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Ancient Period
Egypt the oldest extant literature are the literary remains of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt,
which are written in ink on papyrus. There still exist fragments of stories such as the marvelous
adventures of a shipwrecked sailor or the tale of the eloquent peasant. There are collections of
wise sayings, shrewd observations, and good counsel.
Babylonia and Assyria has religious literature consisted mainly of the ritual of worship;
magical incantations to repel evil spirits in this life; predictions of the future, and epics dealing
with such topics as creation and the flood. These themes appear also in the Hebrew Book of
Genesis.
In Greece Homeric poems represented an age of epic poetry with the Odyssey as a shining
example. The earliest complete specimens of tragedy and comedy are those composed in Attic
Greece for Athenian festivals of Dionysus, the wine-god. Thus, they were closely connected
with religion and public life, drawing their subjects and characters from the myths.
In China Confucius edited the Book of History and composed the Spring and Autumn
Annals. The oldest extant Chinese literature are the Five Classics, which became the
component stones in Chinas true Great Wall against Barbarism.
Rome Ennius, an epic poet commonly called the Father of Literature, was admitted to Roman
citizenship. To a great extent, Rome derived not only its art and literature, but also its religious
mythology and its historical legends, from the Greeks.
India religion and literature were prominent features in their civilization following the RigVeda. The two (2) great epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana date back to the Sutras of the
first centuries of our era. The golden age of Sanskrit literature was about 400-800 A.D. of
which works of Arabic learning, the commentaries on the Koran, collection of Muslim
tradition, biographies of Mohammed, religious and historical literature, science, and medicine
are noteworthy.
Medieval Period
In medieval France, 1130-50, originated the literary genre called Romance. The characteristic
feature of early French literature is its inclination toward the wonderful, improbable, the
exaggerated, and the wholly ideal.
The only type of medieval literary production exempt from these romanticizing tendencies was
the family and historical prose saga developed in Iceland at the end of the 12th and early 13th
century.
This period can boast of Britains Arthurian legends, Frances Chanson de Roland, Icelanders
Sagas, Germanys Dr. Schwanritter, and Spains Amadis de Gauia.
At the beginning of the 13th century, sentimental romances with an adventurous or pseudo
historical contribution of this period is John Wycliffes translation of the Bible in English. The
most gifted writer of the medieval noon, however, was the poet Geoffrey Chaucer, who wrote,
among other great works, The Canterbury Tales.
The Legend
Arthur was the first born son of King Uther Pendragon and heir to the throne. However these were
very troubled times and Merlin, a wise magician, advised that the baby Arthur should be raised in a
secret place and that none should know his true identity.

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As Merlin feared, when King Uther died there was great conflict over who should be the next king.
Merlin used his magic to set a sword in a stone. Written on the sword, in letters of gold, were these
words: "Whoso pulleth out this sword of this stone is the rightwise born king of all England." Of
course, all the contenders for the throne took their turn at trying to draw the sword, but none could
succeed. Arthur, quite by chance, withdrew the sword for another to use in a tournament. Following
this, he became King.
He gathered knights around him and fought back against the Saxons who, since the Romans left
Britain, were slowly but surely taking the country over. After many great battles and a huge victory at
Mount Badon, the Saxons' advance was halted.
Arthur's base was at a place called Camelot. Here he built a strong castle. His knights met at a Round
Table. They carried out acts of chivalry such as rescuing damsels in distress and fought against strange
beasts. They also searched for a lost treasure, which they believed would cure all ills. This was the
'Quest for the Holy Grail'.
Under the guidance of Merlin, Arthur had obtained a magical sword from The Lady of the Lake. This
sword was called 'Excalibur" and with this weapon he vanquished many foes.
Queen Guinevere, Arthur's beautiful wife brought romance to the story while his, equally beautiful,
half-sister, Morgan le Fay added a dark side.
Unfortunately, as peace settled over the country things turned sour within the court of Camelot and
civil war broke out. In the final battle at Camlan, both Arthur and Mordred, Arthur's traitorous nephew,
were mortally wounded. Arthur was set upon a boat and floated down river to the isle of Avalon. Here,
his wounds were treated by three (3) mysterious maidens. His body was never found and many say
that he rests under a hill with all his knights - ready to ride forth and save the country again.
The Round Table
For centuries, the site of the Roman amphitheatre in Caerleon was known as 'King Arthur's Round
Table'.
Back in the 1587 Thomas Churchyard wrote of Caerleon:
In Arthur's tyme, a table round,
Was whereat he sate:
As yet a plot of goodly ground,
Sets forth that rare estate...
It would surely have been an excellent place for a leader to address his followers.
A theory is that somewhere in time, the meaning shifted from 'a round meeting place' to a 'round table'.
Source: http://www.caerleon.net/history/arthur/page12.htm

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Renaissance Period
The Renaissance takes place at different times in different countries. The English Renaissance
(also called the Early Modern period) dates from the beginning of the Protestant Reformation
and from the height of the Quattrocento (1400's) in Italy.
Renaissance is a French term meaning "rebirth." The period is characterized by a rebirth among
English elite of classical learning, a rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman authors, and a
recovery of the ancient Greek spirit of scientific inquiry. (Compare the Renaissance of the 12th
Century and the rediscovery then of Aristotle.)
The period is also characterized by widespread religious wars, geographical discovery and
colonization, and major reforms of state. In terms of culture, it is important to remember that
not everyone was similarly affected by the Renaissance: illiterate, beer-swilling shepherds did
not suddenly take up a study of Aristotelian metaphysics. Nevertheless, the period marks the
high water mark of English literary accomplishment. It is the age of William Shakepeare, John
Milton, John Donne, and Katherine Philips. Queen Elizabeth I was fluent in classical Greek,
wrote poems in Latin hexameter, and produced beautifully polished English prose.
The heights of rediscovery of old knowledge and rebirth for the passion for arts and literature,
the misconception or disorientation also transpired during the renaissance period particularly
in the matter of religion. Let the students realize how these literary writers focus on the sexual
attraction with the body of the woman rather than following the teachings of the church. In
some account, writers like John Donne who shared fame in the light of literature during that
period believed that religious enlightenment is sexual ecstasy. With his own perception of
religion and its origin, John Donne had his search for one true religion. The search have
undergone debates and confrontations with so many churches. In 1517, an Augustinian monk
in Germany named Martin Luther set off a number of debates that eventually led to the
founding of Protestantism, which, at the time, was considered to be a reformed version of
Catholicism. You may consider the lecture on this link for further studies.
Restoration Period
The name 'restoration' comes from the crowning of Charles II, which marks the restoring of the
traditional English monarchical form of government following a short period of rule by a
handful of republican governments.
The start of the Restoration period roughly coincides with the beginning of what is known as
the Enlightenment, which lasted until the end of the 18th century. The Enlightenment was
defined by an emphasis on reason and logic; the thinkers of the period, moreover, helped
develop the modern science that treats the natural world as a knowable and testable subject.
Although the influence of the Enlightenment on the Restoration period is tremendous, it's
important to note the humility towards human reason that is common to much Restoration
literature. Many restoration writers viewed the changes to their government, and the violence
that these changes brought with them, as the direct result of those who dogmatically held to
their ideology. In this sense, the political events that occurred in England provide insight into
the skepticism that is at the heart of Restoration literature.
At the heart of this literature is the attempt to come to terms with the political events that
occurred in previous decades. The writings of this time are both innovative and varied; the style
and subject matter of the literature produced during the Restoration period spanned the
spectrum from definitively religious to satirical and risqu. In 1688, James II, Charles II's

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brother, was removed from the throne, which many scholars use to mark the end of Restoration
literature.
The three (3) leading Spanish writers of the 17th century was Cervantes, Lope de Vega, and
Calderon. Cervantes Don Quixote is a satire on the old romances of chivalry and marks
disappearance of the knightly and religious spirit of the past.
French literature of the 17th century is marked by good aprs of the French court and culture.
During the restoration, the English Puritan and non-conformist writers turned their thoughts to
the other world. Milton wrote Paradise Lost and Bunyan Pilgrims Progress.
The spirit of the 18th century, called the Age of Reasons, was greatly influenced by the good
taste of French literature, the empirical and practical philosophy of Locke, and the
mathematically simplified science Newton.

Period of Classicism
Major changes in the arts, including literature, are usually related to some social upheaval, or
to change in the philosophical concept of man. Thus, historians often identify the rise of
Romanticism with the Industrial Revolution, or the American War of Independence.
During these years Spanish colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, won their independence
from Spain and started life as free nations. Because of this, much of the literature was political
in nature. At about this time, in the Philippines, literary works on love of country flourished.
Most European writers wrote in a way that is called classicism. When writers, or artists of any
sort, follows a popular style, we say they belong to that school or movement. The classic style
was very popular at this time. Classicism is a type of writing that shows restraint, careful
planning, and a deep respect for the past. The classic writers imitated the styles of the great
writers of Greece, Rome, and Spain.
The foremost Latin literary figure of the revolutionary period was Andreas Bellow who did
great deal for education and literature. In the Philippines, notable were Jose Rizal, Emilio
Jacinto, Graciano Lopez Jaena, and Marcelo del Pilar.
Romantic Period
By the late 18th century in France and Germany, literary taste began to turn from classical and
neoclassical conventions. The generation of revolution and wars, of stress and upheaval had
produced doubts on the security of the age of reason. Doubts and pessimism now challenged
the hope and optimism of the 18th century. Men felt a deepened concern for the metaphysical
problems of existence, death, and eternity. It was in this setting that Romanticism was born.
The term romantic first appeared in 18th-century English and originally meant "romance like"
- that is, resembling the fanciful character of medieval romances. But a mood or movement
whose central characteristic is revolt, and whose stress is on self-expression and individual
uniqueness, does not lend itself to precise definition.
Romanticism is a turning away from classicism. It may be considered a reactions against neo
classicism (Not necessarily the classicism of Greece and Rome), or against what is called the
Age of Reason, the Augustan Age, the Enlightenment, and the 18th century materialism.
The romantic writer expresses his feelings. He is imaginative, adventurous, and sentimental.
Romantic writing is different from orderly, logical, restrained writing of the classicist.
Writers in many places of the world were looking to Europe for their models. Works of Victor
Hugo, the giant of the Romantic Movement, Lord Byron, Chateaubriand, Charles Dickens, and
Spanish models were being imitated.
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The Scarlet Letter

By: Nathaniel Hawthorne
The story begins in seventeenth-century Boston, then a Puritan settlement. A young woman, Hester
Prynne, is led from the town prison with her infant daughter, Pearl, in her arms and the scarlet letter
A on her breast. A man in the crowd tells an elderly onlooker that Hester is being punished for
adultery. Hesters husband, a scholar much older than she is, sent her ahead to America, but he never
arrived in Boston. The consensus is that he has been lost at sea. While waiting for her husband, Hester
has apparently had an affair, as she has given birth to a child. She will not reveal her lovers identity,
however, and the scarlet letter, along with her public shaming, is her punishment for her sin and her
secrecy. On this day Hester is led to the town scaffold and harangued by the town fathers, but she again
refuses to identify her childs father.
The elderly onlooker is Hesters missing husband, who is now practicing medicine and calling himself
Roger Chillingworth. He settles in Boston, intent on revenge. He reveals his true identity to no one but
Hester, whom he has sworn to secrecy. Several years pass. Hester supports herself by working as a
seamstress, and Pearl grows into a willful, impish child. Shunned by the community, they live in a
small cottage on the outskirts of Boston. Community officials attempt to take Pearl away from Hester,
but, with the help of Arthur Dimmesdale, a young and eloquent minister, the mother and daughter
manage to stay together. Dimmesdale, however, appears to be wasting away and suffers from
mysterious heart trouble, seemingly caused by psychological distress. Chillingworth attaches himself
to the ailing minister and eventually moves in with him so that he can provide his patient with roundthe-clock care. Chillingworth also suspects that there may be a connection between the ministers
torments and Hesters secret, and he begins to test Dimmesdale to see what he can learn. One afternoon,
while the minister sleeps, Chillingworth discovers a mark on the mans breast (the details of which are
kept from the reader), which convinces him that his suspicions are correct.
Dimmesdales psychological anguish deepens, and he invents new tortures for himself. In the
meantime, Hesters charitable deeds and quiet humility have earned her a reprieve from the scorn of
the community. One night, when Pearl is about seven years old, she and her mother are returning home
from a visit to a deathbed when they encounter Dimmesdale atop the town scaffold, trying to punish
himself for his sins. Hester and Pearl join him, and the three link hands. Dimmesdale refuses Pearls
request that he acknowledge her publicly the next day, and a meteor marks a dull red A in the night
sky. Hester can see that the ministers condition is worsening, and she resolves to intervene. She goes
to Chillingworth and asks him to stop adding to Dimmesdales self-torment. Chillingworth refuses.
Hester arranges an encounter with Dimmesdale in the forest because she is aware that Chillingworth
has probably guessed that she plans to reveal his identity to Dimmesdale. The former lovers decide to
flee to Europe, where they can live with Pearl as a family. They will take a ship sailing from Boston
in four days. Both feel a sense of release, and Hester removes her scarlet letter and lets down her hair.
Pearl, playing nearby, does not recognize her mother without the letter. The day before the ship is to
sail, the townspeople gather for a holiday and Dimmesdale preaches his most eloquent sermon ever.
Meanwhile, Hester has learned that Chillingworth knows of their plan and has booked passage on the
same ship. Dimmesdale, leaving the church after his sermon, sees Hester and Pearl standing before the

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town scaffold. He impulsively mounts the scaffold with his lover and his daughter, and confesses
publicly, exposing a scarlet letter seared into the flesh of his chest. He falls dead, as Pearl kisses him.
Frustrated in his revenge, Chillingworth dies a year later. Hester and Pearl leave Boston, and no one
knows what has happened to them. Many years later, Hester returns alone, still wearing the scarlet
letter, to live in her old cottage and resume her charitable work. She receives occasional letters from
Pearl, who has married a European aristocrat and established a family of her own. When Hester dies,
she is buried next to Dimmesdale. The two share a single tombstone, which bears a scarlet A.
Source: http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/scarlet/summary.html

Period of Realism
While romanticism was still the fashion in writing, realism, a new literary movement began to
be popular. In literature, the term realism may be loosely applied to any writing that seeks to
portray life exactly as it is, without embellishment or idealization.
In a more restricted sense it is applied to the style of such novelists as Gustave Flaubert, in
opposition both to romanticism and naturalism.
Other writers of note in this movement are Bjornson, Anderson, and Chekhov.
Realism coincided with Victorianism, yet was a distinct collection of aesthetic principles in its
own right. The realist novel was heavily informed by journalistic techniques, such as
objectivity and fidelity to the facts of the matter. It is not a coincidence that many of the better
known novelists of the time had concurrent occupations in the publishing industry. The idea of
novel-writing as a report grew out of this marriage between literature and journalism.
Another fair comparison would be to think of the realist novel as an early form of docudrama,
in which fictional persons and events are intended to seamlessly reproduce the real world. The
Victorian Period saw growing concern with the plight of the less fortunate in society, and the
realistic novel likewise turned its attention on subjects that beforehand would not have
warranted notice. The balancing act that the upwardly mobile middle class had to perform in
order to retain their position in the world was a typical subject for realistic novels. There arose
a subgenre of Realism called Social Realism, which in hindsight can be interpreted as Marxist
and socialist ideas set forth in literature.
Contemporary Period
The 20th century brought many new writers and new ideas. Because of the fantastic progress
and giant strides done in all aspects of life, it is difficult to keep track of the dimensions
literature and the various branches of knowledge have gained.
Something should be said about the literature of Asia at this point. In the past 2,500 years, it
has been influenced by the interaction between Chinese, Indian, Islamic, and European,
including Russian, factors.
China molded the civilization of eastern Asia, including Japan, Korea, and Annam, and was
primary influence on Mongolia, Tibet, Thailand, Cambodia, and Burma.
Indian influence has mainly expressed itself through Hinduism and Buddhism. These are not
merely religious in nature but have carried with them Indian art and literature, and often an
Indian alphabet, as in Tibet, Java and Cambodia.

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Philippine literature, like that of other countries, started with incantations, myths, and folktales
developed through the years. With the introduction of Christianity, our literature underwent
periods of orientation and growth and now has a place among the great works of the world.
Through the ages, practically all parts of the world, writers of literature have not only given
much pleasure, knowledge, and interest to readers, they have also reflected their respective
developments and aspirations, and inspired men to think noble thoughts and do notable deeds.

Source: Nem Singh Rosario P. (2011) Anthology of World Literature..Anvil publishing Inc.,
Mandaluyong City

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