Comparison of details for

controlling end-region cracks

in precast, pretensioned
concrete I-girders

Brandon E. Ross, Michael D. Willis, H. R. Hamilton,

and Gary R. Consolazio

nd-region splitting cracks (Fig. 1) typically form

during or in the weeks following prestress transfer.
This paper focuses particularly on end-zone splitting cracks in the web. These cracks form due to vertical
tensile stresses induced from the distribution of prestressing forces from the bottom flange to the remainder of the
cross section. Some degree of web cracking is expected
and generally accepted in the end region of pretensioned
girders. Web splitting cracks typically do not impair girder
capacity. They do, however, provide entry points for chlorides and other deleterious materials, which can negatively
affect serviceability and service life.

This paper compares four different detailing schemes for

controlling end-region web-splitting cracks.
Details included end reinforcement per AASHTO LRFD specifications, large-diameter end reinforcement, vertical end-region
posttensioning, and partial debonding of 45% of prestressing
strands.
All three modified details resulted in reduced web cracking
compared with the standard detail.

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S pri n g 2 0 1 4 | PCI Journal

Web-splitting cracks have received a good deal of attention in the literature. Previous research has focused on
the causes,1,2 design models,36 reject/repair criteria,7 and
control of web-splitting cracks.3,8,9 Research presented in
this paper adds to the body of knowledge by comparing
various detailing schemes for controlling or impeding websplitting cracks. Schemes included in the research program
were vertical end-region reinforcement as required by the
2010 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications,10 increased end-region vertical reinforcement
using 1 in. (25 mm) diameter bars, vertical end-region
posttensioning, and partial debonding of 45% of prestressing strands.

Figure 1. End-region splitting cracks (enhanced) in test specimens. Note: CT = control specimen; LB = specimen with large reinforcing bars; PT = vertically
posttensioned specimen; SL = specimen with 23 strands partially shielding.
PCI Journal | S p r i n g 2014

97

LRFD specifications section 5.10.10 requires that vertical

reinforcement be placed in pretensioned anchorage zones
(the end region) in sufficient quantity to resist a force equal
to 4% of the prestressing force from fully bonded strands.
Stress in the reinforcement is limited to 20 ksi (140 MPa),
and it is placed as close to the end as practicable. These
requirements are to be applied at the service limit state.

Specimen design
and construction
Two 63 in. (1600 mm) deep Florida I-beam (FIB-63) test
girders were used in this project. Both of the beams were
49 ft 6 in. (15.1 m) long and had a total initial prestressing
force of 2280 kip (10,150 kN). Each end of each girder
was uniquely detailed and is referred to in this paper as
a distinct specimen. Essential details and basic material
properties are presented in this paper. A more comprehensive discussion of specimen design and construction can be
found in Ross et al.11 Specimens were given the labels CT,
SL, PT, and LB.
Specimen CT was the control specimen and was detailed
to exceed the area of splitting resistance reinforcement
required by LRFD by approximately 8%. In total 16 no. 5
(no. 16M) bars were placed in the end region.
Specimen SL was located at the opposite end of specimen
CT and had the same quantity of end-region reinforcement.
Of the 52 strands in SL, 23 were partially shielded using
plastic sheathing for 5 ft (1.5 m) from the end of the beam.
This moved the transfer length for the shielded strands
away from the end and reduced the tensile stresses in SL
that affected web-splitting cracks.
The end of specimen PT was vertically posttensioned prior
to prestress transfer to counteract vertical tensile stresses
and end-region cracking. The area of end reinforcement
in PT, including posttension rods, was 38% less than in
control specimen CT.

Prestressing in specimens PT, LB, and CT was intentionally designed to exceed the longitudinal stress limits from
LRFD specifications section 5.9.4.1 with the intention of
promoting the end-region cracking to amplify the effects
of varying the end-region detailing. Maximum calculated
longitudinal stresses (after transfer) in the end region of
these specimens were 4.4 ksi (30 MPa) compression and
1 ksi (7 MPa) tension. These stresses exceeded the
compression limit by 22% and the tension limit by 70%.
Because 45% of the strands in SL were shielded, the longitudinal end-region stresses in SL were approximately half
of the stresses in the other specimens.
Specimens CT and SL both had 16 no. 5 (no. 16M) vertical
bars placed within 16.5 in. (420 mm) of the end. Of these
bars, 12 were placed within 9.5 in. (240 mm) of the end.
This quantity of reinforcement exceeded the area of steel
required by LRFD specifications by 8% for specimen CT
and by 94% for specimen SL.
Vertical reinforcement at the end of specimen PT included
six 58 in. (16 mm) diameter posttensioned all-thread rods
and four no. 5 (no. 16M) bars. The area of vertical reinforcement in specimen PT was 38% less than in specimen
CT and 32% less than required by LRFD specifications.
Polyvinyl chloride pipes were used as ungrouted posttensioning ducts for the rods. Pipes stopped 15 in. (380 mm)
above the bearing plate to allow for development of the
rods. To further aid in development, nuts were placed at the
bottom of each rod. The top of the rods passed through a
3
4 in. (19 mm) thick steel plate, which sat on the top flange.
Posttensioning was applied prior to prestress transfer and
was accomplished by tightening nuts against the steel plate
on the top flange (Fig. 3).

Details

Forces in two of the rods were monitored using load

cells. Forces in the other four rods were estimated using
the elastic elongation of the rods, as determined from the
number of turns of the top nut. Estimated forces based on
turns of the nut were verified using load cell data from the
monitored rods. Load cell data were particularly helpful
in determining the number of turns beyond snug-tight that
were required to engage the rods. Initial total posttensioning force was 78 kip (347 kN), equal to approximately
3.4% of the initial pretension force.

Figure 2 shows the cross section, reinforcement, and

prestressing for each specimen. Specimens had fifty-two
0.6 in. (15 mm) diameter prestressing strands in the bottom
flange and four 38 in. (10 mm) diameter strands in the top
flange. Strands in specimens CT, PT, and LB were fully
bonded, whereas 45% of the strands in SL were partially
shielded. Shielding in SL intentionally violated the 25%
limit from LRFD specifications section 5.11.4.3 and was

Specimen LB had eight 1 in. (25 mm) diameter all-thread

rods as vertical reinforcement. Nuts were placed at the top
and bottom of each rod to aid in development and were
necessary because the test specimen did not have sufficient
room to accommodate hooks. The area of vertical reinforcement at the end of specimen LB was 27% greater than
the reinforcement in specimen CT and was 37% greater
than required by LRFD specifications.

Specimen LB had 1 in. (25 mm) diameter threaded rods as

vertical end reinforcement. Because larger-diameter bars
were used, LB had 30% more end reinforcement by area
than CT. Specimen LB was located at the opposite end of
specimen PT.

98

designed to test the effects of excessive shielding on endregion cracking and shear capacity.

S pri n g 2 0 1 4 | PCI Journal

Figure 2. Specimen details. Note: CT = control specimen; LB = specimen with large reinforcing bars; PT = vertically posttensioned specimen; SL = specimen with
23 strands partially shielded. No. 4 = 13M; no. 5 = 16M; 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ft = 0.305 m; 1 kip = 4.448 kN.
PCI Journal | S p r i n g 2014

99

deemed a reasonable solution for the given constraints.

Fabrication
Specimens were fabricated in February 2012. Figure 4
provides a time line of fabrication and other project events.
Fabrication began with strand placement and stressing with
a hydraulic jack. Strands in the top flange were tensioned
first, followed by strands in the bottom flange, which were
tensioned from bottom to top and outside in.
After tensioning, steel bulkheads were positioned to form
the ends of each specimen. Mild steel reinforcement and
strand shielding (specimen SL only) were then placed.
After reinforcement was placed and checked, steel forms
were oiled, placed, and squared. Concrete was mixed at an
on-site batch plant and was transported and placed using
the fabricators mixer truck and delivery equipment. A
self-consolidating concrete mixture was used, so vibration
was not necessary for compaction. The top surface of each
girder was troweled smooth. Girders were covered with
heavy tarps and were cured at ambient temperature.

Figure 3. Anchor plate at top of specimen PT. Note: PT = vertically

posttensioned specimen.

All specimens were designed for testing without cast-inplace concrete topping slabs because they would have
increased specimen shear capacities beyond the capabilities of the available load test equipment. Because slabs
were not used, vertical reinforcement was developed using
hooks in the top flange. The top flange did not provide
code-specified cover requirements for the hooks but was

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100

May

S pri n g 2 0 1 4 | PCI Journal

Concrete was cast on a Friday, and forms were removed the

following Monday. Prestress force was transferred to the
girders the day after form removal. The time between casting and transfer was longer than was typical for the precast
concrete plant. The additional time was required to facilitate
installation of instrumentation. The compressive strength
at the time of transfer was 7320 psi (50 MPa), which was
greater than the required 6500 psi (45 MPa). Specimen PT
was posttensioned a few hours before prestress transfer (Fig. 3)
using the procedure described in the previous section.
Flame cutting was used to release the prestressing strands.
Cuts were made simultaneously between and at the ends
of the girders. Strands in the top flange were cut first,
followed by the bottom strands, which were cut from the
outside in and from bottom to top. This release pattern was
used because it is relatively easy to execute and because it
is typical of precast concrete girders in Florida.
One day after prestress transfer, the girders were moved
from the stressing bed to the storage yard with a crane.
Girders were inspected for cracking before and after lifting
and periodically while in storage. After approximately
three months in storage, the girders were trucked to the
laboratory for load testing. The three-month storage allowed for multiple inspections of the girders to observe
and document crack growth.
Material properties
Concrete had a specified 28-day compressive strength of
8500 psi (59 MPa) and a specified compressive strength
of 6500 psi (45 MPa) at prestress transfer. Prestressing
strands were Grade 270 (1860 MPa) low-relaxation strand

conforming to ASTM A416. Mild reinforcement complied

with ASTM A61512 and was Grade 60 (400 MPa). Threaded rods in specimens PT and LB complied with ASTM
A19313 Grade B7.
Tested concrete compressive strength was 7320 psi
(50 MPa), 9210 psi (64 MPa), and 10,520 psi (73 MPa)
at transfer, 28 days, and load testing, respectively. Prestressing strands had a tested ultimate strength of 287 ksi
(1980 MPa) at an ultimate elongation of 5.4%. Mild steel
reinforcement had a tested yield stress of 64 ksi (440 MPa).

49 ft 6 in. overall length

7.5
in.

10 x 30 in. bearing pad

(orientation varies, see
discussion) 10 in.

9 ft 4.5 in.

Load

42 ft 10.5 in.
10 x 32 in. bearing pad
at each support

First setup

9 ft 4.5 in.

Test procedures
Strain and crack data were collected throughout the test
program. Strain data are not discussed in this paper but
are discussed in Ross et al.11 Figure 4 lists the dates that
crack data were collected by visual inspection. Visual
inspections included marking cracks with a crayon and
documenting locations and lengths by photograph. Crack
widths were measured at one or two locations along each
crack using a microscope with a precision of +/ 0.001 in.
(0.025 mm).
Posttension forces in two rods in specimen PT were monitored using load cells positioned between the nut and the
bearing plate (Fig. 3). Force data were continuously logged
during posttensioning and during prestress transfer.
Load, displacement, concrete strain, and strand slip data
were continuously monitored and logged during load testing using a computerized data acquisition system. Load
data were collected from load cells at the load point. Vertical displacements were obtained using linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs) placed above each support
and at the load point. Concrete strain data were collected
from gauges bonded to the concrete surface. Strand slip
relative to the concrete was measured using linear potentiometers mounted on selected strands.
Load tests were conducted on both ends of each girder,
that is, on each specimen. Specimens were loaded in
three-point bending at a shear spantodepth ratio of approximately 2.0 (Fig. 5). After the first end (specimen) was
tested, the supports and load point were moved and the
opposite end was tested.
Load was applied to specimens using side-by-side hydraulic actuators. Load rate was approximately 400 lb/second
(180 kg/second) and was controlled by adjusting a pump
that pressurized the hydraulic system. Load was distributed
from the actuators to the girders through steel plates and
a 10 30 in. (250 760 mm) bearing pad. For specimen
LB, the bearing pad at the load point was oriented with
the 30 in. (760 mm) dimension perpendicular to the span
length. In this orientation, the load was distributed transversely across the top flange, resulting in an undesirable

Load

7.5
in.

42 ft 10.5 in.
Second setup
Figure 5. Test setup. 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ft = 0.305 m.

punching failure mode in specimen LB. To avoid similar

failures in the other specimens the bearing pad and plate
were oriented with the 30 in. (760 mm) dimension parallel with span length. In this orientation, load was applied
directly above the web.

Results and discussion

Web-splitting cracks
Figure 1 shows end-region cracks in the web and flange
of each specimen 48 days after prestress transfer. Websplitting cracks are the focus of this paper and were first
observed in specimens CT, LB, and SL during prestress
transfer and in specimen PT the day after transfer.
Figure 6 shows the propagation of cracks in all specimens.
Cracks grew in length, width, and number in the weeks
and months following prestress transfer. The majority of
crack growth occurred within 30 days of transfer; however,
growth was observed up until load testing. These general
trends were typical of all specimens.
Figure 7 quantifies web-crack data from the final inspection. Four metrics are shown in the figure: total length, total area, average width, and maximum width. Total length
was calculated by summing the length of all individual
web-splitting cracks in a specimen. Total area is the summation of areas from individual web-splitting cracks, with
area calculated by multiplying the individual crack lengths
by their representative widths. Average width was calculated by dividing the total area by the total length. Finally,

PCI Journal | S p r i n g 2014

101

Specimen CT

0 1 2

4
feet

Specimen SL

During
prestress
transfer

1 days
after
transfer

30 days
after
transfer

Before
load testing
112 days
after transfer

Specimen PT

Specimen LB

During
prestress
transfer

1 days
after
transfer

30 days
after
transfer

Before
load testing
112 days
after transfer

Figure 6. Crack growth. Note: blue lines = previously observed cracks; cross-hatched areas = areas not observed because of beam fromwork; red lines = newly
observed cracks; CT = control specimen, SL = specimen with 23 strands partially shielded, PT = vertically posttensioned, specimen LB = specimen with large
reinforcing bars. 1 ft = 0.305 m.
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Total web crack length

369

300

1.50

336
288

261
186

200

Area, in.2

Length, in.

400

Total web crack area

1.13

CT

SL

PT

LB

0.00

Avg.

0.006

0.006
0.004

0.003

0.003

Width, in.

Width, in.

0.74

CT

SL

PT

LB

Avg.

0.016

0.008

0.012

0.012
0.008

0.008

0.008
0.006

0.004

0.002
0.000

1.04

Maximum crack width

Average crack width

0.004

0.94

1.00

0.50

100
0

1.34

CT

SL

PT

LB

0.000

CT

SL

PT

LB

Figure 7. Web-splitting crack data. Note: CT = control specimen; LB = specimen with large reinforcing bars; PT = vertically posttensioned specimen; SL = specimen
with 23 strands partially shielded; Vn LRFD = nominal shear capacity based on AASHTO LRFD specifications. 1 in. = 25.4 mm.

maximum crack width was taken as the maximum width

measured by microscope. Cracks in the top and bottom
flanges are not included in Fig. 7.
Representative widths used to calculate crack area were
derived from width measurements taken by microscope.
The means of determining representative width was different depending on crack location. For the portion of a crack
on the end face of a specimen, the representative width was
taken as the measured width. For the portion of a crack on
the side of a specimen, the representative width was taken
as the average of all widths measured along the crack.
Only a single measurement was taken for some cracks on
specimen sides. Single measurements occurred near the
specimen ends where cracks typically had their greatest
widths. In these cases, the representative width was taken
as one-half of the measured width.
Criteria for evaluating and treating end-region cracks are
generally based on maximum width and are available from
multiple sources.7,1416 With the exception of girders in
extremely aggressive environments (for example, over salt
water), the Florida Department of Transportation typically
only requires treatment when crack widths exceed

0.012 in. (0.30 mm). For girders in extremely aggressive

environments, corrective action is required for all cracks
regardless of width. Web-splitting cracks in this test program were less than 0.012 in. (0.30 mm) and would not
require treatment for most environmental conditions.
Data presented in Fig. 7 are useful for comparing the relative effectiveness of each detailing scheme in controlling
web-splitting cracks. Based on the metrics of total length
and total area, the control detail (specimen CT) was the
least effective in controlling web-splitting cracks. Specimen CT had 28% more length and 29% greater area than
the average of all specimens.
Specimen SL was the most effective detail according to
each metric except total length. SL had 45% less area and
22% smaller average width than the control specimen.
The reduction in crack length, area, and width observed in
specimen SL is attributed to the partial strand shielding,
which reduced tensile stresses in the end region.
In terms of total length, the posttensioning detail of
specimen PT was the most effective detail for controlling
web-splitting cracks. Crack length in specimen PT was

PCI Journal | S p r i n g 2014

103

900

800

800

700

700

600

600

Shear, kip

Shear, kip

900

500
400

VnLRFD

500
400

CT

300

200

SL

200

100

PT

100

300

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

Slip, in.

CT
SL
PT
LB

VnLRFD
LB had unique
boundary conditions
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Displacement, in.

Figure 8. Shear displacement and strand slip. Note: Specimen LB was excluded from slip graph due to minimal slip. CT = control specimen; LB = specimen with
large reinforcing bars; PT = vertically posttensioned specimen; SL = specimen with 23 strands partially shielded; Vn LRFD = nominal shear capacity based on AASHTO
LRFD. 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.448 kN.

50% less than the control specimen. Figure 1 shows that

the posttensioning prevented horizontal web cracks at the
end of PT. However, inclined web cracking did occur in
PT, originating near the posttensioning anchor plate. Forces
introduced at the plate contributed to formation of the
diagonal cracking in specimen PT. The inclined crack in
PT had the greatest width of any crack in the test program.
Specimen PT also had the largest average web crack width
of approximately 0.006 in. (0.15 mm). This value was 67%
greater than the control specimen.
Detailing of specimen PT had a negative effect on bottomflange cracks. Specimen PT was the only specimen to have
a vertical splitting crack at the center of the bottom flange
on the end surface (Fig. 1). This crack is attributed in part
to development of the posttensioning rod nearest the end.
Specimen LB compared well against the control specimen
in every metric except maximum crack width, for which
specimens LB and CT both had a maximum crack width of
0.008 in. (0.20 mm). For specimen LB, the total web crack
length was 10% smaller, and the average width was 23%
smaller than in the control specimen.
Load testing

104

loading in each specimen was always a web crack forming between the load point and the support. Discussions of
load, slip, and first cracking are presented in the following
sections for each specimen.
Specimen CT The load-displacement response of the
control specimen CT was approximately linear-elastic during loading (Fig. 8). The first crack formed in the web at a
superimposed shear of 350 kip (1560 kN). Additional web
cracks formed at greater loads; however, flexural cracks
were not observed.
Strand slip in specimen CT was negligible until the superimposed shear reached approximately 550 kip
(2450 kN). Slip increased gradually beyond 550 kip, reaching a maximum slip of 0.016 in. (0.41 mm) at peak load.
Specimen CT failed in a brittle manner at a shear of
773 kip (3440 kN). At this load, the web crushed in dramatic fashion with concrete spalling off the girder. Failure
was categorized as a web-shear failure (Fig. 9). After
testing it was observed that the top hooks of the vertical
reinforcement experienced breakout failure due to insufficient cover in the top flange. Top hooks from the vertical
reinforcement were embedded in the relatively thin top
flange because a topping slab was not cast on the specimen. It is not known whether the hook failure precipitated
or was a byproduct of the web failure. The bearing pad at
the load point punched through the top flange at peak load.

Load tests were conducted to evaluate the effects of each

detailing scheme on end-region capacity. Test results are
presented in terms of superimposed shear, which is defined
as the shear due to the applied load. Self-weight is not
included in superimposed shear. Displacement results are
presented as vertical displacement at the load point. Results
have been adjusted to remove the effects of bearing-pad
displacement. Figure 8 presents shear-displacement data
and shear-strand slip data. Slip data are presented as the average slip of all monitored fully bonded strands. Specimen
LB was excluded from Fig. 8 due to minimal slip.

Using the detailed procedure from ACI 318-11,17 the

nominal shear capacity of all test specimens was 524 kip
(2330 kN). The nominal shear capacity calculated using
the general procedure from LRFD specifications section
5.8.3.4.2 was 516 kip (2295 kN) for all specimens. The
experimental shear capacity exhibited by specimen CT was
48% greater than the ACI-based nominal capacity.

Shear force at first crack was determined by strain gauges

placed on the side of each web. The first crack due to

Specimen SL Specimen SL was the only specimen with

partially shielded strands. The load-displacement response

S pri n g 2 0 1 4 | PCI Journal

Figure 9. Specimen CT after load test. Note: CT = control specimen.

of specimen SL was approximately linear elastic during the

initial portion of the load test (Fig. 8).
The first crack due to loading formed at a shear of 240 kip
(1070 kN). Load at first crack was 30% to 45% lower than
in the other specimens. The lower cracking load is attributed to the reduced prestress force at the end of specimen SL.
This result demonstrates a potential serviceability problem
with strand shielding. Although shielding reduces the vertical tensile stresses and web-splitting cracks at prestress
transfer, shielding also reduces the horizontal compressive
stresses that act to delay cracks due to loading.
Additional cracks formed as the load increased beyond
initial cracking. Some of these cracks propagated into the
bottom flange, interrupting strand development and resulting in strand slip. Popping sounds indicative of strand slip
were heard beginning at a shear of approximately 390 kip
(1730 kN). Based on the shear-slip behavior (Fig. 8), strand
slip started at approximately 300 kip (1330 kN). Strands
in specimen SL began slipping at lower loads and slipped
a greater distance than did strands in the other specimens.
Peak load in specimen SL corresponded to a strand slip
event, and failure of specimen SL was categorized as a
bond-shear failure.
Specimen SL supported a maximum shear of 591 kip
(2230 kN), which was the lowest capacity in the test program.
Although lower than the other specimens, the capacity of SL was
still 13% greater than the ACI 318-11based nominal capacity.

The reduced number of fully bonded strands in specimen

SL was responsible for the bond-shear failure and lower
capacity. Specimens CT, LB, and PT had almost twice
as many bonded strands and were less affected by cracks
interrupting the strand development length.
After reaching the maximum load, testing of specimen SL continued with stick-slip loading behavior
controlled by strand slip. Load was removed after
it became apparent from the load-displacement
curve that peak load had been reached. Because of
the stick-slip behavior, failure of specimen SL was
slightly more ductile than that of the other specimens
(Fig. 8).
Specimen PT The end of specimen PT was vertically posttensioned by tightening threaded rods before
prestress transfer. Shear-displacement response of specimen PT was approximately linear-elastic throughout the
load test (Fig. 8). The first crack due to loading formed
at a shear of 350 kip (1560 kN). Additional web cracks
formed at higher loads; however, flexural cracks were
not observed.
Strand slip behavior in specimen PT was similar to that
of the control specimen (specimen CT). This result suggests that the vertical posttensioning did not influence the
strand-concrete bond during testing. Maximum slip in
specimen PT was approximately 0.01 in. (0.25 mm) and
occurred at peak load.

PCI Journal | S p r i n g 2014

105

Conclusion

Steel spreader plates

Load

Load
LVDT
each side

Bearing pad
Punching cracks at
flange-web interface
Figure 10. Punching failure specimen LB. Note: LB = specimen with large
reinforcing bars; LVDT = linear variable differential transformer.

Four FIB-63 specimens were fabricated to evaluate the

effectiveness of different end-region detailing schemes
on controlling end-region web-splitting cracks. Schemes
included end-region reinforcement per AASHTO LRFD
specifications (control specimen), large-diameter endregion reinforcement, vertical posttensioning, and partial
debonding of 45% of the prestressing strands. Cracks were
monitored during prestress transfer and in the days and
weeks following transfer. Crack data were used to compare the relative effectiveness of each detailing scheme.
Finally, specimens were load-tested in three-point bending
to determine the effect of each detailing scheme on shear
capacity and behavior. Key observations, conclusions, and
recommendations include the following:

Specimen PT supported a maximum shear of 782 kip

(3480 kN), which corresponded to the maximum capacity
of the test apparatus. The specimen did not fail at this load,
and failure behavior could not be determined. This result
suggests that the posttensioning had no adverse effect on
ultimate capacity.
Specimen LB End-zone reinforcement in specimen LB
consisted of eight 1 in. (25 mm) diameter vertical threaded
rods. The shear-displacement response of specimen LB
was approximately linear-elastic throughout the load test
(Fig. 8); however, the apparent stiffness of specimen LB
was less than that of the other specimens. This difference
is attributed to the load configuration, which spread the
load transversely across the top flange. Because load was
spread across the top flange, the flange in specimen SL
experienced a greater degree of displacement. The LVDTs
monitoring vertical displacement were placed at the edges
of the flange (Fig. 10) and would have been sensitive to
differences in displacement resulting from the load configuration.

The first crack due to loading occurred at a shear of

310 kip (1380 kN). Additional web cracks formed at
higher loads; however, flexural cracks were not observed. Strand slip in specimen LB was negligible. Lack
of slip was due to the relatively low loads supported by
specimen LB. Had specimen LB supported similar loads
to specimens CT and PT, strand slip would have been
expected.
Specimen LB supported a maximum shear of 594 kip
(2640 kN). At this load, specimen LB failed due to punching of the top flange (Fig. 10). Punching failure occurred
because load was applied directly to the relatively thin
flange. Despite the punching failure, specimen LB supported a shear force that was 13% greater than the ACI 318-11
nominal capacity.

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Specimen CT: reinforcement per AASHTO LRFD

specifications (control)

End-region reinforcement per LRFD specifications requirements was the least effective scheme
in terms of total crack length and total crack area.
This scheme did, however, limit web cracks to a
maximum width of 0.008 in. (0.20 mm).

Specimen SL: 45% strand shielding

Strand shielding was an effective means of controlling web-splitting cracks. Shielding in specimen SL effected a 29% reduction in crack length
and a 22% reduction in average crack width
relative to the control specimen.

Strand shielding in specimen SL resulted in bondshear failure and the lowest ultimate capacity of
any specimen. Bond-shear failure occurred because specimen SL had insufficient fully bonded
strands to prevent strand slip after cracks interrupted the strand development length.

During load testing, inclined web cracks in specimen SL initiated at a load 30% to 45% lower than
in the other specimens. The lower cracking load
in specimen SL occurred due to decreased endregion stresses affected by strand shielding.

The effects of strand shielding on bond-shear

behavior and service load cracking must be
considered if shielding is employed to control
end-region cracks.

Specimen LB: large-diameter end-region reinforcement

Increasing the area of vertical end-region reinforcement was effective in controlling websplitting cracks. Specimen LB had 27% more

end-region reinforcement than the control specimen. The additional reinforcement effected a 10%
reduction in web crack length and a 23% reduction in average web crack width relative to the
control specimen.

The effect of larger diameter end reinforcement

on load capacity cannot be determined from the
test data. There is no reason, however, to suspect
that capacity was adversely affected.

Large-diameter end-region reinforcement is recommended in circumstances where splitting resistance

is desired beyond the AASHTO code minimum.

Journal 32 (3): 74150.

3. Guyon, Y. 1955. Prestressed Concrete. 2nd ed. London, UK: F. J. Parsons.
4. Breen, J., C. Burdette, D. Sanders, and G. Wollmann.
1991. Anchorage Zone Reinforcement for PostTensioned Concrete Girders. National Cooperative
Highway Research Program report 356. Washington,
DC: Transportation Research Board.
5. Kannel, J., C. French, and H. Stolarski. 1997. Release Methodology of Strands to Reduce End Cracking in Pretensioned Concrete Girders. PCI Journal 42
(1): 4254.

Specimen PT: end-region posttensioning

Vertical posttensioning of specimen PT prevented

horizontal web-splitting cracks at the end surface
but aggravated inclined cracks in the web. The
largest web cracks in the test program occurred in
specimen PT.

Vertical posttensioning in the end region of specimen PT did not affect load capacity. Specimen
PT supported the largest load of any specimen.
Failure of specimen PT could not be reached due
to limitations of the testing equipment.

The posttensioning detail of specimen PT needs

further research before this detail is ready for use
in the field. In particular, additional information is
required to use end-region posttensioning in a manner that does not contribute to inclined web cracks
and cracking at the posttensioning anchorages.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the Florida Department of Transportation for sponsoring this research. Sam
Fallaha, PE, of the Florida Department of Transportation
served as project manager. Testing was conducted at the
Florida Department of Transportation Marcus Ansley
Structures Research Center and benefited from assistance
of the centers staff. Williss participation in this research
was partially funded by National Science Foundation grant
1011478.

References
1. Gergely P., M. A. Sozen, and C. P. Siess. 1963. The Effect
of Reinforcement on Anchorage Zone Cracks in Prestressed
Concrete Members. University of Illinois structural research
series no. 271. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois.
2. Schlaich J., K. Schfer, and M. Jennewein. 1987. Toward a Consistent Design of Structural Concrete. PCI

6. Castrodale, R. W., A. Lui, and C. D. White. 2002.

Simplified Analysis of Web Splitting in Pretensioned
Concrete Girders. In Concrete Bridge Conference
Proceedings October 69, 2002, Nashville, Tenn.
Chicago, IL: PCI. CD-ROM.
7. Tadros, M. K., S. S. Badie, and C. Tuan. 2010.
Evaluation and Repair Procedures for Precast/Prestressed Concrete Girders with Longitudinal Cracking
in the Web. National Cooperative Highway Research
Program report 654. Washington, DC: Transportation
Research Board.
8. Marshall, W., and A. Mattock. 1962. Control of
Horizontal Cracking in the Ends of Pretensioned
Prestressed Concrete Girders. PCI Journal 7 (10):
5675.
9. Okumus, P., and M. G. Oliva. 2013. Evaluation of
Crack Control Methods for End Zone Cracking in
Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders. PCI Journal 58
(2): 91105.
10. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). 2010. AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications. 5th ed. Washington,
DC: AASHTO.
11. Ross, B. E., H. R. Hamilton, and G. R. Consolazio.
2013. End Region Detailing of Pretensioned Concrete
Bridge Girders. Report BDK75 977-05. Tallahassee,
FL: Florida Department of Transportation.
12. ASTM International. 2012. Standard Specification for
Deformed and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement. ASTM A615. West Conshohocken,
PA: ASTM International.
13. ASTM International. 2012. Standard Specification
for Alloy-Steel and Stainless Steel Bolting for High
Temperature or High Pressure Service and Other

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Special Purpose Applications. ASTM A193. West

Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International.
14. ACI (American Concrete Institute). 2001. Control of
Cracking in Concrete Structures. ACI 224R-01. Farmington Hills, MI: ACI.

16. PCI. 2006. Manual for the Evaluation and Repair

of Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Products.
Chicago, IL: PCI.
17. ACI Committee 318. 2011. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-11) and Commentary (ACI 318R-11). Farmington Hills, MI: ACI.

15. FDOT (Florida Department of Transportation). 2010.

Standards and Specifications for Road and Bridge
Construction. Section 450. Tallahassee, FL: FDOT.

About the authors

Brandon Ross, PE, PhD, is an
assistant professor in the Glenn
Department of Civil Engineering
at Clemson University in Clemson, S.C.
Michael Willis, EI, is a graduate
student in the Glenn Department
of Civil Engineering at Clemson
University.

H. R. Hamilton, PE, PhD, is a

professor in the Department of
Civil and Coastal Engineering at
the University of Florida in
Gainesville, Fla.
Gary Consolazio, PhD, is an
associate professor in the Department of Civil and Coastal
Engineering at the University of
Florida.

Abstract
This paper reports on a study comparing four detailing schemes for controlling end-region web-splitting
cracks: end reinforcement per AASHTO LRFD specifications, large-diameter end reinforcement, vertical
end-region posttensioning, and partial debonding of
45% of prestressing strands. Crack locations, lengths,
and widths in 63 in. (1600 mm) deep Florida I-beams
(FIB-63) were monitored during transfer and in the
months following prestress transfer. Crack data were
quantified and compared to determine the relative effectiveness of each scheme in controlling web cracking. Specimens were then load tested to determine the
effect of each scheme on ultimate capacity. All three
modified details resulted in reduced web cracking
compared with the standard detail.

Keywords
Beam, girder, bridge, debonding, design method, end
crack, end region, posttensioning, reinforcement.

Review policy
This paper was reviewed in accordance with the
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institutes peer-review
process.

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