Scientia Agriculturae

www.pscipub.com/SA
E-ISSN: 2310-953X / P-ISSN: 2311-0228
DOI: 10.15192/PSCP.SA.2015.10.3.115-118

Sci. Agri.
10 (3), 2015: 115-118
PSCI Publications

Biofumigation as a promising tool for managing plant

parasitic nematodes. A review
Youssef M.M.A.
Department of Plant Pathology, National Research Centre, Dokki, Post Code 12622, Cairo, Egypt.
Corresponding author email: myoussef_2003@yahoo.com
Paper Information

ABSTRACT
Biofumigation is defined as a process that occurs when volatile
Received: 2 March, 2015
compounds with pesticidal properties are released during decomposition of
plant materials or animal products. Cruciferous plants belonging to
Accepted: 18 April, 2015
Brassica spp. contain glucosinolate compounds. A number of toxic and
volatile products (e.g. thiocyanate, isothiocyanate) are known to be
Published: 20 June, 2015
released from these compounds during biodegradation. Caliente Mustards
have been bred specifically for biofumigation and green manuring. The
gas is produced when plant cells are damaged by crushing or chopping and
Citation
compounds come into contact with an enzyme called myrosinase in the
Youssef MMA. 2015. Biofumigation as a promising tool
presence of water and produces D-glucose, isothiocyanate (bio- fumigant)
for managing plant parasitic nematodes. A review. Scientia
and niitrite. Broccoli and cabbage belonging to Brassica species have been
Agriculturae, 10 (3), 115-118. Retrieved from
tested for their ability to suppress root knot nematode, Meloidogyne
www.pscipub.com
incognita. Fewer studies have been conducted on the use of non-brassicas
(DOI: 10.15192/PSCP.SA.2015.10.3.115118)
as possible suppressors of soil plant pathogens as melon and tomato to
manage root knot nematode M. incognita. Certain factors as soil
temperature, plant residue, soil depth and moisture proved to affect
biofumigation process.
2015 PSCI Publisher All rights reserved.
Key words: Management, biofumigation, volatile compounds, brassicas plants, plant parasitic nematodes.

Introduction
In recent years the international use of chemical pesticides to control soil-borne pests and diseases has become a
problem for environmental reasons. Chemical pesticides contain toxic and volatile compounds that can pollute the
environment. This has prompted a search for new plant protection methods. The use of plant material from several species
within the family Brassicaceae is a promising alternative way for controlling these soil-borne plant microorganisms of
which plant parasitic nematodes. Among these brassica species, Caliente or Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) has shown
that biomass or seed meal from brassicas have a suppressive effect on some soil pathogens and plant parasitic nematodes
(Griffiths et al., 2011). Broccoli (Roubtsova et al., 2007) and cabbage (Youssef and lashein 2013) have been tested for
their ability to suppress root knot nematode. Fewer studies have been conducted on the use of non-brassicas as possible
suppressors of soil plant pathogens as melon and tomato to manage root knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita (.LopezPerez et al., 2005).
What is green manuring?
Green manuring can be defined as the incorporation of green plant tissue into the soil. This plant tissue can be
obtained from any source, even weeds. It is an economical and practical method to improve soil structure and restore
productivity to unused or overworked soil (Anonymous, 2011).
What is biofumigation?
An alternative management strategy for controlling soil-borne diseases is fumigation. The first journal article on
biofumigation was published in 1994 (Angus et al., 1994). Biofumigation was defined by several researchers (Halberendt,
1996; Kirkegaard and Sarwar, 1998) that occurs when volatile compounds with pesticidal properties are released during
decomposition of plant materials or animal products of which Cruciferous plants belonging to Brassica spp. contain
glucosinolate compounds as toxic products (e.g. thiocyanate, isothiocyanate) (Chew, 1988; Brown et al., 1991; Brown and
Morra,1996). These are produced when plant cells are damaged by crushing or chopping. After that, compounds interact
with an enzyme called myrosinase in the presence of water and produce D-glucose, isothiocyanate (bio- fumigant) and
niitrite (Anonymous, 2011).

Sci. Agri. 10 (3), 2015: 115-118

Importance of brassicas?
Brassicas produce glucosinolates, which can be converted to chemicals with biofumigant activity. In addition to
providing some disease control, growing and incorporating the Brassica improves soil structure, assists in weeding,
reduces soil erosion and provides organic matter to the organic producer for controlling diseases and pests (Griffiths et al.,
2011).
Brassicas are not equal
The Brassica varieties used in Caliente Mustard Blends and Nemat Arugula Blends have been bred and selected for
the glucosinolate type (GSLs). When hydrolysis, will produce high concentrations of the volatile, biocidal isothiocyanate
(ITCs) with activity against common soilborne plant pathogens. For maximum biofumigant activity, the green and lush
tissues need to be chopped or crushed and incorporated into moist soil. Plants should be flail chopped and incorporated no
later than full bloom for best glucosinolate production. Caliente Mustard Blends can tolerate temperatures to 19.4F (7C), so they can be utilized as late summer and early spring cover crops. Nemat Arugula can tolerate colder temperatures
and has glucosinolate activity in leaves and roots, therefore if the leaves die, the roots can contribute glucosinolates. It is
noticed that the biofumigation promotes beneficial microbe multiplication because it is a combination of the biofumigation
plus the incorporation of green material into the soil. These beneficial soil microbes play an important part in outcompeting pathogenic microbes for space in the soil profile, helping to keep soil disease levels down (Griffiths et al.,
2011).
Biofumigation process: (Anonymous, 2005)
Incorporation the fresh mass of plant residues into the soil can be done directly if the mass is coming from grown
crop or plant mass taken from elsewhere and brought into the plot or field. If the mass is transported to the field, the soil
should be well prepared before the incorporation. During transportation of these organic materials in the field, care must be
storaged to retain the gases produced from biodegradation, by covering the piles of the bio-fumigant with plastic until the
time of application. A dose of 50 t / ha is recommended. When nematodes or fungi are very serious, 100 t / ha should be
applied and a dose that can be reduced by choosing a cultivation techniques such as application in furrows.
The bio-fumigant should be distributed uniformly, the field should be watered, if possible by sprinkling, until the
soil is saturated and cover the soil surface tightly with a transparent plastic film for at least 2 weeks. This is done to retain
the volatiles produced from the biodegradation of the organic matter. The film is removed 3-4 weeks after and the soil
slightly removed in order to permit the gases to escape from soil. Planting of the desired crop can be done 24 hours later.
Effect of certain biofumigants on root knot nematode as affected by plant residue and some environmental factors.
Effect of plant tissue (residue)
Youssef and Lashein (2013) reported that crushed cabbage leaves (Brassica oleracea) were incorporated into the
soil at different rates (2.5, 5 and 10g per pot), 10 days before transplanting tomato cv. Super Strain B under greenhouse
conditions. In the other hand, The crushed leaves at the rate of 5g per pot were mixed with the soil at different interval
times (at transplanting, 5 and 10 days before transplanting) for controlling root knot nematode, M. incognita. Results
indicated that adding different rates of crushed cabbage leaves significantly (p 0.05) affected the studied nematode
criteria according to the tested rates as there was a positive correlation between the rate of residue and the percentage
nematode reduction. Thus, the higher rate of 10 g added at 10 days before transplanting, in this study, was more effective
in reducing nematode parameters than the other rates, but it exhibited phytotoxic. This emphasized that effective
nematode control is, therefore, dependent on residue at a rate which is below the threshold of phytotoxicity. This result
was in agreement with that of Kwerepe and Labuschagne (2003) who found that low rates of cruciferous residues (2 g/m 2
or 20 kg/ha) were not affected on the galling of M. incognita, compared to higher rates (6 g/m 2 or 60 kg/ha) which caused
a higher reduction. However, there was a negative correlation between the time of the residual addition and the percentage
nematode reduction or plant growth improvement. On this basis, the addition of cabbage residue (5g) at transplanting time
caused the highest percentage nematode reduction, compared to the other times but without increases in plant growth
occurred due to the phytotoxic effect that occurred at this time. As a result, when the time after the addition is prolonged,
there is less effect on nematode and less phytotoxicity occurs. Consequently, maximum plant growth increases with less
effect on nematodes were caused by cabbage residue added 10 days before transplanting. This may be explained by quick
decomposition of the tested residue in soil on the basis that nematicidal activity by nitrogenous by-products depends on the
C: N ratio of the amendment when it is less than 20:1 (Stirling 1991). Cabbage residue used in this study, had a C: N ratio
which equals to 14.1:1, so more toxic by-products on the nematode population occurred. Other factors were shown to
greatly promote the pest-suppressive activity of biofumigation including a very thorough distribution of the plant tissue
prior to soil incorporation and sufficient soil moisture at the time of tissue incorporation (Morra and Kirkegaard 2002).
Effect of soil temperature
Lopez- Perez et al. (2005) used some plant residues of broccoli, melon, and tomato with or without addition of
chicken manure were used as biofumigants in two pot experiments with Meloidogyne incognita-infested soils as
influenced by soil temperature. The efficacy of these biofumigants in susceptible tomato plants was studied at soil
116

Sci. Agri. 10 (3), 2015: 115-118

temperatures of 20, 25, and 30 C. The results revealed that none of the plant residues was effective at 20 C, and
broccoli was more effective than tomato or melon at 25 C. At 30 C, all three plant residues reduced M. incognita
infestation of tomato to very low levels. Chicken manure was effective in one of two experiments at 20 C. At 25 C
enhanced the efficacy of tomato and melon residue in one of two experiments. At 30 C, chicken manure was equally
effective as the three plant residues but did not further decrease infestation levels in plant residue amended soils. This
corresponds with earlier results by Ploeg and Stapleton (2001) and with recommendations by Bello et al. (2004). It is
concluded that biofumigation to control M. incognita is unlikely to be effective under cool conditions but that at soil
temperatures around 25 C, broccoli is more effective than melon and tomato, and that the addition of chicken manure at
this soil temperature may enhance the efficacy. At high soil temperatures of approximately 30 C, the biofumigant source
became of minor importance as strong reductions in tomato infestation by M. incognita were achieved by addition the
tested plant residues as well as chicken manure. Adding chicken manure to the soil increased the tomato shoot weights at
all three temperatures in both experiments which can be attributed to that the chicken manures increased availability of
nitrogen. The effects of amending soils with the different plant residues on the shoot weights were generally inconsistent
although the broccoli amendment in the first experiment was slightly phytotoxic. Phytotoxic effects of the breakdown
products of glucosinolates compounds, present in many brassica crops, were earlier reported by Bialy et al. (1990) and
Brown and Morra (1996). The main mode of action of brassica crops was suggested to be referred to the breakdown of
glucosinolates (Angus et al., 1994 and Kirkegaard and Sarwar, 1998).
Effect of soil depth
Roubtsova et al. (2007) studied the direct localized and indirect volatile effects of amending soil with broccoli
tissue on root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita-infested soil. This test was carried out in 50-cm-long tubes amended
with broccoli tissue, which was mixed throughout the tube or concentrated in a 10-cm layer. After three weeks at 28C, M.
incognita populations in the amended tubes were 57 to 80% smaller than in non-amended tubes. Mixing broccoli
throughout the tubes reduced M. incognita more than concentrating broccoli in a 10-cm layer. Amending a 10-cm layer
lowered M. incognita than in the non-amended layers of those tubes by 31 to 71%, probably due to a nematicidal effect of
released volatiles. However, the localized direct effect was much evident than the indirect effect of volatiles which may
have resulted from the release of non-volatile nematicidal compounds. Therefore, when using biofumigation with broccoli
to control M. incognita, the tissue should be thoroughly and evenly mixed through the soil layer(s) where the target
nematodes occur. These Effects were reverse on saprophytic nematodes. This may be due to that amended soil layers had
much greater numbers of saprophytic nematodes than non-amended layers, and there was no indirect effect of amendments
on saprophytic nematodes in adjacent non-amended layers. These results suggest that the fumigant nematicidal activity is
limited and its effect requires a thorough and even distribution of the biofumigant material through the soil profile where
the target nematodes occur. This corresponds with isothiocyanate-releasing synthetic nematicides such as metam-sodium
and dazomet which exhibited limited fumigation action (Smelt and Leistra, 1974 and Anonymous, 1998).
References
Angus JF, Gardner A, Kirkegaard JA, Desmarchelier JM. 1994. Biofumigation: Isothiocyanates released from brassica roots inhibit growth of the take-all
fungus. Plant and Soil 162: 107112.
Anonymous. 2011. Biofumigation and green manuring. http://www.plantsolutionsltd.com/caliente.html.
Anonymous.1998. Research Triangle Park, NC: Certis, BASF Corporation; Basamid Granular Soil Fumigant. Specimen Label.
Anonymous.2005. Biofumigation. http//www.infonet-biovision.org/default /237/recinesForOrganicPesticids.
Bello A, Lopez-Perez JA, Garca-Alvarez A, Sanz R, Lacasa A. 2004. Biofumigation and nematode control in the Mediterranean region. Pp 133149
in R. Cook and D. J. Hunt, eds. Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Nematology, 813 June 2002, Tenerife, Spain. Nematology
Monographs and Perspectives, vol. 2.
Bialy Z, Oleszk W, Lewis J, Fenwick GR. 1990. Allelopathic potential of glucosinolates (mustard oil glycosides) and their degradation products against
wheat. Plant and Soil 129:277281
Brown PD, Morra MJ, McCaffrey JP, Auld DL, Williams L. 1991. Allelochemicals produced during glucosinolate degradation in soil. J. Chem. Ecol. 17:
20212034.
Brown PD, Morra MJ. 1996. Hydrolysis products of glucosinolates in Brassica napus tissues as inhibitors of seed germination. Plant and Soil 181:307
316.
Chew FS. 1988. Biological effects of 4 glucosinolates. Pp. 155181. In: Biologically Active Natural Products: Potential Use in Agriculture (H.G.
Gutler, ed.). Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 483 pp.
Griffiths HM, Gies D, Zitter TA. 2011. Brassicas as biofumigants for controlling soilborne organisms in potato production for upstate New York and
northern
Pennsylvania.
Fact
sheet
(Online).
(http://vegetablemdonline.ppath.cornell.edu/NewsArticles/Brassicas%20
Factsheet%20Final%20August%20, 2011.pdf).
Halberendt JM. 1996. Allelopathy in the management of plant-parasitic nematodes. J. Nematol. 28: 814.
Kirkegaard JA, Sarwar M. 1998. Biofumigation potential of brassicas. I. Variation in glucosinolate profiles of diverse field-grown brassicas. Plant and
Soil 201: 7189.
Kwerepe BC, Labuschagne N. 2003. Biofumigation and soil solarization as integrated pest management (IPM) components for the control of root-knot
nematode, Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid & White Chitwood) on Bambara groundnut [Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc]. University of Swaziland.
J. Agric. 11: 5663.
Lopez- Perez J, Roubtsova T, Ploeg A. 2005. Effect of three plant residues and chicken manure used as biofumigants at three temperatures on
Meloidogyne incognita infestation of tomato in greenhouse experiments. J. Nematol. 37: 489494.
Morra J, Kirkegaard JA. 2002. Isothiocyanate release from soil-incorporated Brassica tissues. Soil Biol. Biochem. 34 (11): 16831690.
Ploeg AT, Stapleton JJ. 2001. Glasshouse studies on the effects of time, temperature and amendment of soil with broccoli plant residues on the
infestation of melon plants by Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica. Nematology 3: 855861.

117

Sci. Agri. 10 (3), 2015: 115-118

Roubtsova T, Lopez- Perez J, Edwards S, Ploeg A. 2007. Effect of Broccoli (Brassica oleracea) tissue, incorporated at different depths in a soil column
on Meloidogyne incognita. J. Nematol. 39: 111117.
Smelt JH, Leistra M. 1974. Soil fumigation with dichloropropene and metam-sodium: Effect of soil cultivations on dose patterns. Pest. Sci. 5: 419428.
Stirling GR. 1991. Biological Control of Plant Parasitic Nematodes. Progress, Problems and Prospects. Wallingford, UK: CAB International, 282 pp.
Youssef MMA, Lashein AMS. 2013. Effect of cabbage (Brassica oleracea) leaf residue as a biofumigant on root knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita
infecting tomato. J. Plant Prot. Res. 53:271-274.

118