Barrier

Morphodynamics

Barriers

BARRIER: a shore parallel,

subaerial and subaqueous
accumulation of sediment formed by
waves, tides and aeolian processes

Barriers represent the time integral

of the beach, and therefore
incorporate the beach-shoreface,
plus associated dune, washover,
inlet and tidal delta

Barriers range considerably in size,

type (cheniers to wave dominated
systems) in position relative to the
mainland (islands to attached) and
stability (stable, progradational,
retrogradiationl)

Barriers

The only essential pre-requisites for barrier formation are a

suitable substrate, available sediment and waves

IN OTHER WORDS, an accommodation space above the

substrate, sediment to fill the space and waves to transport it

Such a combination will produce a shoreface-beach with no

dunes and no inlets

Other factors that modify this basic model:

tides
wind
biota
geological inheritence
tectonics

Theories of
Formation

Any theory of barrier island

formation must account for the
following characteristics:
Morphology: elongate parallel to
shore and narrow in width
Composed predominantly of sand
size material

Longshore
sediment
transport

Islands form chains

Marsh and
tidal flats

Spit Progradation Theory

Gilbert (1885) believed that
material which built the barriers
came not from offshore sources
but rather from along the shore by
the process of longshore transport
Spits will form which will then be
breach to form barrier islands

Inlet

Barrier
island

Offshore bar theory

DeBeaumont (1845)
Subtidal bar becomes
subariel and starts to build
vertically through aeolian
transport

Problems:
offshore bars can not build
above sea level- at a certain
height the wave action would
carry sediment form the top
of the bar landward
why don't be see them in the
various stages of formation
along the coast today?
Absence nearshore deposits
landward of the barriers.
landward of the barrier
nearshore fauna and
sediment should be found.

Higher still stand theory

Barriers formed from offshore
bars which were built during a
higher sea level stand
uplift as a secondary
mechanism of raising offshore
bars above sea level

Problems:
Theory depends on higher
sea level still stands. (This
may not be a problem in
glaciated high-latitude regions
if the bars can be shown to
have formed during
deglaciation)
In addition the absence of
open marine sediments
landward of the barrier poses
the same objection to the
offshore bar theory.

Water level falls versus rise

in bar within water column

Beach ridge submergence

theory
Wind creates high dune ridges
immediately landward of the
beach

Examples:
Crane beach: 12-15 m
Outer banks, NC; 15-35 m
Barriers along SC; 1-12 m

Coalescing of these dunes

produced beach ridges

If there is submergence (rise in

sea level) the area
immediately landward of the
barrier dune ridge will be
flooded to form a lagoon, bay,
etc

Chesil Beach

Holocene Development

Most barriers experience a

transgressive phase during the
first part of the Holocene when
sea level was rising

Since ~5000-6000 BP sea level

has remained relatively stable

Stable sea level a d a large

sediment supply from the shelf
(or fluvial inputs) the coast
started accreting through barrier
progradation

Has led to strand plains

Prograded barrier- extensive

dune development in a high
wind environment

Holocene Development

Beach ridge plain- formed by

fairweather swash processes
during beach progradation
low gradient offshore and
abundant sediment supply
low energy wind regime or
secondary to swash processes

Foredune ridge plain- shoreparallel convex dune ridges

formed on the backshore within
vegetation
Height and number of dunes
depends on the rate of
progradation

Chenier plain
coastal ridge composed of sand and shell overlying
muddy deposits
requires an episodic deposition of fine- and coarsegrained sediments
Mud deposits occur during periods of abundant
sediment supply
Cheniers form during periods of diminished supply

Planform

The resultant form, composition, and stability

of a barrier island ultimately depends on the
relative influence of each of the following:
Sediment supply
Sea level fluctuations
Slope of the continental shelf
tidal range

Swash-aligned coasts- oriented parallel to

the crest of the prevailing waves- closed
systems in terms of longshore transport

Drift-aligned coasts- oriented obliquely to the

crest of the prevailing waves- controlled
primarily by longshore transport (open
systems)

Spit
narrow accumulation of
sand or gravel with one
end attached to the
mainland and the other
projecting into the sea

Recurved spit
curved spit at the distal
end

Compound recurved spit

Tombolo: deposition landform

which connects an island to the
shore

usually form because the island

causes wave refraction,
depositing sand and shingle
carried in suspension where the
waves meet

longshore drift may also

contribute material, or even be
the principal contributor of
material

Types of Barriers

Transgressive Barriers
migrate landward over
time
limited number of dune
systems
most likely to be found
along coasts where sand
supply is adequate to
form the barrier, but not
allow it to accrete
rising sea level

Regressive Barriers
progradational
environment
many dune systems
occur where sand supply
is very high
falling sea level

Types of
Barriers

Transgression Models

As sea-level rises a barrier may

undergo one of three responses:
Barrier erosion- cross-sectional
geometry of the shoreface is
maintained, but the entire profile
moves upward by the same amount as
the rise in sea level (BRUUN RULE)
Barrier translation (rollover): Entire
barrier migrates across the substrate
gradient without loss of material.
Accomplished through erosion oof the
shoreface and deposition behind
barrier through washovers

Barrier overstepping- rise in sea level

is too fast for the barrier to responsebecomes drowned on the sea bed as
a relict feature

Evidence of Transgression

Studies of sediment on
barrier islands show peat,
tree stumps, oyster shells
and layers of mud on the
beach side

Sediment Budget
Falling Sea
Level

Stationary
Sea Level

Positive Sediment
Budget

Prograding

Prograding

Indeterminate

Neutral Sediment
Budget

Prograding

Stationary

Retrograding

Negative Sediment
Budget

Indeterminate

Retrograding

Retrograding

Barrier translation
Research presentation

Rising Sea
Level

Overstepping

Erosional response

Impacts to Barriers

Groins and Jetties:

rob sand from areas of the barrier island downdrift
inlet stabilization using jetties has affected even major barrier island
system along the US Atlantic Coast (except the Va barriers)

Dune destabilization:
lowers barrier and makes it more likely will begin to migrate

Improper beach nourishment:

if not done to whole shoreface will oversteepen the shore profile and
possibly initiate greater shoreline retreat

Storm Impact

The impact of a storm on a barrier

island is dependent on:
magnitude of the storm
geometry (vertical extent) of the
barrier at landfall

Creates a strong sensitivity to the

sequence of storm events
timing and magnitude of response will
be unpredictable

Storm clustering is an important issue

Stone (1999) has shown that the
recent instability of Santa Rosa island
developed in response to more
frequency hurricanes

Research presentation

Research presentation

Storm Impact

Physical response of the coastline to

sea-level rise is one of the most
important applied problems in coastal
geology today
Gulf Coast composed of very highrisk barrier island complexes,
lagoons, marshes and deltas

Frequency of powerful hurricanes is

predicted to increase over the next
10 to 20 years
The ~210 miles of barriers along the
Florida Panhandle will likely undergo
unprecedented storm wave
inundation and damage
Further erosion on lagoon side by
winter cold-fronts
Research presentation

Lagoon

Sediment Budget
Barrier

2
4

1
5

Subtidal bar

1. Upper-shoreface morphodynamics
2. Beach-dune interaction

Ocean

Multiple process-linkages and

feedbacks define beach erosion
and barrier response to sea level
rise and intensified storminess
Research presentation

3. Inlet morphodynamics
4. Overwash processes
5. Longshore transport

Changes to Hog Island Over

the Past 350 Years

Depth of Closure

Defines the envelope of profile changes

Change is greatest in the nearshore and less common at depth
envelope of change thins and pinches out toward the offshore
morphological change is insignificant (within measurement error)

Depth of closure can be approximated using the storm-wave

height that is exceeded only 12 hours per year and the
associated wave period

H e2
hc = 2.28 H e 68.5 2
gTe

Can also be related to the mean annual significant wave height

and the standard deviation of significant waves:

hc = 2 H s + 11

Depth of Closure

May also be related to a distinct break in sediment characteristics

upper shoreface sands are usually well-sorted and similar to the
beach sediments
display a sea-fining trend
Seaward of hc coarser poorly sorted sand may be found

hc

Coarse
Sediment

Fine
Sediment

Coarse
Sediment

Sorting by Grain Size

Stokes wave asymmetry

short duration high-magnitude onshore velocities
slower longer-duration offshore flow in the trough
Shoreward motion more effective in moving coarser sediment
coarse material too large to be moved by the offshore current
fine material will move under both crest and trough

Grain movement

Grain movement

Grain movement

No
movement

No
movement

No
movement

No
movement

Grain movement

Sorting by Grain Size

Grain movement

Grain movement

Grain movement

No
movement

No
movement

No
movement

No
movement

Grain movement

Beach Profiles

Beaches tend to be steepest at the shore with a progressively

decreasing slope as the water depth increases in the offshore
direction

General beach profile expression:

h = Ax

where h is the still-water depth at a horizontal distance x from the

shoreline and A is a dimensional shape parameter

Exponent (2/3) defines the degree of concavity

ranges from 0.2 to 1.2
2/3 is the average of observed exponents

This model is the basis for the Bruun model

Response to sealevel rise is erosion

that maintains
profile shape

Beach Profiles

Coefficient A is related to the mean grain

diameter of the beach sediment and the
corresponding grain-settling velocity
A increases with the grain size
Larger beach slope with coarser sediment

Coefficient will also depend on the wave

energy- ability of the waves to move the
sand

More energetic
sites have a more
dissipative profile

Beach Profiles

Shortcomings of the equilibrium beach

profiles:
predicts an infinite slope at the shore
underlying geology plays an important role
shoreface sediment is moved only by
waves
no significant movement of sediment
beyond depth of closure
do not account for the presence of bars and
troughs that are typical on mot natural
beaches

Slope of the beach face at the shore

governed by the asymmetry in the intensify
of wave-swash uprush versus the return
backwash
creates asymmetries in the cross-shore
sediment transport
also defined by grain size and sorting

Deceleration versus
acceleration
Inherited sediment
in water
Infragravity energy
enhances offshore
transport
Infiltration and
exfiltration
Interaction with a
localized elevations
or depressions

Berm
Formation

Berm: nearly horizontal portion

of the exposed beach
formed by sediment brought
ashore during low wave
conditions
better developed on mediumto coarse-sand beaches
height to which sand can be
carried up the beach by swash

Berm height relates to the grain

size and wave height

BH = bH

Berm Formation

General model:
after a wave breaks the water
rushes up the beach face
carrying sand with
the water loses velocity as due
to infiltration, friction and
gravity
sediment is deposited
beach builds seaward leaving
a nearly horizontal berm

Rapidly growing berm can

exhibit tidal variations in berm
height

Berm s may grow in height at

high tide creating a back
lagoon

Low tide berm

High tide berm

Berm height growth at high tide

leaves a lagoon formed by water
surging over the low tide berm

Bars and Berms

High storm waves erode the

berm and tend to destroy it
Storm (winter) profile
with longshore bars

Larger waves in winter moves

sediment offshore

Calm (summer) profile

with berm

Low waves in summer

brings sediment onshore

Guide to Local Bars

Type I: Ridge and runnel

found on low-angle foreshore slopes
dominated by surf action and drainage
during the tidal cycle
Low in amplitude these bars are usually
stable in form and position or migrate only
slowly

Type II: Cusp or bar type sand waves

(swash bar)
extremely dynamic, often destroyed
during storms and regenerated as storm
wave and smaller amplitude, longer
period wave propagate shoreward
may develop from Type VI bars as they
migrate relatively rapidly both alongshore
and onshore as they weld to the foreshore

Guide to Local Bars

Type III: Multiple parallel bars

tend to be limited to low-angle shorefaces
and small to moderate wave heights with
limited water level shifts
number of bars increases with decreasing
beach slope
symmetric bar form (unlike Type II)
parallel alongshore

Type IV: Transverse bars

found in same environment as Type III
normal to the shoreline
anchored to the shore
strong longshore currents

Guide to
Local Bars

Type V: nearshore bar

Type III subdivision

Wright and Short (1984):
bars are not in order
VI

associated with large plunging

breakers
low amplitude ridges
lack asymmetry

Type VI : nearshore bar

relatively large configurations
formed seaward of the low
water level

VI

characteristic bar
but can also be 3-dimensional,
sinuous to crescentic

Reflective
Domain
Small b

The value of the

dimensionless fall
velocity () indicates
whether reflective,
intermediate or
dissipative surf zone
conditions will prevail

Surging breaker

REFLECTIVE
b>2.0
Surging/Collapsing
Breakers

=2

H
= b
wT

Runnel
Linear low gradient
nearshore profile
Steep beach face

Reflective

Dissipative

Plunging breaker Spilling breaker

INTERMEDIATE
0.4<b<2.0 Plunging
Breakers

H- amount of sediment
entrained

w- time to return to bed

T- number of waves over which

a grain will settle

Flatconcave
beach face
Trough
Steep beach face

Nearshor
e bar

=5
Dissipative Domain
Spilling breaker

Related to the SURF

SIMILARITY
PARAMETER

DISSIPATIVE
b<0.4 Spilling
Breakers

Flatconcave
beach face
Trough
Steep beach face

Nearshor
e bar

REFLECTIVE b>2.0
Surging/Collapsing Breakers

Reflective
Domain
Small b

Cusps

Surging breaker

Runnel
Berm Crest

Runnel
Linear low gradient
nearshore profile
Steep beach face

Trough

Linear beach

DISSIPATIVE b<0.4
Spilling Breakers

Outer
breaker
zone

Dissipative Domain
Spilling breaker

Flat-concave
beach face
Steep beach face

Trough

Nearshore
bar

Trough

Linear beach

Cusps
may be
present

Type II

Type III

INTERMEDIATE
0.4<b<2.0 Plunging
Breakers

Outer
breaker
zone
Reflective

Type I

Welded
bars

Rip
Cells

Dissipative

Plunging breaker

Flat-concave
beach face
Steep beach face

Spilling breaker

Trough

Nearshore
bar

Role of Tidal
Range
Mesotide Microtide
Macrotide

Relative tide range= MSR/Hb

Reflective
Reflective

Low-tide terrace
and rip

Low-tide terrace

The relative tide range

reflects the relative
importance of swash, surf
zone and shoaling wave
processes
Dissipative

Intermediate
Barred

Barred Dissipative

Low tide bar/rip

Unbarred dissipative

Ultra-dissipative

Transition to tide-dominated tidal flats

Ridges are cut by numerous gaps,

formed by water escaping seaward from
the runnels as the tide falls

Ridges and runnels tend to increase in

size toward the low-tide level

Relatively stable: no systematic

movement over several years of
observation
Build up during calm weather and erosion
during storm events

Important factors:
large tide range with a low-tide terrace
developed
low wave energy - best formed in
protected areas sheltered from the full
ocean fetch
abundance of sand

Subtidal Bars

A number of theories have been developed to explain

nearshore bar formation and spacing:

Break-point hypothesis- formed at the breakpoint

outer bars are in water too deep to be associated with breaking
breaking is defined by the depth variations associated with the
bars
may be only appropriate for bar formation on planar beaches

Harmonic wave generation

decoupling of primary wave and harmonic wave leads to a crossshore pattern of wave interference
primary and secondary wave travel at different speeds
bars form where the primary and secondary waves are out-ofphase

Subtidal Bars

Infragravity waves
bars formed by drift velocities associated with edge waves
bedload accumulation at the antinode
suspended load accumulation at the nodes

Wave
reflection at
shoreface

Standing Waves
antinode

node

antinode

node

antinode

node

BEDLOAD
MODEL
Bedload transport to antinodes
Complex
Topography

Suspended transport to nodes

Subtidal Bars

Bragg reflection
bars result from reflected gravity waves
can develop with less than 20% of wave energy is reflected
formation of one or two bars increases wave reflection that
results in the formation of additional bars seaward of the original
bars
sediment accumulates beneath the nodes of the standing wave
envelope toward positions beneath the antinodes
Wave
reflection at
shoreface

Standing Waves
antinode

node

antinode

node

antinode

node

due to depth dependent wavelengths the spacing between

nodes increases offshore

Subtidal Bars

Undertow and Oscillatory skewness

bars will form where onshore transport by oscillatory skewness
and undertow current are balanced

Bar forms where

sediment converges

Oscillatory skewness
transport
Undertow transport
Net transport
Onshore
transport
Offshore
transport

Nearshore
Morphodynamics

Morphology reflects cumulative effect of a

number of storm events
Spatial and temporal patterns of sediment
transport directed by that morphology(to a
greater or lesser extent)
Shoreface can exhibit a complex (or
unexpected) evolution over a sequence of
storms in a manner that is partly free
(independent) of variations in the incident
forcing

Nature and limits of feedback mechanisms

remain unclear

Feedbacks and Thresholds in Geomorphology

Bar 3

Terminal sink of a littoral cell

Storm-generated wind-waves
Interannual water level variations
Three nearshore bars and an
ephemeral swash ridge
Unexpected behavior: rapid offshore
migration during moderate storms

Bar 2

Bar 1

Burley Beach, Ontario

Bar 2
Bar 3
Swash bar
Foredunes

Skallingen, Denmark

Dune capped barrier spit

Storm-generated wind waves

Frequent and large storm surges

Three nearshore bars and an

ephemeral swash bar

Unexpected behavior: onshore

migration during storms

Feedbacks and Thresholds in Geomorphology

Instrumented Study

Collocated concentration and velocity

Burley Beach
and Skallingen

direction and magnitude of transport

3 stations at Skallingen (1)
5 stations at Burley Beach (2)

Pressure transducers

cross-shore wave field transformation

2 stations at Skallingen
8 stations at Burley Beach

Morphometric Analysis

Regular surveys of 5 transects

Time series of elevation change

Burley Beach

233 points (n=233) at 0.5 m spacing

Empirical orthogonal function analysis

before and after large storm events

identify dominate directions of change

Canonical Correlation analysis

relation of waves and elevation change

Feedbacks and Thresholds in Geomorphology

Feedback Scales
Relative wave ratio (H h-1)
0.33 is the onset of breaking

Bar scale
Transport is related to
the local rate of
dissipation

UpperShoreface
Scale
The relationships are
directed/limited by the
breaking process offshore

Feedbacks and Thresholds in Geomorphology

Shoreface
Scale

Havg

Undertow currents

Qualitative agreement between bar

response and transport
Cross-shore variation dependent in part on
the local water depths (H h-1)

Hrms h-1 >0.33

Feedbacks and Thresholds in Geomorphology

Hmax
Hmax
Hmax

Offshore transport:

Hrms h-1-1 <0.33

Hrms h 0.33
Hsig

Hsig

Skewed accelerations of incident waves

Infragravity waves
Oscillatory skewness

Hrms

Onshore transport

Hrms h-1-1 <0.33

Hrms h <0.33
Hsig
Hrms
Hmax

Hrms h-1<0.33 onshore transport /migration

Hrms h-1>0.33 offshore transport/migration

Hsig
Hsig
Hmax

Bar convergence to Hrms h-1~0.33

Havg

Hrms

Bar Scale

Morphometric
Analysis

Bar scale relationship only

appropriate for the outer bar and
episodically for the inner bars
Onshore Migration
Small-wave range
Reinforced Positions
Intermediate wave range
Storm wave range
Offshore Migration
Storm wave range
Intermediate wave range

Bar 1

Inner bars remain in a state of

self-organized equilibrium

Offshore migration of inner bars

lags the outer bar

Feedbacks and Thresholds in Geomorphology

Upper Shoreface
Scale

Outer bar acts as a filter to the

incident wave field
Weakened as outer bar moves
offshore and lower on the profile

Storm Range
Limits and counters offshore
transport by undertow currents
Amplification of infragravity waves

Hrms h-1 0.33

Feedbacks and Thresholds in Geomorphology

Hmax

Hmax

Secondary (harmonic) waves

Wave breaking

Hsig

Limits the hydrodynamics and

constrains the morphodynamics

Hrms

Intermediate Range
Havg

Morphodynamic
Response

No apparent configuration that

is stable despite:

initiated when crest of the

outer bar reaching a threshold
depth
incident waves pass unbroken
into the inner surf zone

Hrms h-1 0.33

Feedbacks and Thresholds in Geomorphology

Hmax

Hmax

Hsig

Shoreface response at Burley

is expressed through an
episodic bar cycle

Hrms

Havg

Behavior consistent with selforganization

constant probability
distributions of wave height,
period and direction

Morphodynamic
Response

Terminates when the uppershoreface scale feedback

strengthens

Hrms h-1 0.33

Feedbacks and Thresholds in Geomorphology

Hmax

Hsig

cycle highly variable at own

scale

Hrms

Thresholds create a strong

dependency on the sequence
of events
Havg

Hmax

middle bar becomes new

outer bar

Threshold Behavior

Threshold dependency leads to a divergent evolution to the upper-shoreface

depending on the sequence of events
Inner
Bar
Position

Beachface
eroded as
bar cycle
develops

Beachface
unaffected

Does not mean

that the bar cycle
may not occur but
rather that the
timing and
frequency will be
chaotic at the
scale of the cycle

Wave
Height
time

time

Feedbacks and Thresholds in Geomorphology

Hmax

Hsig
Hsig
Hmax

Bar-scale relationship reverses within the

inner surf zone (unexpected response)

Hrms

Weakening undertow currents

Amplification of edge wave structures

Hmax

Hsig

Havg h-1>0.33 onshore transport /migration

Havg h-1<0.33 offshore transport/migration

Hsig
Hrms
Hmax

Bar divergence to Havg h-1~0.33

Havg
Havg h-1 >0.33

Feedbacks and Thresholds in Geomorphology

Hmax

Hsig

Hrms

Hrms h-1-1 <0.33

Havg h 0.33
Havg

Hrms h-1-1 <0.33

Havg h <0.33

Divergent Behavior

Divergent behavior in the beach width and dune building/erosion can occur if
the sequence of storms is changed:
Dunes are
not
protected

Swash
Bar
Position
Dunes are
protected
Wave
Height
time

time

Feedbacks and Thresholds in Geomorphology

Bar Scale Feedbacks

No reinforced
position in the
intertidal zone

Divergent
Behavior

Convergent Behavior
with a Strong
Threshold Control

Offshore
Migration

Reinforced
Pattern

Onshore
Migration

Breakpoint (Hs h-10.5 to 0.6)

Feedbacks and Thresholds in Geomorphology

Shoreface
Scale

Limit to wave heights within the

upper shoreface during the largest
storms
Limit to the position of the
outermost bar
Ultimately defines the number and
position of the inner bars

Gradient may control the structure

of the infragravity waves

Source of regional variations in

process-responses relationships
and feedbacks

Feedbacks and Thresholds in Geomorphology

Beach/dune
Interaction
Fordune sediment budget

+ve
Reduced
growth rate

Increasing
fordune
dimensions

blowouts
Parabolic
dunes

Dune development and stability is

strongly related to the uppershoreface morphodynamics

Shoreline erosion creates a positive

feedback that leads to dune decay
and barrier translation through
overwash

dunes
hummocks

Beach sediment budget

Modified from Psuty (1992)

Research presentation

+ve

Single accreted
foredune

Hummocky or
transverse
dunes

Foredune ridge

Parabolic dunes and

blowouts

Transgressive sand
sheet

Fordune sediment budget

+ve

Beach ridge

Beach sediment budget

Modified from Psuty (1992)

Research presentation

+ve

Reflective

Surging breaker

High frequency of
scarping

Runnel
Linear low gradient
nearshore profile

Low aeolian transport

with small dunes

Steep beach face

=2

Model only for

microtidal
beaches

Reflective
Domain
Small b

Intermediate

Reflective

Dissipative

Plunging breaker Spilling breaker

Moderate scarping in
rip embayments
Flatconcave
beach face
Trough
Steep beach face

moderate aeolian
transport

Nearshor
e bar

=5

Dissipative
Low frequency of
scarping
High aeolian transport
with large dunes

Dissipative Domain
Spilling breaker

Flatconcave
beach face
Trough
Steep beach face

Nearshor
e bar

Dunes play a crucial role in protecting the coast from erosion

provide a buffer to extreme waves, water levels and winds
sediment eroded from the dune will be transported offshore
should return to the beach during fair weather if there is no
longshore erosion

Two basic types:

Primary dunes- found closest to the shore and significant
affected by wave processes
Secondary dunes- located further inland nad have been
dissociated from wave processes through coastal progradation

Hurricane Fran
From Duck, North
Carolina

Overwash
Processes

In order for a barrier to maintain

its size and elevation, the back
side of a barrier must also move
landward through overwash

The location and magnitude of

overwash depends on barrier
elevation
varies
with
interaction

beach

dune

Significant overwash can impact

inlet stability through changes in
the tidal prism

Research presentation

Overwash
deposits are
effectively
eroded by
winter cold
fronts

Overwash during
transgression leads to
a change in the
lagoon surface are
which leads to a
change in the tidal
prism and inlet
stability

Lagoon

Inland body of water, oriented

parallel to the coast, separated from
the ocean by a barrier and
connected to the ocean by one or
more restricted inlets that allow
communication with the ocean
The variables governing lagoon
development are:

Lagoons are generally shallow with

depths that seldom exceed a couple
of meters

Sedimentation processes are

dominated by stratified flow and tidal
motion

The marshes and tidal flats in

lagoons are sufficiently shallow that
wind-generated wave energy and
circulation determine the patterns of
sediment accumulation

wave energy

tidal range

tidal prism of the lagoon

sediment supply

Research presentation

Open lagoons have a relatively constant water

surface area regardless of tidal stage

Filling of a lagoon is controlled by the

expansion of fringing marshes, transport of
sand from the barrier by washover, and tidal
delta expansion

Development of intertidal features changes an

open lagoon to an expandable lagoon

Expandable lagoons increase their surface

area by more than 15 percent between low
and high water because of partial
emergence of the seabed during low water
stages of the tide

Intertidal lagoonal features such as

marshes, oyster reefs, mangroves, tidal
flats, and flood deltas
Research presentation

Inlet
Morphodynamics

Channels that separate one barrier island

from another

Water and sediment transport between

the lagoon and open ocean

Dynamic systems that respond

significantly to changes in tidal prism and
longshore transport

Deltas form seaward (ebb tidal delta) and

landward (flood tidal delta) at tidal inlets
where the tidal current spreads out and
slows after passing through the narrow
channel
Research presentation

Flood Shoal

Flood shoal

Down-drift

Up-drift

Ebb Shoal

Research presentation

Ebb Delta

An accumulation of sand on the seaward side of an

inlet formed by the ebb tidal current

Ebb tidal deltas most commonly occur in front of

mesotidal (or mixed energy) inlets where they interact
with waves and longshore drift. Barriers are often
drumstick-shaped with down drift offsets

The length (degree of protrusion) of an ebb tidal delta

reflects the relative strengths of tidal flow and
longshore current

The asymmetry, or lean, of the delta is determined by

the direction longshore transport
Research presentation

Oblique photograph of Ocean City Inlet illustrating a large shoreline offset from
southern Fenwick Island to northern Assateague Island, MD across Ocean City
Inlet.

When the island was breached by storm waves in August 1933, the shoreline
was oriented north-south with no shoreline offset.

Since the time of breaching, beach erosion and landward island migration have
been the dominant processes producing geomorphic change along northern
Assateague Island.
Research presentation

1942

1951
1993
1947

1972

Sediment bypassing
and the development
of a drumstick barrier
Research presentation

Flood Delta

Accumulation of sand on the shoreward

sided of an inlet

Initially formed during storm surges and

maintained by flood currents

Flood tidal deltas become stabilized

when salt marshes establish on them
Salt-marsh grasses cause the land to be
built up to high-tide level and new land is
added to the island In mesotidal systems

Flood tidal deltas transform into

marshland causing the inlet to migrate to
a new position.

New tidal deltas are created along the

entire area of inlet migration
Research presentation

A good example of a positive

feedback system that leads
to inlet stability

1939

1947

Five months after the Great New England

Hurricane of 1938, a prominent flood shoal
formed in Shinnecock Bay, but only a small
ebb shoal had grown on the Atlantic side of
the inlet. Nine years after the 1938 hurricane,
the flood shoal had grown dramatically
Research presentation

Inlets are different in tide-dominated,

wave-dominated and transitional barrier
systems

Tide-dominated inlets have a deep, ebbdominant main channel flanked by long,

linear channel-margin bars
Flood tidal deltas are poorly developed or
non-existent

Wave-dominated inlets have large, lobate

flood-tide deltas building into wide, open
lagoons
Ebb tide delta is small and extends only a
short distance from the beach

Research presentation

Microtidal areas, such as the Gulf Coast, have poorly

developed ebb-tidal deltas and relatively large flood-tidal
deltas because of the dominance of wave-energy flux
over a small tidal prism

Breathing Inlets expand and

contract

Migrating inlets form in one place

and migrate with the longshore
current

Returning inlets migrate, but may

return to their original position

300 ft yr-1

Fixed inlets: characteristic of drumstick

barrier islands

Semi-permanent to temporary: spit

barrier complexes or long thin barrier
islands

Breach: a very temporary inlet, open

for a couple of weeks to a month