1.

1 THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING FAMILY OF MODELS

The models in this family are designed to teach students the skills of learning through thinking.
They aim at increasing students ability to seek and master information, organize it, build and test
hypotheses, apply what they are learning in their independent reading and writing and their
exploration of themselves and the world around them. The models in this family emphasize
"Ways of enhancing the human being's innate drive to make sense of the world by acquiring and
organizing data, sensing problems and generating solutions to them, and developing concepts
and language for conveying them" (Joyce and Weil, 1992, as cited in Zhang and Collis, 1995).
2.1.1 Inductive Thinking Model
This model attempts to increase the individuals ability to seek and master information,
organize it, build and test hypotheses, and apply what has been learned in independent reading,
writing, and the exploration of themselves and the world about them. This model is designed to
help develop inductive mental processes, especially the ability to categorize and use categories.
The model has a cooperative system, but the teacher is the initiator and controller of activities.
They match tasks to students level of cognitive activity and determine students readiness.
In contrast with the deductive method, inductive instruction makes use of student
noticing. Instead of explaining a given concept and following this explanation with examples,
the teacher presents students with many examples showing how the concept is used. Basically,
inductive reasoning goes from particular to general. This model can be used effectively for
teaching science concept and grammar.
Syntax
The essence of the inductive process is the continual collecting and sifting of
information; the construction of ideas, particularly categories, that provide conceptual control
over territories of information; the generation of hypotheses to be explored in an effort to
understand relationships better or provide solutions to problems; and the conversion of
knowledge into skills that have practical application (Joyce, 2009).
The sequences of different activities make syntax of the teaching strategies. Each and
every strategy has its three phases as under:
(i)

Concept Formation:

Phase One: Enumerate and list

Phase Two: Group
Phase Three: Label, categorize
Concept formation includes identifying and numerating the data that are relevant to a
problem, grouping those items according to some basis of similarity and developing
categories and labels for the groups. The teacher tries to encourage the students to
find out, enumerate and make the list of significant information related to a problem.
(ii)

On the basis of similarity, the students further try categories and label for the groups.
Interpretation of Data
Phase Four: Identify dimensions and relationships
Phase Five: Explain dimensions and relationships.
Phase Six: Make inferences
This teaching strategy depends on the whole mental operation consisting the process
of interpreting, inferring and generalizing. The teacher may use the questions to elicit

(iii)

the activities for identifying points.

Application of Principles:
Phase Seven: Hypothesize, predict, consequences
Phase Eight: Explain and/or support the predictions and hypotheses
Phase Nine: Very the prediction
At this stage, the teacher induces the students to explain new phenomena.

Instructional and Nurturant Effects

This model is designed to instruct students in concept formation and at the same time
teach concepts. It nurtures attention to logic, language and the meaning of words, and the nature
of knowledge.

2.2 THE SOCIAL FAMILY OF MODELS

The models associated with the social interaction family are focused on developing the concepts
and skills needed to work in groups. The models in this family emphasize the relationship of the
individual with the society or other person. The core objective is to help students learn to work
together, to identify and solve problems, either academic or social in nature. It emphasise the
relationship to society, and to other persons, and give priority to the importance of democratic
process, and the importance of society.

2.2.1 Group Investigation Model

This model encourages cooperative inquiry into social and academic problems. Teachers
facilitate students in group work that incorporates the scientific methodology for research. It is
designed to lead students to define problems, explore various perspectives on the problems, and
study together to master information, ideas, and skills (Joyce and Weil, 2004). It is designed for
the development of skills for participation in democratic social process through combined
emphasis on interpersonal skills and academic inquiry skills. Teacher plays a role as facilitator
and academic counsellor.
Syntax
Joyce and Weil (2004) present the group investigation model as consisting of six phases:
(a) Phase One: Encounter Puzzling Situation
First, the teacher presents a multi-faceted problem to the class, and students choose an
interest group.
(b) Phase Two: Explore Reactions to the situation
Groups plan their investigation the procedures, tasks and goals consistent with the
chosen subtopic.
(c) Phase Three: Formulate study task and organize for study
Groups carry out the investigation as planned in the above step. The teacher's role at this
step is to follow the investigative process, offering help when required: suggesting
resources, ensuring a variety of skills is being used.
(d) Phase Four: Independent and Group Study
Groups plan their presentation. They evaluate what they have learned, and synthesize it
into a form that can be understood by the class.
(e) Phase Five: Analyse progress and process
Students analyze the required roles, organize themselves. Then, students conduct the
presentation.
(f) Phase Six: Recycle activity
Finally, the teacher and students evaluate the investigation and resulting presentations.
Throughout the process, group representatives often make reports to the class, helping
group members appreciate that they are part of a larger social unit.
Instructional and Nurturant Effects

This model is a very direct and efficient way of teaching academic knowledge as well as
social process. Interpersonal warmth and trust is nurtured along with respect for negotiated rules
and policies, independence in learning, and respect for the dignity of others.

2.3 THE BEHAVIORAL SYSTEMS FAMILY OF MODELS

This family attempts to build efficient environments for sequencing activities and for shaping
behaviour by manipulating reinforcement. These models were guided and developed from an
analysis of the processes by which human behaviour is shaped and reinforced, and are based on
behaviour modification, behaviour therapy, and cybernetics theories. This family of models
attempts to change the behaviour of the learner or transmit the culture by teaching skills and
knowledge. For instance, the learner is considered to be a system that can be influenced by
feedback. It is based on the concept that information and abilities are best learned by doing.
Teachers guide students through tasks or processes step by step and give corrective feedback to
establish understanding and comprehension. It emphasis on the process itself is important to
bring about understanding.

2.3.1 Mastery Learning

Mastery Learning is an instructional strategy based on the principle that all students can
learn a set of reasonable objectives with appropriate instruction and sufficient time to learn. It put
the techniques of tutoring and individualized instruction into a group learning situation and
brings the learning strategies of successful students to nearly all the students of a given group.
Carroll suggested that instruction should focus more on the time required for different
students to learn the same material. In Carolls view, student with very low aptitude with respect
to a particular kind of learning simply take a much longer time to reach mastery than students
with a higher aptitude. It means that students differ in the amount of learning time they need.
Carroll identified two factors that affected the learning rate of a student, perseverance of the
student, and the opportunity to learn. Bloom suggested that although students vary widely in
their learning rates and modalities, if teachers could provide the necessary time and appropriate
learning conditions, nearly all students could reach a high level of achievement (Guske, 2010). In

other words, all learners can have the potential to learn any instruction given if they are given
sufficient time and quality instruction.
Syntax
(i)
(ii)

Teachers clearly state the objectives representing the purpose of course.

Teachers organize the important concepts and skills they want students to acquire into

(iii)

learning units, each with their own objectives and assessment.

Learning materials and instructional strategies are identified; teaching, modeling,
practice, formative evaluation, re-teaching, reinforcement, and summative evaluation

(iv)

are included.
Each unit is preceded by brief diagnostic test, or formative assessments. Following
high-quality initial instruction, teachers administer a formative assessment that
identifies precisely what students have learned well and where they still need

(v)

additional work.
The results of formative tests are used to provide supplementary instruction, or
corrective activities to help the learner overcome problems.

Instructional and Nurturant Effects

This model allows struggling students an opportunity to master critical concepts before
new content is introduced. Besides, feedback that is given during this process is helpful for the
student. It also develops self-initiation and self-direction of learning. Furthermore, each pupil
will be able to develop a demonstrable degree of mastery.

2.4 THE PERSONAL FAMILY OF MODELS

The models in this family focus on the individual and give emphasize on the development of
integrated feeling, thinking self the personal identity. They shape the environment around the
capacity for self-education and the need to develop self-awareness and understanding. The
personal family models begin with the perspective of the individual and allow teachers to impact
self awareness so that learners become responsible of their own growth. The emphasis of this
model is on developing an individual into an integrated confident and competent personality.
They attempt to help students understand themselves and their goal, and to develop the means for
educating themselves.

2.4.1 Non-directive Teaching Model

The non-directive model brings student and teacher together in a cooperative effort to
guide the student to autonomy as a learner. The teacher acts as a facilitator providing coaching
assistance whereas student initiates. In this model, the teacher reaches out to students, conducts
empathetic communication which nurtures and develops the students self-confidence and
direction to help students define problems and take action to achieve solutions. We use
nondirective techniques when we are counselling the students, synectics to enhance creativity,
classroom meetings to build the community of learners.
Syntax
The nondirective interview has a sequence divided into five phases of activity:
(a) Phase I: Defining the helping situation.
The instructor encourages the students to express their expressions freely.
(b) Phase II: Exploring the Problem
Students are encouraged to define problem and teacher accepts and clarifies feelings.
(c) Phase III: Developing insights
Student discuss problem and support is given by the teacher.
(d) Phase IV: Planning and Decision Making
Students plans initial decision making. Teacher clarifies possible decision.
(e) Phase V: Integration
Students gains further insight and develop more positive actions. Teacher is supportive.
Instructional and Nurturant Effects
The activities of this model are determined by the learner as he or she interacts with the
teacher and other learners. The instructional effects are dependent on its success in nurturing
more effective self-development. The model can be thought of as entirely nurturant in character
dependent for effects on experiencing the Nondirective environment rather than carrying content
and skills through specifically designed activities. The nurturant effects of this model include
self-development; personal awareness; and a variety of social and academic goals.

CONCLUSION

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