp. 198-205; McLEOD Malcolm D. Future Direc
tions for Ethnographie Museums. pp. 216-221; HARMS Volker. Tole
ranz oder Solidaritat als Leitvorstellung fr~Bildungsarbeit
in ethnologischen Museen von morgen ? pp. 265-277; HINZ Manfred
O. Zur (politischen) Funktion des Volkerkundemuseums:-Pladoyer
fr ein inte9riertes Museum. pp. 293-297; NACHTIGALL Horst, Poli
tische Probleme der volkerkundlichen Museologie. pp. 298-303
PFEIL Horst. Ethnologie und Volkerkundemuseum. Ein Beitra9 zur museums-eth
nologischen Diskussion. Diss. Gottingen 1978
PFEIL Horst. Bildun9sinhalte des Volkerkunde-Museums. Vorurteile als zen
trales Problem ethnolo9isch-musealer Bildungsarbeit. in: Ethno
logiea, NF 8 (1979), pp. 126-140
SCHMITZ H. Walter, Zum Problem der Objektivitat in der volkerkundlichen
Feldforschung, in: Zeitschrift fr Ethnologie, lOI. 1 (1976).
pp. 1-40
SOFKA Vino~ (ed.). Museology and Identity. ICOFOM-Symposium Buenos-Aires
1986. ICOFOM Study Series ID; ~.: BELLAIGUE Mathilde. pp. 39
44; DELOCHE Bernard. Le muse et les ambiguts de l'identit
patrimoniale. pp. 65-71; DESVALLES Andr. Identity. pp. 73-77;
GANSLMAYR Herbert. Museology and Identity. The Ethics of Exhibi
tion. pp. 101-105; MENSCH Peter van. pp. 201-209
VOSSEN Rdiger, Versuch einer Standortbestimmung der Volkerkundemuseen und
der Zieldiskussion, in: Museum Information Forschun9, 4 (1975),
pp. 7-11
VOSSEN Rdiger, Thesen zu einer gesellschaftsorientierten Arbeit der Vol
kerkundemuseen. in: Museum Information Forschung. 5 (1976),
pp. 19-33
ZWERNEMANN Jrgen. Volkerkunde-Museum und Dritte Welt. in: Museumskunde,
46. 3 (1981). pp. 147-154
BIELENSTEIN Dieter (ed.). Thema "Dritte Welt und Entwicklungspolitik" in
Schule und Erwachsenenbildung, Saarbrcken 1984. Schriften des
Instituts fr Internationale Begegnungen Bonn; ~.: STOETZEL
Monika. BRIBOIS Gaston. Unsere Museen fr Volkerkunde - Lernorte
fUr das Thema "Dritte Welt und Entwicklungspolitik". pp. 13-30;
HARMS Volker, Wie lernen SehUler in volkerkundlichen Museen etwas
ber die "Dritte Welt" ? - Thesen zu einer Didaktik des Museums
besuehes mit Sehulklassen. pp. 59-77

239

240

Martin R Scharer - Vevey, Suisse

La faim en vitrine
Pays en dveloppement et musologie - Information et manipulation

Tout en demeurant dans le cadre trs vaste de ce symposium, cet expos tudie
les pays en dveloppement comme sujet d'exposition dans les muses des pays
industrialiss, et en particulier le problme de la faim dans le monde. Il ne
s'agit donc pas de parler des muses dans le Tiers-Monde, ni d'examiner la

contribution que de telles institutions peuvent apporter pour permettre ces

pays de trouver leur identit. Il ne s'agit pas non plus de restituer des
biens culturels,

ou d'changer

des expositions,

ni d'laborer

une aide

au

dveloppement dans les muses, voire encore d'laborer une musologie propre

au Tiers-Monde. L'objet principal est la question de l'information

(et de

l'invitable manipulation de celle-ci) que l'on veut donner aux visiteurs des
pays industrialiss.
L'occasion de nous livrer de telles rflexions nous a t donne par

les

travaux prparatoires d'un secteur de l'exposition permanente du Muse de

l'Alimentation (Alimentarium), Vevey, en Suisse, secteur qui est consacr
"la faim" et qui doit s'ouvrir en 1989. Si ce sujet vivement controvers a
dj t dbattu dans tous les mdias traditionnels, il est en revanche trs
rarement voqu en rapport avec le mdia complexe que constituent les muses.
Dans le

Tiers~onde,

il ne donne mme quasiment pas lieu des expositions.

Les conservateurs de muses ethnographiques, si l'on peut le formuler ainsi

d'un point de vue volontairement critique, se dsignent comme les administra
teurs de cultures loignes et ont la prtention de savoir comment prsenter
des civilisations trangres dans un autre environnement culturel et pour des
visiteurs non directement concerns. Il faut en fait se demander si, avec un
choix subjectif d'objets provenant en grande partie de collections runies
241

l'poque coloniale, il est possible de vraiment reprsenter de manire ad

quate des ethnies extra-europennes, et ce galement compte tenu de la signi
fication d'un objet dans une exposition et dans son environnement original:

importance primordiale

ici,

simple objet d'usage l-bas.

N'avons-nous pas

trop tendance juger des objets extra-europens l'aune de notre propre

systme de rfrences esthtiques? Pourtant, ces objets pourraient servir de
modle pour des technologies adquates et respectueuses de l'environnement.
Cet te tche est aujourd' hui plus ardue qu'il Y a quelques dcennies. D'une
part parce que l'image ferme du monde colonial n'existe (heureusement) plus
et que les peuples montrs dans les muses sont devenus des partenaires ind
pendants (mme si ce n'est hlas pas toujours une rali t vcue), d'autre
part parce que le niveau d'information des visiteurs est non seulement beau
coup plus lev (ce qui ne peut que faciliter notre tche). Il convient ce
pendant de prciser que l'image qu'ils ont des pays lointains est souvent
trs dforme: pensons pour cela aux expriences des touristes europens
l'trangerl
Il s'agit donc pour les muses ethnographiques (et pour toute institution qui
met en exposition des civilisations extra-europennes) de se pencher srieu
sement sur cette question. Leur tche doit tre d'essayer de promouvoir la
comprhension d'autres systmes de valeurs (par analogie galement l'int
rieur de notre socitl), le respect et la tolrance ( ne pas confondre avec
une acceptation aveugle, par exemple de rapports de puissance injustesl). Ils
doivent aussi aider le public se dfaire de prjugs eurocentristes en re
lativisant par des comparaisons les formes de comportements propres chaque

culture. Pour cela, il nouS semble particulirement important d'intgrer dans

l'exposition tous les problmes que posent de telles confrontations, c'est

-dire de montrer au visiteur les difficults que l'on peut avoir en abordant
des cultures d'ailleurs et de lui en faire sentir la dimension thique. Un
exemple: le respect d une culture trangre doit-il interdire de montrer
une socit occidentale et profane des objets sacrs que

l'autre cul ture

tient cachs chez elle? On le voit, ce n'est pas l'occasion d'une rverie
exotico-contemplative qulil faut donner, rverie qui met l'accent sur ce qui

est diffrent au lieu de montrer ce qui est commun, mais une information
partir de et sur l'objet, tout en relativisant la porte de celui-ci. Dans ce
cas

seulement,

et malgr

toutes

les

prventions

que

lion pourrait encore

avoir, une reprsentation des civilisations trangres est lgitime.

242

La question de savoir si des muses ethnographiques doivent intgrer dans

leurs expositions les problmes du Tiers-Monde n'est plus gure conteste, et
ce bien que les muses ethnographiques aient des difficults aborder l'ac
tualit prsente. Des opinions diamtralement opposes se sont affrontes ces
derniers temps,

surtout parmi les conservateurs de muses ethnographiques

allemands, notamment sur

la manire de reprsenter ces questions, en bonne

partie cause du fait qu'il en va des problmes existentiels de groupes de

personnes. Le risque d'en arriver une exposition inspire par une idologie
ou des parti-pris est aussi grand que celui de vouloir imposer un modle de
dveloppement qui idalise la socit industrialise.
Dans la mise sur pied d'expositions sur le Tiers-Monde, les questions centra

les sont d'ordre politique et thique. Elles tournent toujours autour de la

responsabilit du musologue l'gard de

l'ethnie

reprsente

(comme on

l'exige par exemple des biologistes travaillant dans les muses l'gard de
l'environnement). Le responsable d'une exposition peut-il traiter en toute
neutralit et sans la moindre motion d'un problme existentiel? La question
est autrement plus complique que s'il s'agissait d'crire un article: dans

un muse,

il y a des objets capables d'veiller des sentiments,

il yale

parcours travers l'exposition qui implique le visiteur. Puisque l'objecti

vit et la neutralit sont de toute faon impossibles et que tout acte revt
une valeur politique, l'auteur d'une exposition ne ferait-il pas mieux de se

dclarer d'emble solidaire des peuples opprims, de se faire l'avocat de

ceux qui souffrent et de monter par consquent une exposition engage qui
rvle les injustices? Nous pensons que non! Le muse risquerait de devenir

de ce fait le terrain de jeu o s'affronteraient les diffrentes politiques

du dveloppement et perdrait sa prtention scientifique?
Lors de la dernire Confrence de l'IeOM, on a demand de faire participer
aux

expositions

les personnes

concernes".

Juste

dans

son

intention,

ce

postulat pourrait tre ralisable dans le cas d'expositions consacres des

minorits vivant chez nous. Mais i l n'est plus gure envisageable pour des
exposi tions

consacres

au Tiers-Monde,

moins que soi t

considre comme

concerne l'lite cultive de l'endroit. Et dans une exposition sur la faim,

il devient carrment macabre d'voquer la participation des personnes concer
nes. Et puis, il faut se rappeler que les expositions sur les civilisations
extra-europennes ne sont

pas

faites pour

les personnes qu'elles voquent,

mais pour les visiteurs des pays industrialiss. Elles doivent tre conues

243

avec le "langage culturel" du visiteur et ne peuvent que reflter son uni

vers. Par ailleurs, il est tout dans l'intrt d'un responsable d'exposition
de requrir l'exprience d'autres musologues de toutes les disciplines et de
visiter les pays concerns. Pourtant, malgr toutes les connaissances acqui
ses,

il ne pourra montrer

le monde que comme

il se

le reprsente,

jamais

comme il est 1
Il est la fois tentant et dangereux d'intgrer notre propre environnement,
de comparer des phnomnes analogues ou opposs, comme par exemple des rites
europens, les travailleurs trangers, les structures du pouvoir, les culti
vateurs biologiques, etc. Du fait que la comparaison se rfre ce qui est
connu, elle facilite la comprhension; mais elle peut aussi la rendre plus
difficile du fait qu'elle rtrcit les perspectives

Tout ce qui a t dit jusqu' prsent est particulirement frappant dans le

cas d'une exposition consacre "la faim" et nous permet de comprendre de
faon plus aigu notre propos ainsi que de discuter la visualisation de l'ex
position. Il y a peu de sujets dots d'une aussi forte charge motionnelle,
peu de sujets o l'on use de tant de slogans politiques, peu de sujets qui
confrontent tellement le visiteur (et le concepteur de l'exposition) ses
prjugs, au manque d'information ou la dsinformation, aux clichs et la
connaissance partielle de faits. Et pourtant, l'un et l'autre sont convaincus
de savoir pourquoi la faim dans le monde existe. Et que dire de l'impossibi

lit totale pour un muse de communiquer l'exprience personnelle de la faim.

Finalement, il en va de l'existence mme de l'homme, de sa survie. Il manque

les objets concernant immdiatement la faim: pas d'artisanat, ni de culture,

ni de "belles" choses. De telle sorte que, au vu de tous ces obstacles, la
question se pose de savoir si ce sujet est vritablement musognique.
Considrons brivement le processus de visualisation: l'auteur d'une exposi
tion transfre le monde et la ralit dans un muse situ des milliers de
kilomtres de l. Quoi qu'il fasse, c'est toute la partie vivante de ce monde
et de cette ralit qui est perdue. Mme si elle consiste en un magnifique
diorama hyperraliste, l'exposition n'est plus la ralit relle.

244

Le muse

cre une ralit nouvelle, fictive et par voie de consquence manipule. Les

concepts de la smiotique permettent de saisir parfaitement ce phnomne: le

musologue cre des signes pour des faits qui existent ailleurs. Mme un
objet montr dans un muse n'est plus rel parce qu'il est dtach de son
contexte. Il devient en revanche le signe de quelque chose. Il est impossible
de montrer dans un muse le monde rel. Et nous pensons qu'il est absolument
indispensable, surtout pour un thme aussi abstrait et complexe que la faim
dans le monde, de faire sentir cela au visiteur.
Pour visualiser la faim, il s'agit au premier plan d'illustrer concrtement
la carence de nourriture, c'est-A-dire un manque pour lequel ce qui fait la
spcificit du muse, A savoir des objets tridimensionnels, n'existe pas. Au
deuxime niveau, il faut montrer la faim dans son environnement gographique,

culturel et conomique et l'on dispose pour cela d'objets, trouvs par exem
ple dans des taudis,

utiliss pour des rites, etc. Des objets artificiels

peuvent servir A des ralisations didactiques permettant de visualiser des

faits abstraits. Ainsi, pour illustrer la faim dans l'histoire, l'Alimenta
rium montre la chute du pouvoir d'achat pendant la disette de 1816/17. Sur un
grand panneau, on voit les pains disponibles (en papier mch) teints en cou
leur de crote et ceux dont le consommateur aurait besoin teints en noir. Sur
un panneau lumineux dfilent les autres annes de famine. Des mdailles com
mmoratives compltent cette reprsentation. Comme on le voit, il existe donc

des possibilits de visualisation. Nous n'avons pas besoin de recourir exclu

sivement des livres et des crans d'ordinateurs au risque de transformer
le muse en un centre de documentation.

Le problme d'une exposition engage devient particulirement aigu si l'on

prend la faim pour sujet. Son concepteur est alors confront des questions
quasiment insolubles. Son exposition doit-elle accuser, responsabiliser, ten
dre un changement? Le visiteur doit-il tre appel agir dans le cadre de
ses possibilits (donner de l'argent, modifier ses propres comportements

ali~

mentaires, etc.)? Une prsentation scientifique, sans fard, visant l'objec

tivit (c'est pour cette attitude que nous plaidons) n'a-t-elle pas quelque
chose d'inconvenant? Ne ferai t-on pas mieux d'envoyer tout l'argent invest i
aux rgions affliges? C'est encore A cette dernire question qu'il est le
plus facile de rpondre: l'aide a toujours deux aspects. Elle est directe
dans le Tiers-Monde, indirecte dans nos contres o il s'agit d'informer et

d'expliquer. Cette information doit, en utilisant tout l'arsenal des moyens

245

de visualisation, tre aussi objective que possible. Elle doit reflter la

position de l'auteur de l'exposition, voire mme porter un regard sur elle
mme. Ainsi peut-on viter d'utiliser le muse des fins qui lui sont tran
gres. Car le grand danger rside dans ces reprsentations qui (surtout pour
le problme de la faim)

abandonnent une attitude raisonne et informative

pour verser dans la polmique. Il va de soi que les erreurs du monde indus
trialis au cours de l'histoire et aujourd 'hui doivent tre montres, mais

sans porter d'accusation. Les possibilits d'aide concrte doivent tre dis
cutes

(notamment pour prvenir le sentiment d'impuissance et la rsigna

tion), mais sans appeler la lutte contre un ennemi dclar seul responsable
de tous ces maux. Bien videmment, une exposition sur les problmes du Tiers
Monde doit tre interdisciplinaire et dynamique tout en intgrant le pass et
les ventuels scnarios du futur. Il nous parat ici particulirement impor
tant d'aller ~ la rencontre du visiteur, de ses ides, de ses motions, de

stimuler chez lui la rflexion, de discuter de manire critique des prjugs

largement rpandus, des slogans et des solutions toutes faites, bref, d'aider
le visiteur avoir une perception plus profonde du problme.
C'est sur la base de ces considrations que nous travaillons en ce moment
l'laboration d'un nouveau secteur du Muse de l'Alimentation Vevey, consa
cr la faim. Il doit s'intgrer dans l'exposition permanente dont les trois
parties actuelles sont la nutrition, l'alimentation en dehors de l'Europe et
l'histoire. Du point de vue spatial, ce secteur sera situ sur une mezzanine
aisment

visible depuis

les autres

parties et offrant ainsi des relations

directes avec d'autres sujets de l'exposition, par exemple nos habitudes de

consommation, le commerce mondial et l'histoire. L'intgration de ce sujet

aux ramifications mondiales est extrmement importante. L'objectif de ce sec
teur, qui occupe un espace restreint, mais trs haut et ar, est de montrer
avant tout la complexit du problme de la faim, de faire voir que la faim
rsulte d'une interaction de trs nombreux facteurs plus ou moins importants
selon les rgions, qu'ils soient socio-culturels, conomiques, politiques ou
historiques. A l'entre, on trouve une reconstitution partielle d'un quartier
misreux et de dix mannequins grandeur nature mais assez abstraits reprsen

tant trois personnes suralimentes, trois juste assez nourries,

trois dnu

tries et une affame. Une projection commente part d'ides toutes faites
pour ensuite expliquer la complexi t du problme,

tandis que des

jeux de

simulation permettent de s'occuper d'un village en dtresse. Divers objets

246

caractrisant des rgions et des phnomnes ainsi que des perspectives d'am
lioration complteront l'exposition, ceci bien sr sans pouvoir ou vouloir

donner des solutions.

Evidemment, nous ne sommes pas arrivs au niveau du scnario: tout est encore

au stade des ides, chacune donnant lieu des dbats intenses. Elles sont de
toutes sortes: faut-il par exemple clairer une assiette blanche et vide dans
un espace noir et oppressant? ou faut-il raliser un modle technique repr
sentant l'interaction de diffrents facteurs (par exemple avec des billes mo
biles ou des poids, des tuyaux de communication, etc.) en intgrant diverses
possibilits de dysfonctionnement? faut-il faire une exposition avec des ar
guments contradictoires? jusqu' quel point peut-on voquer l'actualit quo
tidienne ou les expriences de la faim faites dans notre pays i l y a deux
cents ans? La liste est loin d'tre finie 1 Une chose semble claire: le nou
veau secteur doit se diffrencier des autres expositions par une musographie
attrayante. Il ne doit pas tre un secteur parmi les autres, il doit tre une
interpellation.

C'est

ainsi

seulement

que

l'on pourra obtenir du visiteur

qu'il se confronte ce sujet.

247

248

Judith K Spielbauer - Oxford, Ohio, USA

Museology and the Developing World

Time was when museology was the study of how te run a Museum. with the
museum being a relatively coherent institution.

Variation among museums was

primarily in the types of objects collected and occasionally in exhibit

format.

A homogeneous audience. a set of idealized goals. and a sense of

"moral virtue and

tomorrow)

intrinsic good" pervaded the field.

the picture is very different.

Today (and into

Perceptions of society and the

world continue te change, and the Museum, as an institution and as a concept.

is struggling to adapt to these new perspectives.

Museology as a discipline

is also faced with new conditions that necessitate an evaluation of its

essential premises and assumptions.

The rules. standards and forwulae for

proper procedure and the perceived responsibilities for preservation and

future generations. which have for so long established the parameters within
which creative thinking could take place. are increasingly seen as support ive
of a specifie set of cultural traditions.

This situBtion becomes obvious

when looking at the spread and the potential of museological institutions

around the world.

How then.

can museology recognize and grow with the

dynamic pro cesses of human experience and the changing perceptions of it?
If museology is the study of and understanding of the process of active.
integrative preservation rather than of the Museum institution. itself. new
possibilities

arise.

In 5uch

concept

of museology.

Itactive"

is

the

continuous dynamic interchange between the individual/audience/ community and

the

evidence/information/understanding

museological sening.
process.

The

lt

available

within

particular

i8 the two-way communicative dimension of the

"integrative"

concept

is

the

way

in

which

this

new

understanding and body of knowledge becomes incorporated into and an integral

part

of

cultural systems

and

individual

lives.

"Preservation"

is

the

accumulation of evidence. and the maintenance and encouragement of continued

249

understanding of the human experience" the natural world and the relationship
between them in ways that are relevant today and available for tomorrow.

The

participants (often referred to as the audience) in this process are as

The audience can be as large and complex as a

varied as society itself.

nation or as small and homogeneous as a segment of a single community or any

where in between.

The primary audience can be from outside a country. as

tourists. or completely internal or cross-cut such boundaries as special

interest groups.

Museology is. itself. a dynamic phenomena and should not be divorced from
its past nor forced to reject the time and culture of its birth in order to
be

relevant

to

the diversity of the present.

At

the aame t inle.

the

discipline must be allowed to evolve beyond its original intent in response

to the new knowledge and insight gleaned from the changing world in which it
exists.

To go beyond the limitations of the past necessitates examining

basic assumptions" looking at the broader social functions and Illplications

of

museum responsibilities.

integrated

into

society.

determining

finding

their

how
Tele

these responsibilities
in cultural

networks

are
and

establishing the social circumstances that have made the museum both possible
and necesssry.

Then. museology builds on and expands this information and

understanding.

By finding the existing cultural patterns that serve these

same and related basic functions within different sets of cultural and social
circumstances"

the process of active, integrative preservation can evolve

forms and procedures best suited and relevant to these unique conditions.
The end result may well be very different museological arrangements than were
initially expected.

In what

ways

is

this

process

a help or a hinderance

countries. or for that matter. any society around the world?

to developing
Museology is

manipulative to the extent that it seeks to standardize the process of active

in'tegrative preservation based on the "traditional western museum model lt

The problem lies not in the existence or functions of such institutions

250

founded within their appropriate cultural setting. but instead lies in not
questioning

the underlying conscious

and subconscious assumptions

that

support this model in order to determine its appropriateness to varying

conditions.

These assumptions are many and are typically derived of western

culture and thought.

For example:

knowledge for the sake of knowledge is good

"progress" is the natural order of human society

"science and technology"

can resolve all problems

* time is lineal

standardization assures quality

* museums are

social good

museums are educational and experiential taols

* access te museum information and experience should be available te

soyone

the presence of museums is indicative of the quality of life and the

status of the community

objects are the most important and valuable attribute of the museum.

Such assumptions

are

the

result

of the

cultural value systems of the

tradition within which the museum institution grew.

Museology must recognize

such values as appropriate in certain societies but not necessarily of high

priority nor universal.

If museology is to be a coherently useful univetsal

discipline. it must recognize and accept the affect of value structure and
cul tural

assumptions on the

process of active integrative preservation

without limiting itself to a specific value set.

The cultural forms that

active integrative preservation take are potentially as variably as there are

cultural entities and subjects of interest.
In realit.y, however. it is never so simple.

Societies are seldom cohesive.

homogeneous or uninfluenced by the surrounding world.

Neither are cultural

values and assumptions easily expressed nor are they the sole criteria for
the development of an appropriate preservational mechanism.
of

contemporary

society

and

the

internaI

and

externat

The complexity
pressures

that

influence the decision making possibilities of individuals and groups can not
251

be isolated from the preservational process.

What then can museology provide developing countries?

First and foremost.

it can provide a discipline broad enough to respect and support the continued
existence (and inherent value) of cultural and natural diversity. and honest
enough to accept the past for what it has been and to understand it 's
influence on the present.
Huseology can

provide fundamental

deceptively simple.
and complex.

Such questions

appear

The answers. however. can and should be very difficult

Why should we preserve in the face of many other real problenls?

What is and should be preserved?

Who should decide?

What form should

How can we make this relevant and meaningful to the

preservation take?

audience?

questions.

Who is the audience? and so on.

Easy, immediate answers can be

pulled from the body of existing museological experience.

But the real

answers must come frem an analysis and understanding of each of the unique

Sets of circumstances that have prompted them.

It may be that a large

traditional western style museum is what is wanted and warranted

tourists. national image, and the return of cultural property.

good for
It may be

The museUDl in "developed ll

that something entirely different is needed.

countries is evolving in a number of museological directions:

community

based ecomuseums. educationally oriented "discovery" centers. and historieal

reproductions in living history.

consideration.

This

fundamental questions.
the

same

paths?

evolution

Even commercialization i5 creeping into

i5

response

to

new answers

to

these

What of developing countries? Must they follow along

Must

they

respond

with

the

museological point of view. only if they decide the

same answers?

From a

circ~stances warrant

it.

Huseology can provide methods and guidelines for answering fundamental

questions.
within

the

It can not provide the complete answers.

community.

society

or

state.

itself.

These must come from

For

example,

the

J:luseological framework for the "museum object" as highly varied in form and
substance. as weIl as, the multiple approaches to an object's informational
significance and meaning, allows the flexibility needed to incorporate the

252

unique characteristics of each new situation.

preservational

format

Effective development of a

necessitates an analysis of the roles

played

by

traditionsl values, economic and political pressures, formaI and informaI

authority structures and educational patterns, sacred and secular knowledge.
audience diversity, needs and interests. and changing conditions, just te

list a few.

The integrative dimension of the discipline requires the

shifting of priorities to emphasize and support the active involvement of the

audience in all its complexity in determining and assessing the validity of
suggested answers te basic questions.

Museology has st its disposaI a wide

range of experience in preservationsl and educational procedures that are

historical and contemporary. and successful and unsuccessful.

possible sources of specifie information,

ideas,

inspiration.

available for consideration when formulating new possibilities.

themselves

the only acceptable answers

These are
or insight

They are not

to basic questions or the only

solution to museological problems.

Museology can acce?t as valid variation based on differences in cultural
values.

Museology cano of course. be misused by individuals in positions to

manipulate social

conditions.

But

the discipline.

itself.

can not be

structured in a way that arbitrarily undermines Gacia-cultural integrity or

engenders conflict within complex communities.

Museology. though not always

museum authorities. supports group initiated innovation and tends ta mitigate

the affects of uninvited change.

The great hazard lies in not recognizing

the potential imposition of "western" values.

For e>:ample. the tendency to

disregard the proper use of sacred knowledge under the guise of preservation
or ta ignore

distinction between initiated and uninitiated. or ments and

women's secret knowledge in the name of education.

sake

of

"institutional

image n

of

possible

The exclusion. for the

commercial

dimension

ta

museological integration can inhibit the practical preservation of natural

heritage. ecosystems. and species.

The "western" inclination ta place value

in things rather than in the process of their creation or patterns of their

existence often reinforces the separation between preservational activities

253

and the daily lives of the audience.

Again, it is a matter of fit.

How

well museological possibilities serve their appropriate goals depends on how

clearly the needs and expectations of the audience have been detennined.
Clarification of goals and the understanding of "audience" complexity are
fundamental museological objectives.
Museology can facilitate development and change,

The process of active,

integrative preservation is one that develops a perspective of the past in

the present, with the present, not one that isolat es or idealizes the pasto
Its

audience

is

of

today:

its

affects

are

in

today.

Museological

institutions accumulate, maintain and disseminate knowledge and provide the

opportunity of new experiences.

The selection of what information is given

and the mechanisms developed to communicate and integrate this information

into daily life may influence future community development and result in
cultural change.

However, when the mechanisms developed to communicate and

integrate information are

derived from the complexities of the society.

itself, and are not imposed from the outside, the process of "development"
is less destructive to the security evoked by familiar patterns.
Museology can support the individual's need for a sense of identity.
Especially in times of rapid change, individuals and groups need a sense of
self

and cohesive belonging.

a sense of rightness

and security.

While

museological institutions can not and should not stop change and enforce the
status quo, they can ease the transition.

In lending the externally accepted

status and prestige of museum preservation and presentation to a group tends

to establish the credibility of that group in the eyes of others.

More

importantly, however, is finding the integrative mechanisms appropriate for

preservation within these groups that will establish a sense of valued
heritage. self worth and confidence in facing new conditions.
however. is a two edged sword.

Identity.

The very nature of identity is an emphasis

on belonging and commonality and the establishment of cultural and natural

boundaries.

This is no less the case in developing countries where the

complexities of intergroup and intercultural relations involves cultural.

254

historical.

economic.

political.

religious

and

social

factors.

These

factors. more often then not, act in opposition te oational goals. economic

and environmental needs, or social stability.

In searching for both the fOrD!

and substance for museological institutions, developing countries must seek

tirst the commen interests. needs and expectations on which te build.

They

must also recognize that a single museological form can not serve all needs.
It is not always a matter of money. but often one of individual and group
involvement based on perceived value and self interest.
Huseology can provide technical information. Once decisions have been made
as to form and purpose of a museological approach appropriate to a specific
situation. the applied dimension of the discipline can provide advice on
questions or help resolve specifie problems.

technology are all available.

However,

Past experience. science and

it must be translated through

museological understanding into a form meaningful and practicable for each

situation.

Museologists
Museologists. sleng with Dthers, are stewards of the human experience and

of the natural world.

They serve rather than direct.

This places a heavy

burden on the museologists in "developing" countries for they must balance

the realities of their countries with the ideals of their discipline.
Preservation for the sake of preservation is a luxury that few Bacieties.

t'developed 11 or I1developing't can aiford.

But preservation in service te

society and in support of the individual is a necessity that can not be

ignored in this world of rapid change.

Museology is a help to developing

countries in that it responds to each set of new cultural conditions.

This

response is not in the form of inflexible rules and regulations that produce
uniformity.

but

rather

in

fundamental

flexibility

that

uses

basic

principles to adapt preservational activities to meet the unique needs of

each situation.

Museology, in reality. is an intellectual exercise.

practiced by people who decide. who Bct. and who create.

It is

They must decide

255

whether to mold the audience to meet the needs of a specifie museum or

museological

concept,

or

mold

the

concept

of

institution. to meet the needs of their audience.

teacher in that it listens as much as it speaks.

256

museum

or

museological

Huseology is like a good

Petr Suler -

Brno, Czechoslovakia

A pers on working in museology for a short time only,

may find the topic rather surprising. l would not even

exclude irritable reactions, such as " what are they making

up again, they should be happy to be given a hand".This can

be the case of a lack of information but also that of an

inproper understanding of effort presented in a wrong way.

l personally, find important to compare several types of

museums within the european context / coming into existence

on grounds of museological conceptions/ with social needs

of developing countries.

Our discipline has got naturally its own history, its

own origins. The basic outlines of the branch, however, have
beccme evident on the social, economical and political back
grounds only since the be~ing of the 19th century when
museums played important roles in processes of origins and
development of modern nations. It goes without saying, that
in order to support similar efforts in developing countries,
too, one resorts to analogies. But is it really that simple?
An exceptionally important role in proceeses of origine
of modern european nations was played by history. One ethnie
group was distinguished from another, our ancestors'deeds
were glorified, famous vietories were veiled in a pathetic
vesture of national tragedies. The form of museum institutions,
organisations that existed even prior to this process in
somewhat different social connections, proved to be a highly
suitable form for the development, cultivation, and appli
cation of history. It wes a literaI boom in museum aetivities
acquiring new surprising forms that overpassed to 2 great
deal the original frontiers. In sorne countries, the main gist
of the struggle for economical, politieJ, and social sove
reignties of a nation is concentrated into national museum
institutions. In this way, museum institutions fulfilled
goals of practical realization of historical seientific
disciplines, at first those of social sciences mainly, later
also of natural sciences.
257

One could apparentely made full use of these experiences

in developing countries that also fight for the existence
of modern nations, for their national and state sovereignty.
The question has to be put in a different way : does histo
ry really forro an indispensable part of this struggle?
Only instinctively l remember doctor Jelinek's lecture
-he was former chairman of the ICOM and distiguished
anthropologiste He commented on his researckes among austra
lian aboroginies and devoted much attention to the attitude
of the aboriginies towards scientific excavations. This
attitude was a negative one and even resulted in an actual
demand that the skeletons found in the course of the researck
should be transported back to Australia and reburried there.
It went even so far that a proclamation was accepted refusing
history as a useless and retarding process.
Similar phenomena can be also seen in a number of other
countries, e.g. in Mongolia. Several ethnic groups in Africa
cancel their old inventaries at the beginning of eBch year
to enter the new period with a clean slAte.
After aIl, neither European continent got completely
rid of the survivaIs of this phenomenon. In the course of
carnival masquerade celebrations in ventral Europe, it is
a cornmon tradition to brea~ old used ceramic vessels. Old
and out-od-date give way to new, fresh, even if only in a
symbolic form.
~irnultaneously, it is truth enough, that aIl ethnie
groups are rich in verbal traditions - myths, legends, tales,
la~r'y -"t",.Les. This is, however ~ slightty different conception
of history - history with HU cievelopment. In ~Iil'ope, one
looks upon history, quite naturally, as a depictiun of na
tural and soci'11 development in a certain period. One has
al~eady forgotten that history can also refer to glorious
deeds of our ancestors and need not necessarily follow the
line of development. Therefore, a rnisundersta.nding may occur
fairly easily, if one does try, even in one's best intentions,
to depict national history of a developing count~y in a form
of the line of development.
That is why, one has to adopt a completely unusual idea
- to help forrning a modern nation need not necessarily be
connected to its national history. The same can be said about
its basic needs.

258

The Soviet Union can offer a ri ch experience in the

role of museums in the process of forming of a modern nation,
in mutual rapprochement of nationalities and ethnic groups.
Much extremely difficult work have been done following
a premediated and much exacting system. The system has
brought about good results but, as evident from the sitaation
in the Upper Karabach, has not covered all the probleme, yet.
Consequently, this problem ls of a high importance today
both in developing countrles and ln developped countries.
In my opinion, a lot of useful museum work could be done
in the region of the Pyrenees /Basques/, on Corsica, on Cyp
rus etc.
An enormous increase of lnterest ln ethnogr8phy was
another feature that has become evident in european museums
since the beginning of the 19th eentury. Ethnographical
and folkloric specificities if nationalities and ethnic groups
stimulated a rise of very important collections. It is
symptomatic that a number of prominent european museums pos
sess rich collections of this kind also from countries of
the Third World. Aspects of sensation, exoticism, and by
a great deal, of commerce, too, were, no doubt, involved
at the same time.
This branch is equally a very ri ch source of information
in developing countries. Folklore, in many countries still
alive, becomes a national heritage, and also one of the
dominant factors of museum collections. There are a lot of
distinctive features in these collections differentiating
one ethnie group from another, and thus fulfiling demands
of a national sovereignty. One might even say that folklore
of various nations in many cases literally substitues their
history. Neverthless, commerce is far from being excluded,
which is, however, in no sense a negative factor here.
On the contrary, economical success as a result of folkloric
activities can be often connected with a national pride,
and with further cultivation of cultural expressions.
And finally, cultural and educational functions were
the third feature shaping european museums in the course
of the 19th century. This role followed again older traditions
but it was characterized by a marked democratization, i.e.

259

education was made accessible to the wide public.

In this sphere, l guess, still much can be done for the
developrnent of museology in developing countries. There are
a lot of problems calling urgently for the cooperation with
museums, either concerning the struggle with epidemic diseases
/above aIl the struggle with AIDS/, technology of modern
production, language education, protection of environment.
Tasks of the strategy of science are, in fact, put into
practice , there. The strategy manifests itself in two basic
for~s in museum work :
- in education towards scientific awareness, i.e. towards
basic orientation in contemporary science, and in this con
nection, in the ability to solve any kind of actual problems.
- in forthright education and culture.
It is in this sphere we should direct our museological
efforts, we should put museelogical conceptions into life.
Here, museology could help to solve serious problems of
contemporary life. , here, we could be useful. The situation
in the Third World is, in many senses, graver than in Europe.
But still, l do not think a special kind of museology spe
cific only to the Third World should be invented.The.basic
aspects of the the ory of rnuseology remain common to aIl
countries whether concerning metamuseology, or processes of
documentation, of thesaurus work, or of forms of presentati
on. Also a great number of exhibition technologies will be
shared. One thing, however, must not be forgotten - one has
to respect aIl the time specifie characteristics of particu
lar countries, their need, and their traditions. An axe
rernains an axe whether cutting down a tree in Africa, in
Asia, or in Europe. Similarly, rnuseology also remains tool
for achieving entirely concrete goals. The contents of these
goals, their orientation, priority, and social needs cannot
and must not be determined by a mere application of ~uropean
experience.Only . inhabita.nts of the countries forcing their
own ways to the sovereignty, and to the independence have got
priority in solving aIl these tasks.

260

Petr Sulef -

Brno, Tchcoslovaquie

Rsum
La conception europenne de la musologie s'appuie sur une
longue histoire du phnomne musal mais ses bases thoriques
n'ont co~~enc se former de fuon plus prononce qu' partir
du dbut du 1g e sicle. A cette poque-l, les muses jouaient
un rle important dens le processus de la naissance des nations
modernes et de leur lutte pour l'indpendance et 10 souverainet.
~ans

beaucoup d'aspects, 'a situation est an810Gue

d~ns

les

pays en voie de dveloppement et il n'est donc pas surprenant

qu 'on essaie d'appliquer les expriences europennes d(,ns les
conditions du Tiers monde. Il s'av~re cependant que cet effort
en toute bonne foi se heurte souvent l'incomprhension car en
omettant les conditions spcifiques historiques, sociales et
conomiques des pays en voie de dveloppement il peut facitlement
glisser ve~les ~anifestations d'un nocolonialisme culturel sp
cifique.
JI s'avre avant tout que notre conception des muses qui
s'a~puie

sur l'histoire et les lignes d'volution Isociales ou

naturelles/ ne doit pas forcment 2tre applique dans les pays

~

en voie de dveloppement. On peut meme dire que le processus de

la naissance d'une nation moderne avec ses besoins varis ne
doit pas du tout tre li avec l'histoire de cette nation.
Un autre trait caractristique des muses europens du 1g e
sicle, c'est le grand rle que jouaient les collections ethno
eraphi~ues. Ce phnomne trouve une analngie exacte dans les pays

en voie de dveloppen,ent, les effets commerciaux ventuels dans

le domaine du folklore pouvant tre une source de 10 fiert na
261

tionale et du sentiment de l'identit ethnique. Ceci peut avoir

pour suite un dveloppement ultrieur de la culture auquel

l~s

muses peuvent largement contribuer. Dans ce cas, la musologie

euronenne peut fournir une aide efficace.
Le troisime trait typique des muses europens du 1g e sicle
tait leur fonction culturelle et ducative. C'est justement dans
ce do~aine que je vois beeucoupde tches urcentes

la solution

desquelles les muses du Tiers monde pourraient largement con

tribuer Ip.ex. la dcouverte des causes et la prvention du SIDA/.
Ils peuvent devenir un instrument concret de la stratgie de le
science qui est - la diffrence de l'histoire - vraiment in
dispensable dans le processus de la formati0n d'une nation mo
derne.
C'est justement ici qu'il faut aider, fournir un instrument
sous forme de la musologie. A l'aide de cet instrument on pourra
rsoudre les problmes spcifiques des pays en voie de dveloppe
Der.t.

262

John J Whitlock - Carbondale, Illinois, USA

MUSEOLOGY:

PRESERVING THE NATIONAL PATRIMONY

Our colleagues in the museum profession throughout the world have given
serious thought to the definition of "Museology."

Several constructs were

clearly delineated in the ICOFOM / ISS 10 publication and addressed at the

ICOFOM Symposium 1987:

Museology and Museums.

Although we may all have a definition of Museology that is insightful

and/or functions as a "working model" for us as we practice our profession
and make decisions, 1 continue to be impressed with the succinct definition
of Museology as it appeared in Carol A. Martin's paper in ICOFOM / ISS 10:
Museology then takes on a dual role. As a philosophy, it
must help define identity for and give direction to museums. It
must help museum professionals to give forethought to results to
be achieved; to develop clear objectives and a knowledge of the
identity needs of museum audiences; to become teamworkers in a
larger network of museums and museum professionals so no single
museum has to try to be all things to all people.
As a scientific discipline, it must support research to
develop ways to better preserve and interpret humanity's natural
and cultural heritage. It must provide a means to present its
philosophical concepts to the public so that museums can actively
perpetuate and link the heritage of the past with the identity of
the future.
As we address the needs of developing countries, which are multi
faceted, we can eventually or at least concomitantly give thought to the
complete history of the country, the broad culture, as well as the multi
plicity of cultures that are usually manifest in a country.

This process of

thought brings us naturally to a consideration of the national patrimony.

A developing country must reflect on its past, pay close attention to
its present and naturally give serious thought to the future.

Museologists

may find it challenging to preserve all aspects of the past in developing

countries.

People do not always wish to remember the pasto

Museologists

and educators must face the disappointments and the dilemmas of the past as
well as the accomplishments of history, as they perform their teaching and
curatorial duties.
263

The museum profession in all countries of the world, including the

developing countries, are involved in a selection process regarding the
preservation and conservation of art and artifacts, historical/cultural
items, natural and other scientific objects.

What items do we aCQuire?

What aspect of our history and culture do we inspect and research as we

develop our collections and create educational exhibitions?
elect to not aCQuire an object or collection?

When do we

All of these Questions

address the issue of national patrimony and the preservation of our culture.
Museology in developing countries faces a sensitive issue, since the leaders
and the politicians of the country could restrain the telling of the com
plete history of a culture and a nation.
How one would cope with restraints on the truth is a very difficult
question and one that will need to be debated at the ICOfOM annual meeting
in India this fall, 1988.

One would think that straight forward exhibits

dealing with the history of a developing country, the present day status of
the country and the dreams of the people would be possible in any culture.
People must know where they have been, if they wish to set achievable goals.
A museum in a developing country needs a clear mission statement.

The

museum professionals, in concert with museological theory, should work with

the government, local citizens, educators, historians and members of the
museum profession from other countries as they create a model for the
development and/or the enhancement of museums in a developing country or
nation.

A team approach, with a genuine desire to weave museums into the

fabric of the country, should be effective.

People the world over collect, hoard and classify seemingly everything!
Therefore, museologists should be able to bring order to the years of
unofficial collecting by the citizens of the world and create meaningful
archives, museums and educational exhibitions for the enlightenment of
humankind.

It would be very interesting to involve "neighborhood museum

advisory groups" in the development of museums in developing countries.

This technique of involving people in the creation, re-working or develop
ment of exciting new exhibits and programs in existing museums could prove
264

to be a simple but creative solution to a potential problem.

If people feel

that they are genuinely involved in the creation or re-creation of their

museum they will support it!
Needless to say, museologists and the principles and theories of
museology need to help existing museums in developing countries, or help in
the creation of new museums.

The wealth of ideas and creative contributions

that have been "accumulated" in the "archives" of a developing country need

to be brought together and shared with the citizens and the visitors in a
meaningful way.
1

Museums and schools can bring this "body of knowledge and

experience" together through exhibits and curricula for the enlightenment

and the growth of the people who care to grow and learn about their past-
their present--their future!
Manipulation can be viewed as a negative and shrewd use of influence in
an unfair way, or it can describe a process involving the artful use of
skills and talent in a positive manner.

1 would urge the museum community

of the world to focus on the creative energies and accumulated insights of

museological theory to come to the assistance of the emerging museums in the
developing countries.

We have colleagues who would welcome the opportunity

to share challenges with museologists from established communities and

institutions and seek solutions to problems that have surfaced in their
respective museums.

In like manner, there are many museum professionals who

would be pleased to share their time, energy and ideas with colleagues who
are involved in the revitalization of an existing institution or the crea
tion of a new museum.
One would think that there is a general museology that could be usable
throughout the world, in light of common shared knowledge, and the ability
of museologists to communicate with one another via ICOM and ICOFOM con
ferences, symposia, committee meetings, annual meetings and numerous publi
cations.

Therefore, the concepts and principles of museology can be imple

mented in museums, large and small, throughout the world, and still adapted
to the existing conditions, variables, and situations that will naturally
exist from place to place.
265

It would be difficult to guarantee the adaptation of basic museological

principles, and the elimination of misuse, since the museum profession at
large cannot maintain oversight throughout the world and in every community.
We can only hope that as we grow and develop as a profession that the Code
of Ethics and Statutes, as adopted by ICOM, will be followed and adhered to
by the members of the museum profession.

This is about the only guarantee

we have to stabilize the growth, development and management of the museums

and archives of the world.
Museology can study the accomplishments of science and technology and
report these activities and discoveries through exhibits, displays and vari
ous communicative devices.

Museum publications can contribute to the dis

semination of knowledge from the bodies of human knowledge in the arts, the
sciences and history, in addition to the didactic displays more common to
museums and archives.

Museums are utilizing computers in their record keep

ing and as educational tools to further enhance their message.

This writer

can imagine many instances of interaction between the visitor in a museum

exhibit and the knowledge as manifested in the exhibits, displays and the
particular artifacts.

Science and the arts will benefit from this form of

educational interaction as the principles of museology are used to convey a

message to the many receivers/visitors to our museums.

Yes! Through inter

action of an educational and creative nature, people learn from the content
of our exhibits and displays when presented via the principles of museology.
Thus, new ideas are born!

Society benefits!

Minds are expanded!

No! The science of museology, abstract and general, should never be

allowed to live its own isolated life.

Basic truths must be presented

through the myriad of exhibits and displays, using the collections of the
world.
The eternal question will remain--what is the truth?
that makes life interesting and challenging.

266

This is the que st

Hildegard Vieregg -

Mnchen, FRG

THE
CONTRIBUTION
OF
MUSEOLOGY
TO
DEVELOPMENT
CONCIOUSNESS OF MUSEUM-VI SI TORS IN THE THIRD WORLD:
AN INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION BY WAY OF EXAMPLE
1.

SITUATION GENERALLY -

OF

HISTORICAL

ESPECIALLY IN BRAZIL AND ARGENTINE

Since 1975 l've been eng..ged essenti .. llY in medi .. ting history in
museums
.. nd
.. Iso
in
historic .. l
exhibitions.
TherebY
l
...."s
speci .. lly
interested
in
the
.. ims
of
museums
..nd
historic .. l
exhibi t ions .. s .... ell .. s
hi storic.. l educat ion by signi f ic .. nces of
museums, .. nd l fel t the need of conseQuences to concept ions of
museums .. nd exhibitions - .. l ...... ys .... ith reg .. rd to different groups
of visitors.
It bec..me evident th.. t .. l ...... ys .... hen the historicel
sciences .... ere ende .. vouring .. fter did .. ctic, usu.. lly lots of groups
in our society .. re .. ble to be re .. ched. Frequently t .. king journeys
to museums .... i thin Europe .. nd .. bro.. d - for inst ..nce to the USA, to
South-Americ .. , to countries in South-E ..st-Asi .. , J .. p ..n, Egypt l
bec .. me "cQu.. inted .... ith the most different conceptions of museums
end l
received e
summerY of museologicel
intentions
end the
.. ssoci .. ted
effects
for
sh .. ping
historic .. l
im .. ges
bY
museum
contents. There ...... s .. Iso the Question, if ....e should try to teke
influence to museologic .. l contents in these countries - or if only
the tri .. l for ne .... methods in conseQuence of Europe .. n experience
.... ould be on .. n eou .. lity .... ith m.. nipul .. tion. Particul .. rlY cleer in
my mind .... as this problem in South E ..st-Asi .... nd J .. pen ..... here l .... es
invited bY Goethe-Institut Osak.. in 1986 ..nd my t .. sk .... as te
undert .. ke lectures et sever.. l
museums
but more especi .. lly in
L.. tin-America.
So l ' I l reduce my st .. tement to countries in L.. tin-Americ .. , and
th .. t is Br .. zil end Argentine. Why Brazil? On both journeys. in
1984 and 1986, l visited .. rt museums ..nd museums rel .. ted to the
history
of
civilization
most
different
to
types
.. nd
oronouncietions.
So l
met numerous museums in Brezil.
es for
inst .. nce the sm .. ll region .. l
mission-museum (Museum de Instituto
Geogrefico
e
Historico
do
Am.. zon.. s)
nearby
the
district
of
Amezones.

the

'Museu

Arauidoceseno

de

Meriene'

in

Meriene/

Mine~

Gerais. the 'Museum d .. Inconfidenci .. ' in Ouro Pretot Min.. s Ger .. is

just so the Museum de Arte'
in Sao P .. olo
- but elso the
memorial of Kubitschek. the former president,
ith m..ny visitors
aIl the ye .. r
round
ineluding people from aIl
walks of
life.
Alre .. dy.
it
....ould
be
sufficient
to
studY
the
museum-guide
'Argentin.. y
sus
museos'
critic .. llY.
Thereby
.... ith regard
te
impress
on
historieal
.. nd
cultur.. l
im.. ges
l
noticed
gre .. t
contr.. sts between the intentions of museums with rel .. tion to the
history of civiliz .. tion in Latin-Americ.. to European museums the
same type. At f irst l st .. ted thi s phenomenon in Br.. z il. ..nd. ..t
last found confirmed for Argentine the s .. me ...... y. In .. ddition to my
Dun wey of thinking l wes conv1nced of lectures, discussions end

267

excursions

on

the

occesion

of

the

Internetionel

Congress

of

Museums in Buenos Aires elong wi th the theme Museums end the

Future of Our Heritege
E",ergency Cell'
in my purpose. to
pursue the problem of culturel end historicel educetion. In this
context it wes elso my interest to find out the comperison of
institutions of culturel museums end museums with reletion to the
history of civilizetion in industriel countries of Centrel Europe
to museums seme cherecter in e country of
the Third World
respectivelY developing countries with coloniel pest.
Thereby
remerkeble .... es the intense epproech of presentetion to Europeen
stenderd which is suggested to be impressed on the coloniel pest
of museums respectivelY by their promotors. the colonists et eny
time. end bY the order-communities. which were impressed in the
origins bY Ibero-Europeen influence.
GenerellY,
museums elweys
were pleces of culture people hed eccession to; they elweys ....ere
edventege to politicel influences. even they beceme 'mediums' of
politicel tendencies. After the colonists politicel euthorities
tried to engege museums
es of course elso in Europe. This
situetion in the ege of worldwide tendencies of Americenizing end
Eurooeenizing by touristics
elso in the ende~vouring Europeen
standard bY developing countries - oives reeson to reflections of

our reponsibility es museologists. Also we heve to teke position

towerds the countries ruled bY militery governments for e long
time. For ell thet the mein Cluestion efter influence of ours.
efter help or menipuletion, is herdly to enswer - without heving
dete scientific
reseerched
end
discussed.Before coming
to
a
decision.
it would be necessery to displey knowledges to the
following posing the problems end scopes.

2.MEDIATION HISTORICAL CONTENTS IN MUSEUMS

We shouldn' t try to find out
discuss the following problems:

recipe'.

but

otherwise

should

- How signelize the mostly in the 19th cent ury founded museums the
going independent
from
colonielism,
the trensfer
to
en en
ticlericel liberelism end (in the lest third of the 19th cen
tury) to militery governments?
How ere in the museums
democrecies going evident?

of

Letin

Americ ..

intentions

of

young

Ideologicel influence of contents to museum-visitors bY pointed

selection of
objects
end
their representetion
in historicel
museums end in museums rel eted to the history of ci vi l izet ion;
their importence for educetion end historicel formetion.
Is there eny connection between the ectuel representetion in
museums releted to the history of civilizetion end the edu

26B

c~tion

ouoils -

~esoectivelY

sdults?

- Gsining by

wo~king c~ite~iss

oe~missible

limits

snd scientificslly well-tounded

intluence histo~ical educstion ideologi

to

csllY.
- C~ite~iss simed st the sdvsncement ot histo~icsl museums snd
museums ~elsted to the histo~y ot civilizstion bY the UNESCO.
- A~e the estsblished museums with ~elstion to the histo~y ot
civilizstion sble to mediste the own to~ the time being civi
lizstion ~esoectively t~sditionsl skills of this g~owing ?
- Whst's the
snd to otte~

cont~ibution
p~esent

ot museums snd exhibitions to 'p~ese~ve'

civilizstion bY contempo~s~y collections?

- How would it be sble to mske o~oblems of p~esent time evident

in museums - if we sts~t t~om the o~inciple museums being cul
tu~sl cent~e plsces ot wo~ship in Latin Ame~ics with the soecial
tssk giving people motivstions much mo~e thsn in Eu~ooe?
of such s kind could be ot high etticiency to late~
develooment ot histo~icsl museums snd to the positive chsnces to~
education connected with
acco~ding to ente~ into the heritage of
the cultu~al past time in Lstin-Ame~ics.
The~e
is slso b~ought to vie", possibility ot the intluence of
UNESCO to cultu~~l educstion di~ectlY: By objective dispositions
in histo~icsl museums of Latin Ame~ica
as in the othe~ wo~ld
it "'~uld be sble not only to p~omote histo~ical education in this
way.
but
also to succeed
in cultu~al selt-consciousness.
In
suPPo~t of these claims and conside~ations ti~st ot all we confi~m
the power ot emenetion ot historicel museums end mUSl!'UfT.s with
~elation
to the histo~ical civilization so as the detonating
Resea~ch

violence to aIl grOUDs of society.

Also.

we

museums

have
l.Ji th

to

ditter

relet ion

to

between

histo~ical

hi storicel

museums

ci vi l izat ion

in

and

cent~al

tOl.Jns

where

sre living millions of peoole (so-called t~ans - ~egional museums)

end regional museums.
The g~oups of museal medist ing (in museums) snd thei~ chances of
educstion ~~e very impo~tant in this inter~elation: We have te
conside~
that people ot Lstin Ame~ics more than the hslf s~e
younge~ than 18 Yea~s.
Within the compass ot gene~al endeavou~s tor education s soecial
task
devolves
uoon
histo~ical
education
and
education
with
~elation to cultu~al civi1ization becsuse even the education could
supoo~t tounding nat ionsl
ident 1 t i y snd stabi lizat ion of s state
system. troublesome snd distu~bed bY c~isis. and slso could give
essistence to democretic self-evidence.

269

3.REALIZING THE AIMS

investigation
of
museological
base
should
be
discuss~d
according to select~d historic.,l museums in Br.,zil. c~ntrals .,nd
also regionals.
Bec.,use there
is th~ Qu~stion of differ~ntly
dr.,f t~d mUS~ums
w~
c.,n .,cQuai t obt.,ining a typology by labour
l.Jhich DC!'rmisses ~ trensfer to other museums in these countries
egein.
- For this studY should be chos~n historical mus~ums .,nd mus~ums
with r~lation to historic.,l civiliz.,tion in Br.,sili.,. Sao Paolo.
Rio d~ J.,neiro, Selvedor d~ B.,hi.,. Fort.,l~z.,. Maneus, Ouro Preto
as w~ll .,s Curitib., .,nd p.,renegua. The historical museums and the
mus~ums with
r~letion
to the history of civiliz.,tion in th~s~
towns ere compl~t~lY diff~r~nt from th~ir conceptions; th~r~ ere
only r~gionel museums wh~re th~ reel history of civiliz.,tion
included e1ppropriete skills are referred. In the ' lerge' museums
in towns with millions of p~opl~, situet~d on th~ East Coast.
we're
surprised
bY
presentation
eccording
to
netionelistical
tend~ncies
.,nd
by
glorificetion
po11tic.,1
syst~ms
of
young~r
history es elements
'yielding history'
moreover just
so in
museums of Argentine.
Historieel museums in lerge towns ere often intended 255 if they
w~r~
'plac~s of
h~ro-worship'. The v~ry fundam~nt.. l
structure iE
deleying a compr~h~nsive treatment with history .,s weil .. s the
d~v~loping
.,n
imege
of
history
influenced
bY
diff~rent
perspectiv~s to the int~rests of visitors.
Th~

The .,ims of
t~.,ching
historic .. l
lessons in the first pl.,ce

shouldn' t serve th~ purpos~ of medieting ., conception of history

as objective as possible
with th~ object
of
developing an

eoualized and democr.,tic st.,t~ (neglecting .,ctuel probl~ms). The

asoiration in tel!!tching should rether exist in l!'ducetion citizens

identifYing with politicel systems.

Pr~sentation
in the
mus~ums
referred to should
be revised
according to sYst~m of m~esur~ment of education relet~d to worth
of history of civilizetion in g~n~rel, and,
point of view. to
history .,nd culture in th1s 11ving spac~. 50 th~ position of
cultur~ r~f~rr~d to the nations will
b~ ~vident.Situetion nowadays
should b~ r~vised. for exempl~ the fect, groups of kindergerd~n
and forms .,re influ~nc~d by 'highly colour~d historical statement'
in mus~ums end introduc~d into id~ologi~s, which n.,mely ar~ eble
to support political systems
but put UP opposition to r~al
historicel ~ducetion.
- Th~ inh~r~nt d~velopm~nt of civilization, includ~d positiv~ end
neg .. tive .,spects of coloniel history as well .,s attempts for
ind~p~ndenc~ from
Portug .. l , particul.,rly th~ youngest history .,re
shown onlY in ~xc~ption.,l cas~s. The ~ouival~nt civilization of

Letin - Am~ric .. to Europe isn't demonstr .. ted

distinctlY; cultural
self-consciousness is greatly missing by Europeens and a1so taking

270

e pride in the peculier echievment o~ civilizetion.So it's reellY

estonishing in the mein town es the conception of history is
affected bY museal elements (museums; memorials) and bY self
assessment of the political systems at present.
Also there
should
be
paved the
way
for
deliberating after
criterias of museology.

4. TWO CONTINENTS
TWO CULTURES? AN INTEGRATIVE CONCEPTION FOR
EXAMPLE
Musological knowledges are worldwide existent.
nevertheless in
museum- prBctice rneny C!lISeS eren' t mede use insuf~icientlY. They
should be differed and placed individually.
First of all it's of importance to leave off the trial of transfer
experiences in European civilization or the European standard of
museums to countries in Letin America. Much more our museologicel
experience should be help for South Americans to faint away the
own culture themselves.
l shall explain this abstract wi th an example that comes from
eouivalence
of
both,
the
European
and
the
Latin-American
civilization: l don't guess existent representations in museums of
Latin America are able suddenly changed. First of all financial
funds for that are lacking. But l'm of opinion that we could find
out e lot of starting points in the museums with the relation to
the history of civilization improving situation and firstlY making
conscious the
independent
civilization of
Latin America.
l'm
thinking of e conception for an exhibition. opposing comperable
cultural objects of Europe to Latin- American ones
picture to
picture
as for instence religious sculptures. 50. it would be
possible to oppose objects from two spheres of civilization (for
example works of art of contemporarians, of the Brazilian national
ertist
Antonio
Frencisco
Lisboe.
nemed
'Aleijadinho' /
Mines
Gerais/ Brazil and the Bevarian sculptor Christien Jorhan des
Alteren /
Niederbayern/
Bundesrepublik Deutschland).
But
both
shouldn' t onl y made present by their works of ert. much more bY
their reel
environment.
Neither Jorhen nor
'Aleijedinho'
were
ertists working at
residences.
but
artists probing
into the
lenguege. Therefore it must be elso possible, with their works of
ert to speak to people nowadeys. At that time: end of the 18th
cent ury end
today.
Today:
In
reletion to
and also
in the
environment of the museum - were as a rule onlY exhibits are going
to appeer as couriers of civilization. BY such en
integrative
contrasting exhibition,
in
form
of
e
photo-documentetion
is
intended to reech the following eim: people get conscious of the
two cultures from one origin. Such a trevelling-exhibition alweys
should support the medietion of originals represented in e museum.
It elso should contribute to interculturel communication and to
mutual
better
understending,
end
counterect
a
relatively
reciprocel
ignorence.
too.
50 fer projects could support the
cultural self-consciousness and they could become real assistance.

271

272

Hildegard Vieregg - Mnchen, RFA

UN ARTICLE DE MUSEOLOGIE CONCERNANT LA CULTURE DE LA CONNAISSANCE

HISTORIQUE DANS LES MUSEES DU TIERS-MONDE: UN EXEMPLE D'EXPOSITION
COMME APPUI
1. Sur la situation en

g~n~rel

plus

pr~cis~ment

eu

Br~sil

et en

Argentine.
Depuis 1975, je m'occupe principelement de le concilietion de
l'histoire dens les mus~es einsi qU'~ trevers les expositions
historiques. Mon ettention se porte tout perticuli~rement sur
les objectifs vis~s des mus~es et des expositions concernent
le culture historique ~ trevers les sujets des mus~es, einsi
que les cons~quences indispensebles pour le conception des
mus~es et expositions en vue de toucher diverses cet~gories de
visiteurs. Il eppere1t que toutes les fois que les sciences
historiques fessent eppel ~ le didectique, un lerge groupe
de lB soci~t~ peut ~tre touch~.
Apr~s de nombreux voyeges de mus~e en muse en Europe et sur
d'eutres continents - entre eutres USA, Am~rique du Sud, Asie
du Sud-Est, Jepon, Proche-Orient, Egypte - j'eppris ~ conna1tre
les diff~rentes conceptions de muse et eu un eper~u sur les
intentions mus~eles et les cons~quences qui s'en suivent pour
le cr~etion de tebleeux d'histoire ~ trevers les sujets de
mus~es. Je me suis pos~e le question suivente si on voulait
essayer de prendre influence des vues europ~ennes sur les
beses mus~ologique dans ces pays, ou bien si ces essais taient
plut~t des manipuletions.

Ce probl~me fut epparent en Asie du Sud-Est, eu Jepon, o je

fus invite ~ une tourn~e de conf~rences sur les mus~es par le
Goethe-Institut Oseke, en 1986, meis plus perticuli~rement en
Amrique letine.
Aussi, je veux limiter mon expos~ sur les DeyS d'Am~rique
letine ~ sevoir le Br~sil et ~ventuellement l'Argentine.
Pourquoi le Br~sil?
Les deux voyeges en Am~rique letine, en 1984 et 1986, me
men~rent eux mus~es d'histoire culturelle evec des options
dift~rentes. Ils me firent connertre eu Br~sil de nombreux
mus~es tels que le petit mus~e de mission r~gional (Museu de
Instituto Geogrefico e Historico do MeneusJ, en Amazonie,
einsi que le Museu Arqudoceseno de Meriene ~ Meriene/Mines
Gereis, le Museu de Inconfidencie in Ouro Preto/Mines Gereis
de m~me que le Museu de Arte ~ Seo Paolo ... - meis ou bien
encore le lieu comm~moretif Dour le pr~sident Kubitschek qui
ettire de nombreux visiteurs de toutes cet~gories socieles.
Mais il suffit eussi d'~tudier de feon critique le cetelogue
des mus~es "Argentine y sus museos" ( J.
A cele on remerque cependent en ce qui concerne le cerect~re
des tebleeux de le civilisetion et d'histoire, de gros
contrestes sur les intentions des mus~es d'histoire en
Am~rique letine per repport eux mus~es europ~ens de m~me
273

genre. Ce ph~nom!me se constete tout d'abord pour le Br~sil

et se trouva finalement confirm~ de le mme fe~on pour
l'Argentine. De plus a me propre constatation, des expos~s,
discussions et excursions a l'occesion d'un congr!s inter
nationel des mus~es, en 1986, a Buenos Aires, avec pour
Th!me "Museums and the Future of our Heritage - Emergency
cell" confirm!rent mon intention sur la question de lier
l'~ducation culturelle et historique.
Dans ce contexte, Je me suis ~gelement occup~e de le compe
reison des intentions des mus~es historiques et d'histoire de
la civilisation dans les peys industrialis~s de l'Europe
centrele,

evec les mus~es de mme typologie dens les peys

en voie de d~veloppement avec un pass~ coloniale.

Le plus freppant, ce fut le grand appui de la pr~sentation au
mesure europ~enne qui ~tait frapp~ par le pass~ colonial des
mus~es ou bien encore par la cr~ation de par les colonisateurs
et les communaut~s religieuses, a l'origine de l'Europe IBERO.
Parce que les mus~es, en tant que lieux culturels accessibles
en g~n~ral, ~taient toujours utilis~es pour l'influence
politique. En effet les "m~dias" ~taient des courants
politiques et essayaient par la suite d'utiliser les mus~es
pour les pouvoirs politiques - d'ailleurs comme en Europe -.
Cela donne a l'!re des tendances mondiales de l'am~ricanisa
tion et l'europ~sation par l'image touristique et celle de
l'Europe aspir~e aux pays en voie de d~veloppement a
l'occasion de la r~flexion sur notre responsabilit~ en tant
Que mus~ologues. Il faut aussi rajouter que les pays dont Je
viens de parler, ont longtemps ~t~ domin~s par les dictatures
militaires. Cependant la question: aide, manipulation ou
influence de notre part, est difficile a r~pondre, sans que
l'on est ~tudi et discut~ les fondements de faon
scientifique. Avant que l'on prenne une d~cision, les
connaissances aux donnes du probl!me et domaines suivants
doivent ~tre pr~sent~s.
2. Transfert de sujet historique aux

mus~es.

Comment se refl!tent les mus~es en grande partie au 19!me

si!cle de l'ind~pendance du colonialisme, le passage au
lib~ralisme anticl~rical et (dans le dernier tiers du 19me
si!cle) aux dictatures autoritaires?
Comment les intentions des d~mocraties sont-elles visibles
dans les mus~es d'Am~rique latine?
Influence idologique des visiteurs de mus~e ! travers des
choix et pr~sentations d'objets dans des mus~es historiques
et d'histoire culturelle; leurs cons~quences pour
l'~ducation et la formation en histoire.
Y-a-t-il un lien entre la pr~sentation actuelle dans les
muses d'histoire culturelle et la formation scolaire ou
bien encore des adultes?
- Travail de crit!res et limites de tol~rances bas~es sur la
science pour la prise d'influence idologique sur la
culture historique.

274

Crit~res pour les exigences & objectifs sur les mus~es

historiQues et d'histoire culturelle per l'UNESCO.

- Les mus~es d'histoire existent reletifs & le culture

sont-ils d~sign~s & trensmettre & checun leur propre culture
ou bien encore leurs techniques treditionnelles?
Comment les mus~es (et expositions) em~nent-elles &
conserver" et & pr~senter le culture ectuelle per des
collections contemporeines ?
Comment les probl~mes ectuels peuvent ~tre pr~sents dens
les mus~es, lorsQu'on en conclut Que les mus~es sont plus
importents en Am~riQue letine Qu'en Europe; centre des
~tets culturels, dont l'impulsion en ressort?
Une telle recherche pourreit ~tre d'heute efficience pour le
nouveeu d~veloppement de mus~e d'histoire et par de vreis
occesions de formetion li~es en vue de l'h~ritege
culturel en Am~riQue letine.
Une possibilit~ d'influence de l'UNESCO aussi sur
l'~ducation culturelle: per des epports objectifs dans les
mus~es historiQues d'Am~riQue letine (comme dens le reste du
monde), seule la culture historiQue pourreit ne pes ~tre
einsi mise & jour, meis plus encore la conscience li~e la
culture.
Les reisons de ces exigences et r~flexion se trouvent avant
tout dans la force Que rayonnent les mus~es historiQues et
d'histoire culturelle et dans sa brisence pour tous les
groupes de soci~t~.
Il faut aussi faire la diff~rence entre les mus~es historiques
et d'histoire culturelle dans les grendes villes et les mus~es
r~gioneux.

Le plus important dens ce contexte est le groupe

d'intervention mus~ale avec ses possibilit~s de formation
plus de la moiti~ de la population d'Am~riQue latine est ~g~e
de moins de 18 ans. Dans le cadre de la campegne de formation
g~n~ral un devoir particulier revient ici l'~ducation de
l'histoire et l'histoire de la civilisation, Car elle pourreit
apporter une contribution le recherche de l'identit~
nationale et la stabilisation d'un Etet egit~ : touch per
la crise et un eppui le compr~hension d~mocretique.
3.

R~elisetion

(possible) des objectifs.

L'exemen des fondements mus~ologiQues devreit tre discut~

comme buts cit~s des mus~es historiques choisis
(mus~es principaux et mus~es r~gionaux) eu Br~sil. Etant donn
Qu'il s'agit de mus~e de conception diff~rente, il est
pr~voir qu'une typologie puisse Stre travaill~e, qui
permettrait un trensfert d'eutres mus~es dens ces pays.
La recherche serait dans les mus~es historiques et
d'histoire culturelle au Br~sil: Seo Paolo, Rio de Janeiro,
Salvador de Behia, Fortaleza, Maneus, Ouro Preto ainsi que
Curitiba et Paranagua. De tels mus~es remplissent ces
conditions.
Les mus~es historiques et d'histoire culturelle dens ces

275

villes sont totalement diff~rents de part leurs concepts ;

seuls dans les mus~e9 r~gionaux il est rapPort! !
l'histoire culturelle (incluant les techniques d'histoire
culturelle). Dans les "grands" mus~es de grandes villes sur
la c~te-est - de mme d'ailleurs que dans les mus~es en
Argentine - apparaissent souvent dans la pr~sentation des
tendances nationalistes et une glorification du sYst~me
politique de la nouvelle histoire comme ~l~ments "porteur
d'histoire".
Les

historiques dans les grandes villes sont souvent

comme "Etats de culte h~r01que"; d~j! les structures
sous-jacentes retiennent une confrontation multiple avec
l'histoire ainsi que le d~veloppement par des perspectives
diff~rentes de tableaux d'histoire ayant pour but de toucher
le visiteur.
mus~es

con~us

Le but d'apprentissage pour les cours d'histoire ne devrait

pas (contrairement! celui existant) consister en premier
lieu dans le transfert d'un tableau d'histoire objectif pour
le d!veloppement d'un ~tat ~quilibr~ et d~mocratique...
Le but de l'effort de l'enseignement, mais plus encore dans
l'~ducation des citoyens doivent s'identifier! leur syst~me
politique.
La pr~sentation dans les mus~es concern~s devrait tre
revue selon les centres de formation d'histoire culturelle
en g~n~ral et en vue de l'histoire et la haute culture de
l'espace vitale afin que sa place dans les nations soit
~vidente.

La situation actuelle devrait tre revue , d~j! par exemple

les groupes d'~cole m~ternelle et les ~coles sont
confront~s avec des sujets d'histoire "teint~s" par les
mus!es , mis en confiance et inculqu! dans J'id~ologie. Le
syst~me politique peut tre soutenu, mais est en fait en
contradiction avec la culture historique.
Le propre d!veloppement de l'histoire de la culture, avec
ses aspects positifs et n~gatifs de l'histoire coloniale
ainsi que les tentatives d'ind~pendance du Br!sil, et
l'histoire r~cente n'est montr! qu'exceptionnellement.
L'~quivalence de la culture de l'Am!rique latine et
europ!enne n'est pas ~vidente, une conscience culturelle
manque! l'europ!en et la fiert! d'une propre performance
culturelle. Ainsi appara~t tout particuli~rement dans
la capitale du pays comment l'image historique est
influenc~e par des !l!ments mus!aux (mus!es, monuments)
et par la propre repr!sentation du sYst~me politique
actuel.
Ici une autre pens!e devrait ~tre introduite par la
pr!sentation du mus!e selon les crit~res de mus!ologie.
~.

Deux continents -

deux cultures?

Exemple d'un concept

int~gr~ti~.

Dans le monde entier des connaissances g!nrales scientifiques

de mus!ologie sont prsentes, elles trouvent plusieurs fois
des emplois insuffisants dans les mus!es. Elles devraient

276

~tre diff~renci~es et transmises individuellement.

Cele

surtout de ne pas essayer e vouloir transmettre des

exp~riences culturelles europ~ennes ou le standerd

europ~en sur des pays d'Am~rique latine. Plus encore notre

d~pend

devreit apporter une eide efin de feire

prendre conscience eux em~riceins du Sud leur propre culture.

nive~u mus~olooiQu~

Permettez-moi de vous commenter un exemple qui r~sulte de

de la culture europ~enne et am~rico-latine:

je ne crois pas qu'on puisse changer rapidement les pr~sen

tations existantes dans les mus~es d'Am~rique latine:

surtout qu'elle n'en a pas les moyens financiers. Mais je

suis de cet avis qu'on pourrait trouver plusieurs points
de d~part dans les mus~es d'histoire culturelle de ces
pays, d'am~liorer la situation et surtout de faire prendre
conscience aux latino-am~ricains leur propre culture.
Je pense eu concept d'une exposition qui confronte les
objets culturels. comparables, d'Europe et d'Am~rique latine
en image - par exemple les sculptures religieuses.
Ainsi on pourrait confronter les objets de deux cultures
diff~rentes dans une exposition itin~rante c'est-e-dire
l'~quivalence

en repport eux mus6es ou bien encore avec l'espace vitel

d'origine (par exemple de confronter des oeuvres de

contemporain, de l'artiste br~silien Antonio Francisco
Lisboa, d'"Aleijadinho"/Minas Gerais/Br~sil et du sculpteur
bavarois Christian Jorhan des Alteren/RFA. Mais on ne doit pas
se fixer seulement sur leurs oeuvres d'ert, meis eussi
sur leur environnement relistique. Tous deux n'ont pas
~t~ des artistes traveillant e la cour princire, meis des
sculpteurs qui comprenaient la langue du peuple. Donc cela
devrait ~tre possible de toucher de nos jours le peuple avec
leurs oeuvres d'art. Autrefois e la fin du 18me sicle
juSqU'e nos jours. Aujourd'hui: dans le contexte du mus~e
o seuls les objets expos~s refltent la culture du peys.
A trevers l'exposition int~gr~e, comparable sous forme
de documentation en photos qui montre: deux cultures
d'origine aux visiteurs.
Une telle exposition itinrante devreit soutenir le trensfert
d'origineux prsents dans un mus~e et collaborer une
communication interculturelle et une meilleure comprhension
r~ciproque. Elle devrait agir contre "l'ignorance" rciproque
des ralisations culturelles.
Dans la mesure o de tels projets pourraient provoquer une
conscience culturelle et apporter e la fois une aide.

277

278

Margaret Camey Xie -

CHINESE MUSEUMS:

Fort Dodge, Iowa, USA

PROGRESSIVE INFORMATION, DYSFUNCTIONAL NATURE

In 1982 l trave11ed to China with a delegation from the

University of Kansas on an archaeological tour. In a little over
a month we visited key archaeological sites, and their related
museums primarily located in China's "Cradle of civilization" or
the Central Plains of China around the area of the Ye110w River.
As a doctoral candidate in Asian art
history, whose areas of specialization included not only Asian
art but also museology, l was greatly intrigued by the didactic
nature of China's museums. l wrote a short article entitled "The
Didactic Chinese Museum" which was published in a monograph China
omnibus (Li, Lee and Shankel, The Center for East Asian Studies,
The University of Kansas, 1983.)
In that article l examined the history of Chinese museums,
including the addition since 1949 of 349 museums in the People's
Republ ic of China.
l related that the concept of exhibitions,
art collections, and archaeological studies in China is an
ancient one, although the Chinese term for "museum," bowuguan, is
a relatively new invention.
To my newly opened eyes in China, in 1982, l was impressed by
the didactic nature of China's museums -- with the principle that
the past must serve the present as the guiding focus.
Here were
museums that seemed so different from our Western museums. There
were no art and artifacts from other countries, the displays
included only objects from China's pasto
with the teaching role
as the main objective, it was not unusual to see copies or models
on display rather than actual objects. The object on display was
less important than its didactic meaning.
Of course, this is in
keeping with the Chinese belief that a superbly made copy is to
be respected on its own merits, as a worthy creation.
From this standpoint l praised the Chinese museums, as such a
didactic focus utilizes copies and models and the original
objects could be preserved in storage.
l lauded the great diversity of Chinese museums, such as the
Banpo Neolithic site which enclosed the excavated area in a
hangar-like structure with walkways around the perimeter.
sites
such as Du FU's birthplace (he was a well-known Tang dynasty
poet), Qin Shi Huang Di's terra cotta army in Xi'an, Dahecun
Neolithic site near Zhengzhou, etc. were aIl stimulating sites
with museum displays incorporated into the natural setting.
Most impressive of the "traditional" museums in China, is the
non-traditional (from a Western standpoint) Gugong or Palace
Museum in Beijing. The construction of this "Forbidden City" was
begun in 1406 and contains more than 9,000 rooms covering an area
of 720,000 square meters.
The Palace Museum was created at this
site in 1925 and holds more than a million objects.
An imposing
site, the sheer magnitude of the museum creates its owns inherent
problems, with lack of properly trained staff,
a collection so
large that it is nearly impossible to inventory, etc.
279

Due to China' s uncooperative weather, original paintings are

only exhibited at the Gugong in October. Obviously, efforts are
made to conserve and preserve the art and artifacts in the care
of the Ministry of CUlture. Reflecting back after my first visit
to China, l was most greatly impressed by the diversity of
Chinese museums and their didactic nature.
Returning and living in China during most of 1983 and 1984, as
a doctoral student in the Archaeology Department at Zhengzhou
University, Henan Province, the people's Republic of China, l
thought l saw a more realistic view of China's museums.
Under
the
supervision of several
fine
professors
at
Zhengzhou
University, l learned much about Chinese archaeology and ceramic
(my chief area of specialization), and l was allowed several
classes with Professor Jing Sanlin who wrote ~ Chinese text on
museum studies, Bo-wu-guan Xue. However, these classes coincided
at the time of the "anti-spiritual pollution movement" (jingshen
wuran) in China, and Professor Jing was removed as my teacher and
several friends suggested that l put the museum studies book out
of sight in order to protect Professor Jing who had given the
copy to me.
It was not until nearly 1-1/2 years later, upon my
return to the united states that l carefully looked at the book.
During my seventeen months in China as a graduate student, l
visited as many museums and related archaeological sites in China
as l could. It was obvious that the money trickled down in China
from the top (i.e., Beijing) as the museums in the capital city
were obviously better funded.
But even at the Gugong or Palace
Museum, the guards or attendants in the individual galleries were
uninformed, disinterested, or occupied with knitting or reading.
Objects on display often suffered from the effects of direct
sunlight on the exhibit cases, poor security, and inadequate
labels. Obvious in aIl museums was the severe shortage of museum
personnel specifically trained for museum work.
At the time of
my visit, museums were staffed by historians and archaeologists
and, in general, the only training and education the new museum
workers received was in Chinese history.
AlI of the above is really a preface to the fact that l was
quite shocked when in the Spring of 1985, l paused to carefully
read Professor Jing's museum studies book.
The level of
sophisticated knowledge contained in this text book, was quite
impressive.
There was almost no museological subject that was
not covered thoroughly. Why then the great discrepancy between
the low quality of training of museum personnel and the poor
condition of many Chinese museums and the contrasting high level
of available knowledge about museum studies?
l believe the
answer can be found in the air of uncertainty which lingers in
China a stymies progessive changes.
This museum studies book contains more than six hundred pages
of information -- a very thorough presentation of museology at
aIl levels.
The book was quite progressive, with sections
dealing with the authentication of museum artifacts by using x
ray and laser techniques, and the benefits of the computerization
of museum functions, and even sections dealing with the education
of handicapped persons, stressing that these persons cannot go to
regular schools and colleges and must rely on museums to function

280

as their educators.
Professor Jing illustrated his points with
examples from museums throughout the world.
For instance, when
discussing museums for the disabled, he gave examples of
exhibitions in India, where blind patrons have "hands on"
experience, through exhibits that are meant to be touched.
My point is not to give a book report of this volume on museum
studies,
but rather to stress the sophisticated level of
knowledge available in China. An earlier article in the Chinese
journal Zhonq Yuan Wenwu, written in 1982 by Mr. Han Zhaoshi,
entitled "Jiejian Guowai Jingyan Zhubu Fazhan Woguo Bowuguan
Shiye, " stressed how China' s museums could bene fi t from the
experiences
of
foreign
museums.
Among
other
valid
recommendations, Mr. Han suggested that within Chinese museurns
there should be included information about the histories of other
great civilizations, so the Chinese people could be well
informed about the world outside of China.
Of course Han also advocated the modernization of museurn
display and exhibition techniques.
He felt changing exhibitions
occasionally would attract the general public more, rather than
just scholars.
He recommended museum advertising and improved
public relations. He stressed that the lackadaisical attitude of
museum employees needed to be replaced by an enthusiastic
welcoming of visitors.
But what impressed me the most was the
section with dealt with the proper training of museum personnel
so they could, with versatility, collect materials, investigate
and research these materials,
properly display,
conserve,
register, and make the best use of these materials.
His point
was that you shouldn't be working in a museum in China because
your brother's wife's cousin's aunt "knows" someone in the museurn
bureaucracy.
But how can a civilization so deeply committed to the "quanxi"
system eliminate it for the sake of making China's museurns
better.
Chinese museums are an integral part of the Chinese
system, and therefore the development of Chinese museums must be
gradually promoted through the implementation of such valuable
tools as Jing Sanlin's text book Bowuquan Xue.
The information
is available in China. The Chinese themselves must find a way to
make this information widely available and implement it in the
smoothest most efficient manner.
Closely related to the "who-you-know" or quanxi system is the
inherent dysfunctional character of organizations which is
clearly evident within Chinese organizations, not excluding
museums.
Why do organizations have problems?
To find the
answers one must look to the people within the organizations
(people are by nature chaotic and disorganized, unable to deal
with complexity, unable to deal with power and authority); and
the characteristics of organizations (organizations have the
characteristics
we
find
most
difficult
to
deal
with:
organizations are hierarchical, structurally and functionally
complex, have purposes that seem mystical).
The resulting
dysfunctional characteristics which seem to exist at aIl levels
of Chinese organizations,
not excluding museums,
include:
dehumanization and brutalization of people in hierarchies;
restricted flows of communication; proliferation of unnecessary

281

rules, etc., as proof of power or status; production of outputs

that are inferior in qua lity and quantity; preoccupation with
survival and maintenance of status rather than services.
Of
course these characteristics of people and organizations and the
dysfunctional characteristics which l felt evident
in aIl
organizations l had contact with in China, are not unique to
China.
However, there seems to exist a predominance of
dysfunctional characteristics within Chinese organizations which
overshadow much of the progress being made in the museurn
profession.
l don't believe one should judge another country's museurns
from an
ethnocentric viewpoint.
But there are certain
professional museum standards and procedures which transcend
cultural differences.
l would recommend an active exchange of
museurn personnel between developing countries such as China and
the West.
~ parties would bene fit
tremendously from the
exchange.

282

Margaret Carney Xie - Fort Dodge, Iowa, USA

LES

MUSEES

CHINOIS:

L'INFORMATION

PROGRESSIVE,

LE

CARACTERE DIS FONCTIONNEL

Les observations de l'auteur dans ce papier sont fondees sur

des annes de l'assiduit au travail aux musees y compris
l'experience du travail, les etudes pour le doctorat, et trois
voyages en Chine avec un sjour de dix-huit mois dans la province
d'Henan.
Maintenant la directrice d'un musee des beaux arts en
Iowa, aux Etats-Unjs, elle loue l'tendue impressionnante de
l'information trouvee aux muses de la Republique de Chine mais
elle se lamepte sur l'impossibilit courante de dissminer cette
information a l'ouvrier ordinaire dans les muses Chinois.
)

Les examples de la ?rofoundeur du savoir professionnel, par

les savants et la litterature trouvs en Chine, sont cits, et
ci t est la valeur de la concentration didactique aux muses
Chinois.
Le contraste entre la disponibilit du savoir
professionnel et la difficult de dissminer cette information
aux ouvriers des muses est examin soigneusement. Le caractrre
dis fonctionnel des organizations y compris les muses Chinois,
est remarqu comme obstacle dans le chemin des muses Chinois
avec un succs complet.
,

Margaret Carney Xie accentue que les musees de chaque pays

doit tre jugs par les conditions sociales et conomiques de ce
propre pays.
Cependant elle dit qu'il y a des degres
d'excellence pour les muses qui transcendent les diffrences
culturelles, et elle conseille un change actif du personnel
. de developpement,
'
entre les pays en VOl.e
comme la Chine, et
l'Ouest.

283

284

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No. 1

Joint colloquium London 1983

Hethodology of museology and professional training
with 10 basic papers, 6 comments and 1 summary, 146 pp.
Colloque joint Londres 1983
(avec le Comit internat.de l'IeOH pour la formation du personnel)
Mthodologie de musologie et la formation professionnelle
10 mmoires de base, 6 commentaires et un rsum, 146 p.

No. 2

Symposium London 1983

Huseum - territory - society
with 8 basic papers and 1 comment, 60 pp.
Symposium Londres 1983
Huse - territoire - socit
8 mmoires de base et 1 commentaire, 60 p.

No. 3

Addenda 1 to the London colloquium/symposium 1983

with 1 basic paper, 1 comment to the symposium, and
2 comments to the coUoquillm, 31 pp.
Annexe 1 au colloque/symposium de Londres 1983
1 mmoire de base, 1 commentaire au symposium, et
2 commentaires au colloque, 31 p.

No. 4

Addenda 2 to the London symposium 1983

with 2 basic papera, 1 comment, 1 intervention
and 2 summaries, 36 pp.
Annexe 2 au symposium de Londres 1983
avec 2 mmoires de base, 1 commentaire, 1 intervention
et 2 rsums, 36 p.
287

No. 5

Addenda) to the London colloquium 1983

with 3 basic papers, 2 comments, 3 interventions

and 1 summary, 60 pp.

Annexe' au colloque de Londres 1983

avec 3 mmoires de base, 2 commentaires, 3 interventions

et 1 rsum, 60 p.
No. 6

Symposium Leiden 1984

Collecting today for tomorrow

with 17 basic papers, 161 pp.

Symposium Leyde 1984

Collecter aujourd'hui pour demain

17 mmoires de base, 161 p.

No. 7

Symposium Leiden 1984

Collecting today for tomorrow

Comments and views

with J basic papers snd 4 comments, 32 pp.

Symposium Leyde 19R4

Collecter aujourd'hui pour demain

Commentaires et points de vue

3 mmoires de base et 4 commentaires, 32 p.

No. 8

Symposium Zagreb 1985

Originals snd substitutes in museums

with 1 introductory paper and 24 bBsic papers, 223 pp.

Symposium Zagreb 1985

Originaux et objets substitutifs dans les muses

1 rflexion d'ouverture et 24 mmoires de base, 223 p.

No. 9

Symposium Zagreb 1985

Originals snd substitutes in museums

with 11 comments, 1 introductory reflexions and

5 basic papers, 148 pp.

Symposium Zagreb 1985

Originaux et objets substitutifs dans les muses

11 commentaires, 1 rflexions d'ouverture et

5 mmoires de base, 148 p.

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Symposium Buenos Aires 1986

Huseology and identity
with 1 introductory paper and 42 basic pepers, 347 pp.
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La musologie et l'identit
1 rflexion d'ouverture ct 42 mmoires de base, 347 p.

No.11

Symposium Buenos Aires 1986

Huseology and identity
with 15 commenta and 1 basic paper, 100 pp.

No.12

288

Symposium Buenos Aires 1986

La musologie et l'identit
15 commentaires et 1 mmoire de base, 100 p.
Symposium Helsinki-Espoo 1987
Huseology and museums
with 1 introductory paper and 34 basic papers, 317 pp.
Symposium Helsinki-Espoo 1987
Husologie et muses
1 rflexion d'ouverture et 34 mmoires de base, 317 p.

No.13

Symposium Helsinki-Espoo 1987

Museology and IllUseums
11 comments, 4 summaries and 6 basic papers
Symposium Helsinki-Espoo 1987
Musologie et muses
11 commentaires, 4 rsums et 6 mmoires de base

No.14

Symposium Hyderabad - Varanasi - New Delhi

Museology and developing eountries - help or manipulation ?

27 basic papers, 289 pp.

Symposium Hyderabad - Varanasi - New Delhi

Musologie et pays en voie de dveloppement - aide ou manipulation ?

27 mmoires de b~se. 289 p.

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