Arguments: creating & refuting

(argumentation skills course)

Mrti Liberts
SSE Riga & LMT Debate Club coach

Agenda

SEXI model
Toulmin model
Creating arguments
Refuting arguments

NOTE: All Valid arguments are Sound;

Not all Sound arguments are Valid

SEXI model
by unknown debater

SEXI argument: basics

Statement

Summarizes the argument in a clear and concise form

Introduces the desired activity or value
Might introduce the main reason for the activity or value

Explanation
E
x

Illustration

The most important part of any argument

Provides the analysis behind the Statement

Provides necessary validity for the argument

Few things can be used to Illustrate:
Basic logics
Analogy
Example
Statistics

TIP: the best argument is the clearest one

SEXI argument: examples

Statement
S

We should tax cars to decrease pollution

Explanation
E
x

Taxing provides incentive for drivers to use cars less

and to switch to other alternatives other means of
transportation

Illustration (Basic Logics)

Whenever you tax something it becomes more expensive,

thus people are less able to afford it and are either limiting
its usage or shifting to alternative products or services

NOTE: basic logics simply expands Explanation

TIP: avoid using basic logics alone

Shows
desired
action &
main reason
Explains the
reasoning
behind
Statement

Validates
Explanation

SEXI argument: examples

Statement
S

We should tax cars to decrease pollution

Explanation
E
x

Taxing provides incentive for drivers to use cars less

and to switch to other alternatives other means of
transportation

Illustration (Analogy)

After putting taxes on alcohol, its usage has decreased

and more people are spending their time in other ways

TIP: if two things share some features, they might

still not be completely similar

Shows
desired
action &
main reason
Explains the
reasoning
behind
Statement

Validates
Explanation

SEXI argument: examples

Statement
S

We should tax cars to decrease pollution

Explanation
E
x

Taxing provides incentive for drivers to use cars less

and to switch to other alternatives other means of
transportation

Illustration (Example)

When introducing a tax in Latvia for cars that have

engines larger than 5 l, less of such cars have been
purchased

TIP: make sure that example used is not an

exception

Shows
desired
action &
main reason
Explains the
reasoning
behind
Statement

Validates
Explanation

SEXI argument: examples

Statement
S

We should tax cars to decrease pollution

Explanation
E
x

Taxing provides incentive for drivers to use cars less

and to switch to other alternatives other means of
transportation

Illustration (Statistics)

Questionnaire answered by 5 000 people last week shows

that approximately 57% would use public transportation
instead of a car if annual costs of cars increased by Ls 1 000

TIP: statistics should be clear, reasonable, not

always absolute numbers should be used

Shows
desired
action &
main reason
Explains the
reasoning
behind
Statement

Validates
Explanation

Toulmin model
by Stephen Toulmin

Toulmin argument: basics

Claim
Main point, thesis, controlling idea
Claim may be directly stated or it may be implied
What is author trying to prove?

Support

Reasons to support Claim (evidence, facts, statistics, proof, expert

opinion, examples, explanations, data, arguments, logical reasoning or grounds )

What does author say to persuade listener of Claim?

Warrant (-s)

Assumptions or presuppositions underlying the argument

Warrants are generally accepted beliefs, values, common
ways our culture or society views things
Warrants provide underlying reasons linking Claim & Support
Warrants are often unstated and implied
What is causing author to say the things he does?

Toulmin argument: example

Claim

We should tax cars to decrease pollution

Support (Statistics)

Taxing provides incentive for drivers to use cars less and

to switch to other alternatives other means of
transportation that pollute less
Questionnaire answered by 5 000 people last week
shows that approximately 57% would use public
transportation instead of a car if annual costs of cars
increased by Ls 1 000

Warrant (-s)

People are generally willing to pay as little as possible and any price
increase makes at least some people to decrease the consumption
Decreasing pollution is a generally good idea

Shows main
idea, desired
action &
main reason
Explains &
proves
reasoning
for Claim

Underlying
beliefs

Toulmin argument: advanced

Qualifier

One should not use superlatives (all, every, absolutely or never,

none, no one)
One may need to qualify Claim with expressions (many, many
times, some or rarely, few, possibly)

Rebuttal
One needs to answer questions and objections raised in the
minds of the audience (otherwise the argument will be
weakened and subject to attack and counter-argument)
Rebuttal may be directed to opposing claims or at alternative
interpretations of evidence or new evidence

Backing

Sometimes Warrant needs evidence to support it, to make it

more believable and to further support the argument

Toulmin argument: example

Qualifier

We should tax cars to decrease pollution

We should tax cars older than 15 yrs to decrease
pollution

Rebuttal
Taxing provides incentive for drivers to use cars less and to switch to
other alternatives other means of transportation that pollute less
The tax introduced will be high enough to make people thing twice
before buying a car

Backing

Decreasing pollution is a generally good idea

Scientific research has stated that in few hundred years it
wont be possible to live on Earth unless we intervene

Allows to
exclude
some tricky
groups

Allows to
rebut
opposition
arguments

Backs not so
common
Warrant

Toulmin argument: full example

Claim

We should tax cars to decrease pollution

Qualifier

Th a t s h o u l d a p p l y o n l y to c a rs o l d e r th a n 1 5 y rs

Warrant

Decreasing pollution is a generally good idea

Support (Statistics)

Taxing provides incentive for drivers to use cars less and to switch to other alternatives
other means of transportation that pollute less
Questionnaire answered by 5 000 people last week shows that approximately 57% would
use public transportation instead of a car if annual costs of cars increased by Ls 1 000

Rebuttal

The tax introduced will be high enough to make people thing twice before buying a car

Warrant (-s)

People are generally willing to pay as little as possible and any

price increase makes at least some people to decrease the
consumption

Backing

Scientific research has stated that in few hundred years it wont be possible to live on Earth unless we intervene

Creating arguments

SEXI

vs.

Toulmin

Statement

Claim
Qualifier
Warrant

Explanation
Illustration

Claim with Qualifier (plus

Warrant) makes Statement

Support
Warrant
Backing
Rebuttals

Support with Warrant (its Backing) as well as

Rebuttals make perfect Explanation &
Illustration

NOTE: for the best & complete argument

most of Toulmin parts should be included

Statement / Claim: possible types

Cause
(how, why it happened, what was the cause, what will it produce, effects)

Technologies in newer cars decrease potential pollution

Definition
(classification, definition, interpretation, meaning)

Car pollution is a problem of the whole society

Fact
(true, real, fact, happened, exists)

Cars are causing great deal of pollution

Policy
(what should we do, why should we do, policy, actions to solve problem)

We should tax cars to decrease pollution

Value
(good or bad, beneficial or harmful, who says so, what value system should be used)

Car pollution is the worst thing human can do

NOTE: remember that almost any given

topic can be formed into any type of Claim

Argument by Aristotle
Atechnic based on facts (statistics, empirical studies, surveys
Discovered through research

Entechnic Pisteis based on persuasive appeal

Invented by careful thinking about the topic, speaker / writer
and listeners / readers
Logos: giving good reasons
Ethos: coming across as a credible, trustworthy
person
Pathos: connecting with the beliefs, values, and
cultural assumptions of one's audience
NOTE: in academic world most arguments
should be based on Facts or should have
good reasons (Logos)

Usage of Ethos
Ethos (person)
Especially needed if argument is very controversial

Show intelligence, moral character or good will

Use voice and distance with audience
Grammatical person (I / we, you, s/he)
Verb tense (present / past, active / passive)
Long, sophisticated words
Use qualifiers (acknowledge exceptions)
NOTE: Ethos creates environment where
arguments are perceived better

Usage of Pathos
Pathos (values)
Used to provide extra support to argument

Use gestures, facial expressions, movements

Use vivid explanations
Make sure to address the values of audience
Indirectly steer them into favorable path

NOTE: Pathos creates environment where

arguments are perceived better

Five Canons of Classical Rhetoric

Invention: coming up with ideas

Facts, Data, Statistics, Reports, Testimony, Interviews, Polls, Surveys

Make good reasons & logical arguments
How to project yourself as a credible person
How to connect with audiences values, beliefs, emotional state

Arrangement: ordering your discourse

Exordium: an introduction to make the audience attentive and receptive

Narratio: making your claim
Partitio: forecasting your argument
Confirmatio: arguing your case
Refutatio: meeting counter-arguments
Peroratio: concluding appropriately

Five Canons of Classical Rhetoric

Style: saying things well

Grammatical correctness
Appropriate word choice
Sentence structure
Metaphor, hyperbole, rhetorical questions, irony

Memory: more than mere memorization

Try to make your speech / writing memorable
Connecting with shared cultural memories

Delivery: the final step

Deliver your speech / paper as planned
Remember that you should alter delivery based on the media, aim
Web page, Essay, Debate speech

5 steps to deliver speech / paper

Invention

Come up with ideas, facts, reasons, arguments

How to create a credible person, connect with audience

Arrangement

Introduction, claim, show argument, argue, refute counter arguments, conclude

Style

Wrapping and styling ideas into nice words

Memory

How will you make speech / paper memorable

Delivery

Go on and deliver your speech / paper

NOTE: practice will allow you to do
necessary steps without much consideration

Creating speech / paper

Refuting arguments

Refute definitions
Look at the words used in the argument
Is there a single, clear meaning
Is that meaning clear to everyone
Seek ambiguity and uncertainty
Words with various definitions
Challenge expertise and assumptions of authority

Show that there are contradictory definitions

Refute logics
Consider the rationale being used

Are logical connections clear and sound

Are there unclear, bizarre assumptions
Test causes for clear and direct connections
Are generalizations, inductive and deductive
arguments correct
Are there any distractions
Is the subject changed
Show that the rationale has faults in it

See if arguments dont contradict each other

Refute grounds
Consider data and evidence used
Show that there is not enough data
Show that some critical evidence is missing
Indicate how data that might refute the
argument is being ignored
Show how data is being misinterpreted or
misrepresented

Refute support
Look at the supporting statements to the
argument
Refute Warrant linking grounds to Claim
Refute Backing that supports Warrant
Challenge Qualifiers and floppy language

Find the weakest link in the chain and focus on it

until it breaks
Many arguments have a valid claim but weak support

Use a counter argument

Create argument to refute existing one
Show that your argument covers more areas
Show that it covers areas more thoroughly
Make it more interesting and appealing
Make the logic and structure complete and
sound
Use solid data that cannot be challenged

Indicate a logical fallacy

Slippery slope
Weak causal link between many actions that lead into huge conclusion

Attack the person

When arguments attack speakers not ideas

Appeal to tradition
Traditions are nice but they dont make argument all alone

Appeal to authority
Authorities are also nice, just nice

Appeal to common belief

There is no common belief, argument you all know just dont work

False dilemma
Some options given; however, there are more

Indicate a logical fallacy

Hasty Generalization
One exclusion doesnt make a law

Red Herring (Squirreling)

Completely change the topic

Post hoc (Post hoc, ergo propter hoc)

If X follows Y, X is caused by Y

Strawman
Refutes the weakest argument and states that all arguments are refused

False analogy
Even if two things seem similar, they might be not

Assertion
Asserting that something is true, right etc. without proving it

More can be found there:

www.changingminds.org/disciplines/argument/fallacies/fallacies.htm

Refuting argument
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TIP: use many ways of refutation; however,
dont pick on too small details

Thank you for your attention!

Lets have some quick questions..