Ep1 2

Electrical Power (ELX303)
Lesson 2: Performance Of Synchronous Machines
LESSON 2
PERFORMANCE OF SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINES
INTRODUCTION
This lesson carries on from work completed on the basics of
synchronous machines in an earlier module entitled Electrical
Power Systems and Machines. It will review machine equations
and describe tests to determine the parameters of a machine.
Performance in terms of power v load angle will be presented and
synchronising power discussed. This then leads naturally to the
effects of a sudden short-circuit on the terminals of such a
machine and prepares the way to the next lesson in the topic
Electrical Generation entitled Power System Stability.
YOUR AIMS
As a result of undertaking this lesson you should be able to:
understand the machine equations for modelling the

synchronous machine and resulting from the interrelationships
between the component parts
understand the basic machine tests to ascertain values for the

parameters for the machine model
understand the machine performance in terms of Power v

Load Angle and the interrelationship with the power system to
which it is connected
understand machine operating charts and the links to correct

power system management
introduce the principles of modelling of salient pole machines

as an alternative to the round rotor machines that form the
majority of generator applications.
University of Sunderland
Page 1
Page 2
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHASOR DIAGRAM

FOR A GENERATOR
Figure 1 shows a cross-section of a cylindrical rotor which adopts
the standard procedure of the armature winding being on the
stationary part, the stator.
Phase A
'
'
(a)
Fa
Fr
(b)
Figure 1: Relationship of time and phasors and space phasors

for a generator
The rotating part, the rotor, carries a dc. current through a field
coil, which at the snapshot point displayed produces a magnetic
field mmf, F whose axis is degrees ahead of the axis of the
f
resultant mmf, Fr, produced after subtraction of the armature
reaction effect, Fa, due to Ia. Recall that both mmfs are rotating at
the same speed, the synchronous speed, given by:
n=
where
f
revs 1
p
is the supply frequency and p is the number of pairs of

poles
m is the resultant flux crossing the air gap and linking the
m
rotor and stator to produce the phasor E, N a
dt
leading m by 90 and shown in Figure 1

f is the flux produced by the field mmf and
a is the
armature reaction or demagnetising effect produced by the
armature or stator current Ia.
This diagram neglects magnetic leakage and saturation and

considers a unity power-factor condition with Ia in phase with E.
Note also the position of the rotor at an angle ' ahead of the
resultant mmf.
Page 3
Mathematically:
r
r
r
Fr = Ff + Fa
Saturation being neglected for the moment, each of the mmf

components produces a proportionate flux component, the time
variations of which are represented in Figure 1 by m, f and
respectively. The flux equation follows from the mmf. equation
as:
r
r
r
=
+
m
f
a
Rearranged this equation gives:
r
f
r
m
+(
r
a
Viewed at in this way, f is composed of

a to cancel armature reaction.
to generate E, and
Figure 1 also shows that because of the armature flux a there is

an angular advance of the rotor from the position it would have
had on no load at the same instant in the terminal voltage cycle.
The angle is termed the load angle but this excludes the effect
of leakage. Consequently, the true load angle is slightly
different. It can be measured by using a stroboscope with its light
flashing in step with the machine frequency and supplied from the
machine terminals. A fixed mark on the rotor is, therefore, sighted
at a particular instant in the machine terminal voltage cycle. As
the prime mover applies more torque to the shaft, there is a
momentary acceleration until the machine takes up a new angular
position relative to the rotating armature mmf, where it can
develop an equal counter-balancing torque electromagnetically.
The load angle is related to torque production in the machine by a
sine function, i.e. T sin and since the machine is at constant
speed, the power generated is also proportional to sin .
Page 4
EFFECTS OF LEAKAGE
Armature
winding
Field winding
fL
m
aL
(a)
total
oL
(b)
Figure 2: Flux components on load: (a) flux pattern; (b) phasor diagram
Figure 2 shows the flux pattern present in part of the machine

(half of one phase of the stator), illustrating that a small
proportion of the flux created by the armature current does not
link with the field winding. When this leakage flux and armature
reaction flux are grouped together as the total self-produced flux
of the armature, the corresponding self-inductance, when
multiplied by the angular frequency of the supply, , is called the
synchronous reactance:
Xs =
Na
d( al + a )
= x al + X m
dia
i.e. leakage reactance, xal, plus magnetising reactance, Xm.

Later sections will describe test procedures whereby
measurements may be made of these parameters.
Page 5
COMPLETE PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR A

GENERATOR
jXs Ia
Ef
jX muIa
jX alIa
E
Ra Ia
Ff
Ia
Fa m
Fr
al
Figure 3: Generator phasor diagram; unsaturated machine
Figure 3 shows the complete phasor diagram for a generator

assuming an unsaturated machine. This diagram may be
simplified if we ignore the mmfs and fluxes, and group the
machine reactances as xal + Xm = XS as in Figure 4. This allows
us to use the terminal voltage V as a reference and makes the
drawing of the phasor diagram a simple task. Further
simplification is possible if we ignore machine winding resistance.
However, with simplicity comes some loss of accuracy in
prediction of regulation and excitation level.
Ef
jI X
a s
RI
aa
90
(a)
Ia
Ia
Xs
Ef
Ra
V 0o
Figure 4: Simplified voltage phasor diagram (a)

and equivalent cct (b)
Page 6
(b)
EFFECT OF SATURATION ON XS
The open-circuit characteristic is the graph of generated voltage
against field current with the machine on open circuit and running
at synchronous speed. The short-circuit characteristic is the graph
of stator current against field current with the terminals shortcircuited. Figure 5 illustrates these curves.
Air gap line
D
1.5
1.5
1.0
0.5
Stator voltage p.u.

Stator voltage p.u.
Statorcurrent
currentp.u.
p.u.
Stator
Open circuit
curve
Saturation line
1.0
Short circuit
curve
0.5
G H
1 p.u.
0
A
K
2 p.u.
Field for armature creation

Field current p.u.
Field for leakage flux
(Xl = 0.1 p.u.)
Figure 5: Open and short-circuit characteristics of a synchronous machine.
Unsaturated value of XS =
FK
. With operation near nominal voltage,
CK
the saturation line is used to give linear characteristic with saturation.
Here the value of XS is equal to the open-circuit voltage produced

by the same field current that produces rated current on shortcircuit, divided by this rated armature current. The value of XS is
only at a constant value over the linear part of the open-circuit
characteristic (the initial part of the air-gap line shown in Figure
5). Here, XS is termed the 'unsaturated value' and equals the ratio
FK
Xs =
in the diagram.
CK
Page 7
The value of XS at full-load current will be less than this value

because of the machine being normally operated in a higher, nonlinear part of the characteristic.
The short-circuit ratio (SCR) of a generator is defined as the
ratio between the field current required to give nominal or 1 perunit open-circuit voltage and that required to circulate full-load or
1 per-unit current in the armature when short-circuited. In
AH
Figure 5 the short-circuit ratio is
.
AK
This is approximately 0.63 from the figure and is larger than the
AG
unsaturated value obtained from the ratio
.
AK
This is a crude allowance for saturation and it is common practice
to assume that synchronous reactance XS = 1/SCR, which in this
example is 1.58 p.u. This is an approximation and methods exist
for better estimation of machine reactance, such as the technique
which follows.
The open-circuit voltage against excitation characteristic shown in
Figure 5 illustrates the non-linear nature of the magnetic circuit
within the machine. This presents a difficulty for mathematical
modelling of the machines circuit performance, and this magnetic
saturation effect must be taken into account for accurate
prediction of regulation and excitation levels. At rated output
voltage levels maintained, say, by a voltage regulator, excitation
levels vary according to load level and power factor. This infers
different levels of magnetic saturation and value for synchronous
reactance as the machine conditions vary. The leakage reactance
for the machine remains unchanged but the mutual reactance
modelling the armature reaction effect falls as excitation level
increases. To try to model correctly the value of reactance, an
average saturation line is drawn through an airgap excitation point
(E = kfsFr ) on the open-circuit characteristic, and determined
from the modulus of the equation E = V + ( Ra + jxal)Ia. If the
unsaturated value of the synchronous impedance Xsu and the
leakage reactance xal have been found from the short-circuit test
and zero power factor test respectively, the value of the saturated
synchronous impedance can be found from:
X ss =
k fs
kf
(X su xal ) + xal
where xal is the leakage reactance for the machine, kf is the air gap
line slope kf and kfs is the slope of the average saturation line. In
k
some texts the ratio f is termed k, the saturation factor.
k fs
Page 8
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SYNCHRONOUS

MACHINE UNDER BALANCED THREE-PHASE
FAULT CONDITIONS
A typical set of oscillograms of the currents in three armature
phases when a synchronous generator is suddenly short-circuited
is shown in Figure 6(a). In all three traces, a direct-current
transient offset is evident due to the point-on-wave application of
the fault. However, even after removal of the d.c. offset as in
Figure 6(b), it is still evident that conditions inside the machine
are such that a stable value of synchronous reactance does not
exist until several seconds have elapsed. There are various
physical reasons for this, and when the equivalent circuit model of
the machine is being considered, it is convenient to consider the
machine to have two new reactances. In the first period of the
transient (some 10 or 12 cycles of the mains period), the value of
XS is made equal to what is termed its subtransient reactance, X''
and in the subsequent period up to several seconds after the fault
to a value of XS equal to X', the transient reactance.
Let the no-load phase voltage of the generator be Eo volts (rms).
Then from Figure 6(b), the subtransient reactance:
X '' =
E0
ob / 2
where ob / 2 is the rms value of the subtransient current I''.

The transient reactance:
X'=
E0
oa / 2
where oa / 2 is the rms value of the transient current, and

finally:
Xs =
E0
oc / 2
Page 9
Time
a phase
Armature current
b phase
b
c phase
c
Instant of
short circuit
(a )
Envelope of 50 Hz waveform
Armature current
Instant of
short circuit
10
0 .2 (s)
1 2 cycles
Time(s)
(b )
Figure 6:
(a) Oscillograms of the currents in the three phases of a generator when a sudden short
circuit is applied
(b) Trace of a short-circuit current when direct-current component is removed
Page 10
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS IN PARALLEL

A2
A2 B2 C2
A
Lamp
M/c
2
Incoming
C1
A1
A1 B1 C1
C2
M/c
1
B2
B1
(b)
(a)
Figure 7: Synchronising
Consider two machines A and B, the voltages of which have been

adjusted to equal values by means of their field regulators and
whose speeds are slightly different. Figure 7(a) shows the
situation where circuit breaker 1 is open and neither machine is
connected to the grid. The situation is similar to that found in a
ships electrical system or that on an oil rig where the generation
system is isolated from other sources. Operators of the system
require the machines to operate in parallel and it is only possible
to close circuit breaker 1 when conditions in the incoming
machine B match those of machine A. The conditions referred to
are voltage magnitude, frequency of generation, phase rotation
and phase difference in voltages. Naturally, difference may be
tolerated and a successful paralleling achieved. If paralleling is
attempted where these differences are too large, the systems
protective relaying equipment (termed a 'check- synchronising
relay') will operate to prevent closure of the circuit breaker.
Considering the machine conditions just prior to circuit breaker
closure provides some interesting aspects of why synchronous
machines are selected by supply authorities for multiple
paralleling in large inter-connected systems. Figure 7(b) shows
the phasor diagrams for the two machines, where the machines'
relative velocity is A B and the difference in phase voltage is
ERA ERB, etc. Naturally, due to the difference in speeds of
rotation of the two machines this phase voltage difference, will
vary in magnitude from zero to twice the peak phase voltage. If
the circuit breaker is closed at an instant of zero voltage difference
the machines are connected (synchronised) without the flow of
large currents. When the two machines are in synchronism they
have a common terminal-voltage, speed and frequency. Any
tendency for one machine to accelerate relative to the other
Page 11
immediately results in a retarding torque being set up due to the

current being circulated. The converse is also true where a
machine tending to slow down will be helped by its partner to try
to maintain speed.
I
A
EA
E
Z
(a)
(b )
(c)
Figure 8:
(a) Two generators in parallel equivalent circuit
(b) Machine A in phase advance of machine B
(c) Machine B in phase advance of machine A
Figure 8(a) shows two machines operating in parallel with

EA = EB and on no external load. If machine A tries to speed up
the phasor diagram of Figure 8(b) results, and a circulating
current
I=
ER
is produced.
ZA + ZB
If we ignore the effect of machine winding resistance the current

I lags ER by 90. This current is a generating current for A and a
motoring current for B, hence tending to slow down A and speed
up B. The ability of a machine to return to its original operating
state after a momentary disturbance is measured by the
synchronising power and torque. We will see shortly that the
synchronising power coefficient = dP/d , and since torque is
related to power by P = T + S, both qualities are proportional to
the slope of the power P, against load angle, , curve.
Normally, more than two generators operate in parallel and the
operation of one machine connected in parallel with many others
Page 12
is of great interest. If the remaining machines in parallel are of

such capacity that the presence or absence of the generator under
study causes virtually no difference to the voltage and frequency
of the other, they are said to comprise an infinite busbar system.
THE OPERATION OF A GENERATOR ON

INFINITE BUSBARS
Ef
IX
a s
T
E
infinite
Ia busbar
90 +
(a)
(b)
Figure 9: (a) Synchronous machine connected to an infinite busbar

(b) Corresponding phasor diagram
Figure 9(a) shows the single-line schematic diagram of a

synchronous generator connected to an infinite busbar via its
synchronous impedance XS, winding resistance being ignored.
The resulting phasor diagram for the system is shown in
Figure 9(b), the angle between the phasors Ef and V being termed
the 'load angle', as this will be shown to be dependent on the
power input from the turbine shaft. Operational and technical limit
considerations will dictate the real and reactive power output from
the generator rather than the load, when connected to an infinite
busbar. Following this section on the development of the
power ~ load angle curve and the discussion on machine stability,
a section on the performance chart of a synchronous generator
will describe operational and technical limits.
The power delivered to the infinite busbar = V Ia cos per
phase. From the phasor diagram of Figure 9(b) the sine rule
gives:
Ef
I Xs
= a
o
sin
sin( 90 + )
Now
sin( 90o + ) = cos
Hence algebraic manipulation gives:

E
I a cos = f sin
Xs
VE f
power delivered =
sin
Xs
Page 13
This equation is shown plotted in Figure 10.
P
P max
P
o
90o
180o
Electrical degrees
Figure 10: Power-angle curve of a synchronous machine.

Resistance and saliency neglected.
The maximum power is obtained at = 90. If an attempt is made

to exceed Pmax the machine rotor is pulled out of its synchronous
lock with the stator and the machine enters an unstable zone
where, with increasing load angle, electrical output is falling.
Since the mechanical input is still the same, this increasing
imbalance of powers causes the rotor to accelerate beyond this 90
limit into what is clearly an unstable zone. Beyond 180 the
output of the generator begins to rise once more as a new pole
alignment occurs. This phenomenon is known as pole slipping,
since the rotor will slip pole to pole in a series of hops, in
conditions where the maximum output demand just exceeds Pmax.
Loss of synchronism results in the interchange of current surges
between the generator and the network as the poles of the machine
pull into synchronism and then out again. = 90 is known as the
steady-state stability limit and clearly operators of such
machines must allow a safety margin between the normal
operating point and this limit, to prevent any small system
disturbance from making the machine unstable. It is possible for
Page 14
the machine to exceed the limit of 90 for a short period due to a

sudden large change in conditions such as caused by a power
system fault, provided successive oscillations of the load angle
diminish and the rotor settles to a stable steady state position.
Study of the stability of machines in power system networks is the
subject of the next lesson in this topic. It is now possible to see the
significance of the synchronising power coefficient = dP/d ,
VE f
which is the slope of the P =
sin relationship.
Xs
dP VE f
cos watts per radian,
=
d
Xs
gives a measure of the stiffness of the system to disturbances.
This slope which is simply
Figure 11 shows the phasor diagram for the synchronous machine

at the steady-state limit of stability. Note that at this condition the
machine has a leading power factor, i.e. current is leading terminal
voltage. Figure 12 shows the phasor diagrams for the machine for
constant output power but different excitations, illustrating the
control of power factor via the excitation level of the machine.
Finally, Figure 13 shows the phasor diagram for operation of the
machine at variable power but with constant excitation. What is
clear from this discussion and diagrams is that this particular
machine is flexible in mode of operation, and to keep it within its
ratings whilst getting the optimum performance requires
management of its operation. This is aided by the use of what is
termed a performance or operating power chart for the
synchronous machine. Basically, this is a chart with boundaries or
limits of operation on it that the machine is not allowed to
transgress. In practice, transducers employed on the machine
monitor its operating state and give a visual display of operating
point within these boundaries. Most generating authorities ensure
their machines remain at some previously computed operating
point in terms of power and power factor to suit the network to
which they are attached.
Ef
IaXs
Ia
V
Figure 11: Phasor diagram for the synchronous machine at
the steady state limit of stability
Page 15
E1
1
Unity Power factor

generation
I1 X
(a)
V
I1
Lagging Power
factor generation
(over-excited)
E2
2
I2 X
(b)
V
Constant power
current locus
(Icos = constant)
I2
E3
I3 X
I3
(c)
3
Leading Power
factor generation
(under-excited)
Figure 12: Phasor diagrams for the synchronous machine for

constant output power but different excitation
Ef
I1 XS
Locus of Ef
Ef
I2
I1
I2XS
Figure 13: Operation at variable power and constant excitation
Page 16
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR OPERATING

CHARTS
Locus of constant Ef
(circle centre O)
S
P
Ef
Locus IXS
(circle centre O)
V
O q
(a)
Generating
+P
Stator current limit

Power limit
Practical limit
of stability
3EV
f
X
3 VI
3 VI cos
Excitation or
field limit
O
3V 2
Xs
3 VI sin
-Q
(b)
+Q
-P
Motoring
Figure 14: (a) Phasor diagram of synchronous generator and
(b) Construction of performance chart
(each phasor scaled by 3V/XS giving a vertical axis of
real power and a horizontal axis of reactive power)
Figure 14(a) shows the phasor diagram for the machine and
indicates the simple scaling exercise to create a chart with axes of
real power (X axis) and reactive power (Y axis). If line voltage
values or per-unit quantities are employed in the scaling process,
the values of real and reactive power are those for a three-phase
machine rather than on a per-phase basis.
Figure 14(b) shows a typical operating power chart for a
synchronous generator that results when this construction is
Page 17
employed and boundaries or limits are placed on it for power,

excitation or field current, stator current and steady state stability.
EXAMPLE 1
Sketch the operating chart for the following synchronous
generator.
Machine data: 60 MW, 0.8 p.f., 75 MVA, 11.8 kV, SCR 0.63,
3000 r.p.m., maximum excitation 2.5 p.u.
SOLUTION
1
1
1
Xs =
=
p.u. =
Z base
SCR 0.63
0.63
=
1 (kV ) 2
1 (11.8) 2
= 2.94 / phase
0.63 Sbase 0.63
75
Figure 15 illustrates the construction of the operating chart.

Power (MW)
150
0.8 p.f. lagging
Ef = 2.5 p
.u.
Ef = 2 p. u
100
e
a Ef = 1 p.u.
b
50
MVA
Od
O
Leading
50
100
Lagging
Figure 15: Performance chart of a synchronous generator
Page 18
MVAr
After selecting a centre point O, a semicircle is drawn at radius 75

MVA based on this point. This is the MVA boundary. A
horizontal line is then drawn parallel to the x axis at a distance
equivalent to 60 MW. This is the machine power output boundary.
A new centrepoint O' is then calculated, the offset from O being
(11 .8 ) 2
2.94
= 47 MVAr . A second semicircle is then drawn of

radius 2.5 47 to represent the excitation boundary. As can be
seen, this just clips the MVA boundary at point h and forms part
of the operating chart boundary, between h and the horizontal
axis. The practical stability boundary to the left of the vertical
axis is formed by allowing a 10% safety margin between the
theoretical steady state stability power limit and a practical
working level. This ensures that the steady state load angle is
always at a practical level below that of the theoretical level of
90, (sin10.9 = 73 in this example). The point on the boundary of
the operating chart for the practical stability limit is found by the
intersection of radii based on centre O' and associated horizontal
parallel lines drawn on the chart such as that illustrated in
Figure 15, e.g. radius O'a corresponds to an excitation level and
terminal voltage of 1 p.u. or 47 MVAr, and the associated 90%
power level (90% of 47 MVAr to give a 10% margin) is the line
bc. The radius O'a intersects the line at point c giving the
maximum practical stability point with a 10% safety margin. The
load angle of 73 is that subtended between O' and point c.
As an example of the use of the chart, the full-load operating point
g (60 MW, 0.8 p.f. lagging) will require an excitation Ef of 2.3
p.u. and the measured load angle is 33. This can be checked by
using:
power =
VE f
11800 2 2.3
sin = 60 10 6 =
sin
2.94
Xs
from which
= 33.3
Page 19
REGULATION CURVES FOR A SYNCHRONOUS

GENERATOR
Zero p.f.
cos = 0, leading
Eo = no load emf
Output
voltage at
constant
excitation
Unity p.f.
Zero p.f.
lagging
cos= 0
Irated
Iload
Figure 16: Regulation curves for a synchronous generator
Figure 16 illustrates the resultant regulation curves for a

synchronous generator with constant excitation and the full range
of power factor loads from zero p.f. lagging through unity p.f. to
zero p.f. leading.
Voltage regulation in per-unit terms is given by:
Regulation p.u. =
E0 V
V
where E0 = no-load voltage and V = rated voltage.
PREDICTING SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

VOLTAGE REGULATION
Methods:
Page 20
(i)
Synchronous impedance method (emf method)
(ii)
Ampere turn method (mmf method)
(iii)
Separation method ((i) and (ii) combined)
(iv)
Adjusted synchronous impedance method.
(i) SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD

Here, reliance is placed on the machine phasor diagram and the
value assumed for the synchronous impedance, ZS. Knowledge of
the impedance value, the load power factor and machine rated
current will lead directly to a prediction of machine voltage
regulation, i.e. the variation of terminal voltage from no-load to
full-load conditions. The inaccuracy of this method lies in the
value assumed for the synchronous reactance, which if the
unsaturated value is used, leads to a higher than likely figure for
regulation.
(ii) AMPERE TURN METHOD
Here, all the change in voltage no load (E0) to load (V) is assumed
due only to magnetic effect (armature reaction). Armature or
stator resistance and leakage inductance are ignored, hence this
technique leads to an underestimate of machine voltage
regulation. The following example illustrates the technique.
EXAMPLE 2
A 6.6 kV, star connected, 3 phase, 50 Hz synchronous generator
has the following open-circuit characteristic:
Phase
Volts
(kV)
Field
Current
(A)
2.7
3.6
4.3
4.75
5.1
5.6
100
150
200
250
300
400
Full-load current is obtained on short-circuit when the excitation

is 180 amps.
Using the ampere turn method, determine for full load at a power
factor of 0.9 lag:
(a) the excitation current
(b) the percentage voltage regulation.
Note that Vphase =
VLINE 6.6 kV
=
= 3.81 kV
3
3
Page 21
SOLUTION
It is assumed that this machine produces a line voltage of 6.6 kV
when on full load at a power factor of 0.9 lag.
Ff
Fa
= cos -1 0. 9
(90 - )
V = 3.81 kV
(phase voltage)
Fr
Fr = 165 N f
N = number of turns on field

f
Figure 17: Phasor diagram for Tutorial Example No. 2
Figure 17 shows a phasor diagram where the resultant excitation,

after the interaction of the magnetic field produced by the rotor
excitation current and that produced by the armature or stator
current, induces the line voltage of 6.6 kV on the terminals of the
machine. Note how the voltages of the standard phasor diagram
for the synchronous machine are replaced by excitation mmf
values related to the rotor excitation current ( Ff), the armature or
stator reaction demagnetising mmf ( Fa) and the resultant
excitation (Fr) producing the terminal voltage.
The question details the excitation current to produce full-load
current on short-circuit. This is a direct measurement of the
armature reaction effect at full load since under the short-circuited
condition, the rotor excitation is completely cancelled by the
armature reaction effect.
If we now proceed to plot the open-circuit characteristic data
given in the question, we can draw to scale the phasor diagram
from Figure 17 superimposed on it. Figure 18 shows this
procedure, which starts with deriving the excitation current to give
a terminal phase voltage of 3.81 kV. This is a figure of 165 A. The
next step is to draw a line representing the armature reaction Fa.
This is drawn at an angle of = cos-1 0.9 = 25.8 allows the
required rotor excitation level to be determined. This corresponds
to a level of 290 A, which, if the machine was on open-circuit,
would give a phase terminal voltage of 5.05 kV.
Hence regulation =
Page 22
5.0 3.81
= 0.325 p.u.
3.81
Plot of O.C.C.
E = 5.05 kV
f
4
Machine
phase
voltage
(kV)
3
PH
= 3.81 kV
F =165A
r
(excitation to pr oduce 3.81 kV)

F =180A due to armature r eaction
a
(short-cir cuit test information)

2
F magnitude is 290 A
= cos
-1
0.9 = 25.84
100
200
290
= 165A Machine rotor excitation current (A)
Figure 18: Ampere-turn method of determining voltage regulation

(Example 2)
(iii) SEPARATION METHOD

The synchronous impedance method leads to high regulation
estimates, (saturation effects not included) and the mmf method to
low values.
In order to obtain optimum accuracy both are combined in the
separation method. For this, two test conditions are applied:
(a) short-circuit at rated current
(b) rated current at zero power factor and rated voltage.
The zero power factor (ZPF) load test arrangement is shown in
Figure 19(a). Figure 19(b) shows the resultant phasor diagram
under this wattless generation condition in which the armature
reaction Fa is subtracted from the field excitation Ff to give the
resultant excitation Fr. This in turn produces the induced voltage E
from which the voltage drop due to leakage inductance may be
subtracted to give the rated terminal voltage for the machine. Test
results from the ZPF load test will, if plotted on the same graph as
those for the open-circuit test, shadow the latter.
Page 23
Variable
reactive load
Irated
If
Vrated
Ef
Rotation
at synchronous
speed
Figure 19: (a) Zero power factor test arrangement
Ef
jX m
jX a l
V ra te d
Fa
Fr
Ir a te d
Ff
Figure 19: (b) Machine phasor diagram for the
Potier point condition
Figure 20 illustrates the expected plotted relationship from such

tests. The shadow point on the ZPF plot may be obtained by
subtraction of the leakage reactance effect (Ixal), which is TS, and
the armature reaction effect (Fa), which is SP in Figure 20. These
effects may be expected to be constant over the excitation current
range and so the ZPF characteristic plotted for rated current over a
range of excitation currents will shadow the open-circuit machine
characteristic. The point on the ZPF characteristic giving rated
output voltage and current is known as the Potier point. Example
3 illustrates the technique of estimation of machine voltage
regulation using this method.
Page 24
OC
Air-gap
line
Zero PF
@ rated I
T
Machine
rated
voltage
V S
P
Potier point
(zero PF @ rated
current & voltage)
Make PV = Ao
Draw VT // Air-gap line
TS = IXal, SP = Fa
Figure 20: Open-circuit and zero power factor load test

characteristics used to predict voltage regulation
EXAMPLE 3
Find the regulation of a 1000 kVA, 2000 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase
synchronous a.c. generator at rated load and 0.8 p.f. lag.
The machine open-circuit voltage values with their associated
excitation levels expressed in percentage terms are shown in the
table below.
Excitation
(%)
Open-Circuit
Voltage (%)
25
80
100
125
160
200
35
90
100
110
120
128
An excitation of 80% is required for rated load current on shortcircuit, and 200% for rated current at rated voltage with zero
power factor lagging.
SOLUTION
(a) Figure 21 shows a plot of the open-circuit curve for the
machine.
(b) The Potier point is then established (V = 100% and excitation
= 200%).
(c) An excitation current of 80% was required to produce rated
load current from the machine so point V is established at
120%, 80% excitation away from the Potier point.
Page 25
(d) A line is then drawn from point V parallel to the initial

gradient of the open-circuit characteristic, which intersects the
latter at point T.
(e) The perpendicular distance from T to the V = 100% line at
point S represents the Ixal drop and the horizontal distance SP
represents the armature reaction effect Fa. In this example
Ixal = 11% and Fa = 72%.
(f) The information derived from the test measurements and plot
now allows the construction of a phasor diagram including
currents, voltages and excitations for the machine, at the
power factor prescribed in the question. Figure 22 shows the
diagram where the numbered circled points on the diagram
illustrate the sequence of steps taken to produce it. At point 4,
having established that the internally generated e.m.f. E must
be 108% to overcome the leakage reactance and produce rated
voltage V = 100% on the terminals of the machine, use is then
made of Figure 21 to derive a figure for the resultant
excitation to produce E = 108%. This figure is Fr = 120% and
is drawn on the phasor diagram at 90 to phasor E (step 5).
Adding Fa = 72% (step 6), gives the required excitation Ff to
produce 100% terminal voltage, and overcome armature
reaction effects and leakage reaction, while delivering rated
current at a power factor of 0.8 lag. This figure is 176% in this
example and once again returning to Figure 21 this may be
seen to produce an open-circuit voltage Ef of 123%.
(g) Regulation =
Page 26
Ef V
V
100 =
123 100
100 = 23%
100
Saturation line
Air-gap line
14 0
Ff = 176%
12 0
Open
circuit
curve
Ef = 123%
T
V%
E = 108%
10 0
IL X L
Rated V = 100%
V
11%
P, Potier
point
Fa =72%
90%
80
60
40
Fr = 120 %
20
80%
0
0
50
100
(Sh ort-circuit V= 0)
Excitation %
150
20 0
Figure 21: Separation method, Example 3
IXL =11%
3
Vrated
4
6
Ff =176%
Fa= 72%
Fr = 120%
f rom cur ve
100
7
= cos -1 0.8 1
8
Fr om c urve (for Ff = 176% )
Irat ed
E f = 123%
Figure 22: Phasor diagram for separation method, Example 3
Page 27
(IV) ADJUSTED SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE METHOD

This method attempts to take into consideration the effects of
saturation on the value of the synchronous reactance Xs, the
criticism of method 1 being that it used the unsaturated value Xsu
which leads to higher predicted values of regulation than expected
practically. Recall that if the unsaturated value of the synchronous
reactance Xsu and the leakage reactance xal have been found from
the short-circuit test and zero power factor test respectively, the
value of the saturated synchronous impedance can be found from:
k fs
X ss =
kf
( X su x al ) + x al
where xal is the leakage reactance for the machine, kf is the air gap
line slope and kfs is the slope of the average saturation line. In
some texts the ratio kf/kfs is termed k, the saturation factor. The
phasor diagram is then used to predict the internal emf Eo to
produce rated terminal voltage and current so that the regulation
calculation may be made. The following tutorial example uses the
same machine test information as Example 3 and demonstrates
this calculation method.
EXAMPLE 4
Calculate the percentage voltage regulation using the adjusted
synchronous impedance method for the machine of Example 3.
SOLUTION
For the machine data of the last tutorial example, Ixal = 11% and
the resulting air-gap excitation voltage after phasor addition was
108%. This establishes the slope of the saturation line given the
open-circuit characteristic results. (E = 108% gives a
corresponding excitation level Fr = 120%)
Given that an excitation current of 80% is required for rated load
current (100%), on short-circuit, examination of the open-circuit
characteristic will reveal a corresponding excitation voltage of
90% for the 80% excitation current level. This means that the
unsaturated synchronous reactance (ignoring stator resistance) is
simply:
X su =
90%
= 0.9 p.u.
100%
The air-gap line has a slope of:

kf =
Page 28
35
= 1. 4
25
and with the saturation line having a slope of:

k fs =
108
= 0.9
120
the saturation factor:

k=
X ss =
kf
k fs
k fs
kf
1. 4
= 1.556
0.9
( X su xal ) + xal =
(0.9 0.11)
+ 0.11 = 0.618 p.u.
1.556
This saturated value of reactance would give an internal voltage

of:
Ek = V + jX ss I = 1 0o + j 0.618 1(0.8 j 0.6)
= 1.37 + j0.494 1.456 p.u.
The % excitation current corresponding to the voltage taken from

the saturation line is:
% excitation =
1.456
= 162%
0.9
which produces a % excitation voltage on the open-circuit

characteristic of approximately 121% giving a regulation figure of
21% contrasting with the 23% of Example 3.
EFFECT OF FIELD POLE SALIENCY

Salient-pole construction is a characteristic of synchronous
machines that have a large number of poles and operate at low
speeds to produce the desired output frequency. Hydroelectric
generators are salient-pole synchronous machines. The generators
of gas and steam turbines are normally round rotor machines, as
they operate at high speeds, and have few poles, generally two or
four. With a salient pole generator configuration the gap
reluctance is not constant around the periphery due to the salient,
or projecting, poles with concentrated windings. It is a minimum
along the main poles or direct axis and a maximum at 90
(electrical) to the main axis, i.e. along the quadrature axis.
For a round rotor (cylindrical) machine the effective mmf, Fr, was
obtained by the direct vector addition of Ff and Fa, regardless of
the axis of Fa (which changes with power factor)
i.e. resultant flux =
( F f + Fa )
R
Page 29
where R is the magnetic reluctance along the axis. With a salient

pole generator configuration, the gap reluctance is not constant
around the periphery. It is a minimum along the main poles or
direct axis and a maximum at 90 (electrical) to the main axis, i.e.
along the quadrature axis.
We resolve Fa into two components:
Fd along the direct 'd' axis, and Fq along the quadrature 'q' axis.
Hence
The gap permeance P =

Therefore,
Fq
Rq
( F f + Fd )
Rd
1
R
= Pq Fq + Pd ( F f + Fd )
Note that this is a phasor sum since Fq and Fd are at right angles to
each other.
The equation for
may be written as follows:

= PdFr
where
Fr = KFq + F f + Fd and K =
Pq
Pd
K is called the cross reaction coefficient.

K depends on the ratio
pole arc
pole pitch
Figure 23 illustrates the geometry and defines the terms pole arc
and pole pitch. Basically, the pole arc is the amount of the rotor
surface covered by steel.
K depends mainly on the ratio
Page 30
pole arc
pole pitch
Pole pitch
Po
le
a
r
c
Figure 23: Pole arc amount of rotor covered by steel
Figure 24 shows the mmf and emf diagram for a salient pole
generator.
Fq
e
Ef
Kfq
d
c F
a
Fd
Fo
E
Fr
IX
V
Id
Iq
Figure 24: MMF and EMF diagram for salient pole machine
Notes:
1. Id and Iq do not, strictly speaking, exist since current I is a
function of time, while the d and q axes are a function of
space.
2.
ed ab
=
=K
ec ac
Page 31
SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCES Xd AND Xq, FOR

A SALIENT POLE MACHINE
To facilitate steady state calculations for a cylindrical (round)
rotor we use XS or ZS so that:
E f = V + IZ s which, because R is small, approximates to
E f V + jIX s
For a salient pole machine we use Xd with Id and Xq with Iq giving

the equation:
E f V + jI d K d + jI q X q
Figure 25 shows the phasor diagram for the machine including

the open- circuit voltage Ef. The dotted line shows the equivalent
open-circuit voltage Ef for a round rotor machine. The load angle
for the round rotor machine is larger than that for the equivalent
salient pole machine under identical loading conditions. This is
basically due to the combined reactance effects being smaller in
the salient pole machine. Figure 25 illustrates this point by
constructing the phasor diagram using Xq = Xd, which results in a
larger reactive drop, so increasing load angle.
E'f
jIq Xq
Ef
jI Xs
j Id Xd
IR
I
Iq
Id
Figure 25: Comparison of phasor diagrams for the round
rotor and salient pole synchronous generators
Note:
E'f and ' are the values for a round rotor (i.e. Xs=Xd = Xq)
The value of Ef and E'f are similar, but ' > , i.e. saliency gives
lower values of load angle.
Page 32
MEASUREMENT OF XD AND XQ SLIP TEST

A salient pole machine rotor without excitation is driven at a
speed which gives a very slight slip, and a low three-phase voltage
is applied to the armature. Under these conditions the armature
mmf (Fa) drifts past the direct axis and then the quadrature axis.
Figure 26 illustrates the armature voltage and current waveforms
and denotes the maximum and minimum levels of these circuit
variables. From these figures:
Xd =
Vmax
V
and X q = min
I min
I max
max
Vmin
Armature
volts
50Hz
Quadrature
axis
Direct
axis
Imax
Armatur e
curr ent
Imin
Vmax
= Xd
I min
Vmin
= Xq
I max
Figure 26: Armature voltage and current waveforms from a slip test
Page 33
SALIENT POLE A.C. GENERATOR ON INFINITE

BUSBARS
I
IX
q q
IX
d d
Figure 27: Phasor diagram for the salient pole generator on

infinite busbars
Figure 27 shows the phasor diagram of the generator with the

current phasor I resolved into components along the direct and
quadrature axes. (In phase and at right angles to E). The diagram
ignores stator resistance and gives the power equation:
P = V cos I q + V sin I d per phase
Now
I d X q = V sin , hence I q =
similarly
I d X d = E f V cos
and hence
Id =
V sin
Xq
E f V cos
Xd
Substituting for Id and Iq gives:

P=
V cos V sin V sin E f V cos V sin

+
per phase
Xq
Xd
Xd
After rearranging and using the identity sin cos =
P=
VE f
Xd
sin +
V 2 sin 2
2
Xd Xq
X X
d
q
sin 2
2
per phase
Note that the first term is identical to the expression for power
generated by a round rotor machine and the second term has no Ef
variable in the expression, indicating a distortion to the power ~
load angle curve due to the inequality of the direct and quadrature
axes reactances. This is reflected in a typical plot of the curve
shown in Figure 28, which reveals a stiffer form of machine
power ~ load angle curve in the stable region but with a reduced
maximum load angle limit for stable operation.
Page 34
P ower/
torque
VEf
sin
Xd
Excitation
component
Component due to
saliency
V 2 sin 2 X d X q
2
X d X q
Figure 28: Power ~ load angle
EXAMPLE 5
A 6.6 kV, 6 pole, 50 Hz, star-connected synchronous generator
has reactance values Xd = 8.7 /phase and Xq = 4.35 /phase. If
the excitation is adjusted to give an emf of 11 kV and the load
angle is 30, determine:
(a) Output power and current and power factor.
(b) Load angle corresponding to maximum power.
SOLUTION
6.6
11
V phase =
= 3.81kV and E phase =
= 6.35kV
3
3
Figure 29 shows the construction of the phasor diagram given
these voltages and load angle. (Note that a lagging power factor
load is assumed for the generator because of the overexcitation
condition for Ef.)
Page 35
d
c
IqXq
Ef
6.35
kV
b
30
O
V = 3.81 kV
30
IdX d
a
I
Figure 29: Phasor diagram for Tutorial Example No. 5
Ef = Og cos 30 o , hence Og =
6.35
= 7.35kV
0.866
ag = 7.35 - 3.81 = 3.54 kV

ab = I d X d = ag cos 30 = 3.06 kV
Id =
3060
= 352 A
8.7
cg = Og sin 30 = 3.675 kV
bg = ag sin 30 = 1.77 kV
hence
cb = I q X q = ( cg bg ) = 3 . 675 1 .77 = 1 .905 kV

therefore
Iq =
1.905
= 438 A
4.35
I = I d + I q = 353 2 + 438 2 = 562 A / phase

2
To obtain the load phase angle we use the relationship:
I
tan 1 d
I
q
= + = + 30 o = tan 1 353 = 37.8 o
438
from which = 7.8 o

Hence
Page 36
and
cos = 0.991lagging
P = 3 6.6 562 0.991 = 6367 kW
SUMMARY
This lesson has extended the coverage of synchronous machines from the second level module
entitled Electrical Power and Machines and has shown the development of phasor diagrams to
represent the machines electrical performance, so that indices of performance such as voltage
regulation might be calculated by engineers. To improve the accuracy of estimation of regulation,
the topic of magnetic saturation and its effect on the machine reactance were discussed together
with four methods of estimating regulation and their corresponding accuracy. Practical tests were
described to measure machine parameters and linked to the regulation prediction methods.
Linked to the machines non-linear magnetic circuit behaviour is its impedance under fault
conditions where, at different points after a short-circuit fault on its terminals, a machine can be
viewed to have a variable reactance dependent on time with three distinct periods; a subtransient
reactance during the first 10 or 12 mains cycles after the fault; a transient reactance in the
following period of up to several second; then a steady state reactance in the period following.
The behaviour of the machine when in parallel with another machine was discussed to bring out
the feature of inherent synchronising stability that this form of electrical machine possesses, and
what happens when such machines are attached to systems containing what might appear to be an
infinite number of generators of the same form. The mathematical expression for the power
generated into this 'infinite bus' was developed. This shows the machine relationship between
generated power and what was termed the 'load angle', which is the electrical phase angle
between the internally induced emf and the terminal voltage of the machine.
Engineers must be aware of the electrical boundaries of operation of the synchronous generator to
avoid overtaxing the machine or causing it to lose synchronism with the power system to which it
is attached. The synchronous generator operating chart is a means of giving visual indication of a
generator's electrical operating state, given a set of electrical load conditions. Although only
presented as a graphical exercise in this text, such indications are directly available on a control
engineer's desk within a power station to ensure generation conformity.
A final section on a salient pole generators discussed the primary differences in construction to
those for a round rotor machine and developed the equations for the machine's phasor diagram
and power generation so that a graphical comparison of power against load angle could be made.
Page 37
Page 38
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1
(Separation method)
A 5 MVA, 6.6 kV, 3-phase, 50 Hz, star connected turbo alternator has a resistance per phase of
0.1145 . Test figures for line volts on open circuit and for line volts with rated current and zero
power factor are:
Field
Current
(A)
V1
O/C
(kV)
V1
ZPF
(kV)
40 60
80
100
120
160
200
240
4.7
5.4
6.55
7.3
7.78 8.06
0.7 1.75
2.7
4.3
5.45 5.15
280
5.5
Find the excitation current required to deliver rated output at 0.8 p.f. lagging and the p.u.
regulation.
QUESTION 2
(Same question as Q1 but using ampere turn method for comparison purposes)
Using the information provided in Q1 find the excitation and p.u. regulation using the ampere
turn method.
QUESTION 3
(Separation method taking into account saturation effect on synchronous reactance)
(a) Explain what information can be derived from:
(i) open-circuit characteristic
(ii) short-circuit characteristic
(iii) zero power factor at rated current characteristic
The following data were obtained for the O/C characteristic of a 13 529 kVA, 13.8 kV, 60
Hz, 3-phase, two pole turbine generator:
Line
Voltage
(kV)
Exciting
Current
(A)
5.25 10.5 13.8 15.75 17.2 18.0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Page 39
(b) The excitation current required to give rated kVA at ZPF and rated voltage is 368 A, and
rated current on short-circuit is 188 A. Ignoring resistance, complete the following tasks:
(i) Draw the Potier triangle and determine the leakage or Potier reactance x and the
component of field current to overcome the mmf of armature reaction.
(ii) Calculate the value of the saturated armature reactance by using the saturation factor k
and the regulation of the synchronous generator, when delivering rated load at 0.85 power
factor current lagging.
QUESTION 4
Construct a performance chart for a 22 kV, 500 MVA, 0.9 p.f. generator having a short-circuit
ratio of 0.55. Assume a 10% stability margin and a rotor excitation limit of 2.5 p.u.
QUESTION 5
Two three-phase, 6.6 kV, star connected generators supply a load of 3000 kW at 0.8 p.f. lagging.
The synchronous impedance per phase of machine A is 0.5 + j10 and of machine B is 0.4 + j12
. The excitation of machine A is adjusted so that it delivers 150 A at a lagging power factor, and
the governors are so set that the load is shared equally between the machines. Determine the
current, power factor, induced emf and load angle of each machine.
QUESTION 6
A salient pole synchronous generator has Xd = 0.9 per unit and Xq = 0.6 per unit. The machine is
operating at full-load, 0.8 p.f. lagging. Calculate the value of excitation in terms of the terminal
voltage. Calculate also the load angle and the values of direct and quadrature-axis currents.
Neglect resistance and saturation.
Page 40
ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Series 2
Series 1
240
200
Field current (A)
40
60
Air-gap
line
80
100
E = 7.2 kV
120
160
Fg = 197A Fo = 236A
(S)
(V)
IXL
(T)
Ef = 7.74 kV
Open-circuit and ZPF line voltage (kV)
= 880 V
Fa = 48A
280
Potier
point
(P)
ANSWER 1
Line
voltage
(kV)
Figure 30: Plot of data for Self-Assessment Question 1
Page 41
The plot of the data given in Q1 is shown in Figure 30. The first step is to establish the Potier
point (6.6 kV, 280 A). The excitation on short-circuit to give rated current from the machine is 60
A and a line scaled to this equivalent length is drawn horizontally from the Potier point back
towards the vertical axis. This establishes point (V) on Figure 30. A line is then drawn parallel to
the initial slope of the open-circuit characteristic and intersects the latter at point (T). A vertical
line dropped from this point to the 6.6 kV line gives Ixal = 880 V (length T-S). Length S-P is then
the armature reaction effect Fa = 48 A.
Use is then made of the phasor relationship between V, Ixal and E in Figure 31 to establish the
latter at 7.2 kV.
(Use may be made of the stator resistance quoted in the question but it makes very little practical
difference to the answer:
I line =
5000
3 6.6
= 437.4 A
The machine is star connected so that this current is also the phase current and the voltage drop
due to resistance is
437.4 0.1145 = 50 V.
Adding this level of voltage makes very little difference to the resultant phasor diagram and so
can be ignored).
Fa = 48A 6
F f=236A
7
Fr=197A
(from curve)
5
IX L=880V
3
4
E = 7.2 kV
Vrated=6.6 kV(LINE)
2
Irated
= cos-1 0.8
1
Figure 31: Phasor diagram for Self-Assessment Question 1
Return is then made to Figure 30 using E to give the corresponding excitation, Fr, of 197 A.
Reverting back to Figure 31, the values of Fr(197 A) and Fa(48 A) are then added vectorially
to produce the excitation level Ff (236 A).
Using this value of Ff of 236 A, the open-circuit characteristic reveals a voltage of Ef = 7.74
kV at this level of excitation, i.e. this machine, when delivering rated current at a power factor
Page 42
of 0.8 lagging, requires an excitation current level of 236 A to produce a rated line voltage of
6.6 kV at its terminals. On open circuit this excitation produces a line voltage of 7.74 kV,
which means that the regulation will be:
7.74 - 6.6
Regulation =
= 0.17 p.u.
6.6
ANSWER 2
This approach underestimates regulation by ignoring the leakage reactance voltage drop. Fullload current is obtained on short-circuit when the excitation is Fa = 60 A. The terminal line
voltage is 6.6 kV and the corresponding excitation current to produce this voltage is Fr = 163 A.
The load power factor is 0.8 lag so the phasor addition of Fr and Fa shown in Figure 32 gives Ff =
205 A. This level of excitation would give an open-circuit voltage of 7.36 kV and hence a
regulation figure of:
7.36 6.6
= 0.115
6.6
Compare this to the previous question where the excitation level was 236 A and regulation 0.17
p.u. and these may be seen to be an underestimation.
Ff
Fa
=cos-1 0.8
Fr
V= 2.81 kV
(Phase voltage)
Fa 60A
Fr 163A
By phasor addition
Ff 205A
Page 43
ANSWER 3
(a)
(i) Refer back to Figure 5 and its use in conjunction with the short-circuit test (giving Xsu ) to
predict machine voltage regulation and required excitation level. The air gap line and average
saturation line may be drawn if the leakage reactance xal and load conditions are known. This
gives the ratio kfs/kf which is the reduction factor to apply to the unsaturated magnetising
impedance value (Xsu - xal), giving
X ss =
k fs
kf
(ii) The short-circuit test contributes the excitation required to produce rated current from
the machine on short-circuit output conditions. This value is then used, in conjunction with
the open-circuit characteristic, to predict the internal voltage source level present during the
short-circuit test. The impedance Zsu Xsu if resistance is ignored, and equals the ratio of this
voltage to rated current.
(iii) The zero power factor test is the most accurate of the three test methods for predicting
machine voltage regulation since it incorporates an allowance for leakage reactance (ignored
by the ampere turn method) and also magnetic saturation. (Synchronous impedance method
using an unsaturated value of Xs, or Xsu in previous discussions on the effects of saturation).
(b)
(i) Figure 33 shows a plot of the open-circuit
characteristic(OCC) and the Potier point established at d.If(SC) = 188 A, which measured back
from point d gives point a. The air-gap line may be drawn as shown and a line drawn parallel
to it from point a to intersect the OCC at point c. This then establishes the leakage reactance
voltage drop xalI, (distance cb = 2000 V), and the component of field current to overcome the
mmf of armature reaction (distance bd = 168 A).
The rated current for the machine is:
I=
13529
3 13.8
= 566 A
hence the leakage reactance (some texts use the term Potier reactance, xp, from the technique
of derivation) equals:
x al =
Page 44
2000
3 566
= 2.04
Potier
point
400
300
350
386 A
200
Field excitation A
250
If (sc) = 188 A
Fa 168 A
Ixal =2000 V (distance cb)
315 A
150
173 A
18
16
14
12
10
100
50
14
Voltage
line-toline
kV
20
E = 14,950 V
air-gap
line
Saturation
line
Ef = 18.3 kV
142 A
Figure 33: Characteristics of a 13 529 kVA, 60 Hz, three-phase turbine generator
Page 45
(ii) Terminal volts per phase,
V =
13800
3
= 7960V
The air-gap emf is given by the phasor sum:

E = V + jx al I
so that using the terminal voltage as the reference phasor 79600V, current then becomes
566(0.85-j0.527) A, given the 0.85 lag power factor of the load.
E = 7960 0 + 2.490 o 566(0.85 j 0.527)

E = 8750 + j981
E = 8630 6.65 V / phase

The line-to-line voltage is:
3 8630 = 14950 V
This requires an excitation current of 173 A as determined from the OCC of Figure 33. The
same value of voltage would only require an excitation mmf of 142 A on the air-gap line.
Hence the saturation factor k is given by:
k=
173
= 1.22
142
The unsaturated synchronous reactance is given by the voltage taken from the air-gap line for
an excitation current of 188 A, which is the excitation current to produce rated current of 577
A on short-circuit. This voltage, taken from an extended air-gap line is 19 800 V.
X su =
19800
3 566
= 20.2
The saturated synchronous reactance is then given by:

X ss =
X ss =
k fs
kf
( X su x al )
+ x al
k
20.2 2.04
+ 2.04 = 16.9
1.22
Page 46
If the armature resistance is neglected, the induced voltage to give rated terminal voltage is:
E f V + jX ss I = 7960 + j16.9 566(0.85 j 0.527)
=15320 32V
The line-to-line magnitude of this voltage is:
3 E f = 26600 V
The excitation current obtained for this value on the line 0X of Figure 33 is 315 A, which
produces a line-to-line voltage on the open-circuit characteristic of 18 300 V. The regulation
is therefore,
regulation =
18.3 13.8
= 0.326
13.8
ANSWER 4
Xs =
1
1
1
=
= p.u.
Z base
SCR 0.55
0.55
1
(kV )2
0.55 Sbase
1
(22) 2
= 1.76 / phase
0.55 500
Page 47
Power MW
Excitation boundary
E = 2.5
5 00
450 MW
Generator operating point for

output of 450 MW @ p.f. lagging
h
a
b
Ef =V= 1p.u.
c
MVA limit
= 33
0
Leading
Lagging
500
MVar
Figure 34: illustrates the construction of the operating chart.
After selecting a centre point O, a semicircle based on this point is drawn at radius 500 MVA.
This is the MVA boundary. A horizontal line is then drawn parallel to the x axis at a distance
equivalent to 450 MW. This is the machine power output boundary. A new centrepoint O' is then
calculated, the offset from O being:
(22) 2
= 275 MVAr
1.76
A second semicircle, based on O', is then drawn of radius 2.5 275 =687.5 MVA to represent the
excitation boundary. As can be seen, this just clips the MVA boundary at point h and forms part
of the operating chart boundary, between h and the horizontal axis. The practical stability
boundary to the left of the vertical axis is formed by allowing a 10% safety margin between the
theoretical steady state stability power limit and a practical working level. This ensures that the
steady state load angle is always at a practical level below that of the theoretical level of 90.
(sin10.9 = 73 in this example). The point on the boundary of the operating chart for the practical
stability limit is found by the intersection of radii based on centre O' and associated horizontal
parallel lines drawn on the chart such as that illustrated in Figure 34. For example radius O'a
corresponds to an excitation level and terminal voltage of 1 p.u. or 275 MVA and the associated
90% power level (90% of 275 MW to give a 10% margin) is the line bc. The radius O'a intersects
Page 48
the line at point c giving the maximum practical stability point with a 10% safety margin. The
load angle of 73 is that subtended between O' and point c.
As an example of the use of the chart, the full-load operating point at g, (450 MW, 0.90 p.f.
lagging) will require an excitation Ef of 2.3 p.u. and the measured load angle is 33. This can be
checked by using:
power =
VE f
sin = 450 10 6
Xs
22 10 3 2.3 10 3
sin
1.76
from which = 33.3
ANSWER 5
For Machine A:
Pt
1500
2
cos A =
=
3 VL I A
3 6.6 150
= 0.874
A=
Total current =
-29
3000
3 6.6 0.8
(cos 1 0.8)
= 328(36.87)
= 262 - j197 A
IA = 150 -29 = 131 -j72.6 A
IB = (262 - j197) - (131 -j72.6)
= 131 -j124.4
= 181 -(cos-10.723) A
cos
= -43.7
Taking V as the reference phasor, the excitation voltage in machine A is:
Page 49
EA =V + I AZ A
6.6
E A =
0 + (131 j 72.6)(0.5 + j10) 10 3
3
E A = 4.6 + j1.27 kV
A = tan 1
Load angle
1.27
= 15.4
4. 6
The equivalent line-to-line value of the induced voltage in machine A is:
3 (4.6) 2 + (2.27) 2 = 8.26 kV

For machine B:
EB =V + I BZ B
6.6
E B =
0 + (131 j124.4)(0.4 + j12) 10 3
3
E B = 5.35 + j1.52 kV
Load angle
B:
B = tan 1
1.52
= 15.9
5.35
The equivalent line-to-line value of the induced voltage in machine B is:
3 (5.35) 2 + (1.52) 2 = 9.6 kV

The phasor diagram for the two machines is shown in Figure 35.
Page 50
EB = 5 .56 15 .5 kV
E A = 4.77 15 .4 k V
A = 1 5.4 , B= 15 .8
A= - 29
=
-c os -1 (0 .8)
V = 6 .6
= -36 .87
0 kV
I = 1 50 - 29 A
A
= - 43.7
B
IB = 18 1 - 43. 7 A
IT = 328
-3 6.8 7 A
ANSWER 6
Referring to Figure 36 and taking V as phasor reference at 1 per-unit, full-load current as 1 perunit:
V sin = X q I q = 0.6 I a cos( + )
Since V and Ia are 1 per-unit,

Therefore
sin = 0.6 (cos cos sin sin )

cos = 0.8 and sin = 0.6
so that sin = 0.6(0.8 cos 0.6 sin )

from which
tan = 0.353 or = 19.4
Page 51
E f V cos = X d I d = 0.9 I a sin( + )
where
= cos 1 (0.8)
In per-unit:
E f = cos19.4 + 0.9 sin( 36.9 + 19.4)
E f = 0.942 + 0.9 0.833 = 1.69 per unit
I q = I a cos(36.9 + 19.4)
I q = 1 0.55 = 0.555 per unit
I d = I a sin( 36.9 + 19.4)

I d = 1 0.833 = 0.833 per unit
Ef
IqX q
Vsin
= Iq X q
Iq = Ia cos ( + )
Id Xd
= E f - V cos
Ia
Id = Ia sin ( + )
Figure 36: Phasor diagram for Self-assessment Question 6
Page 52

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Electrical Power (ELX303)

Lesson 2: Performance Of Synchronous Machines

understand the machine equations for modelling the

understand the basic machine tests to ascertain values for the

understand the machine performance in terms of Power v

understand machine operating charts and the links to correct

introduce the principles of modelling of salient pole machines

Electrical Power (ELX303)

Lesson 2: Performance Of Synchronous Machines

Electrical Power (ELX303)

Lesson 2: Performance Of Synchronous Machines

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHASOR DIAGRAM

Figure 1: Relationship of time and phasors and space phasors

is the supply frequency and p is the number of pairs of

leading m by 90 and shown in Figure 1

This diagram neglects magnetic leakage and saturation and

Electrical Power (ELX303)

Lesson 2: Performance Of Synchronous Machines

Saturation being neglected for the moment, each of the mmf

Rearranged this equation gives:

Viewed at in this way, f is composed of

Figure 1 also shows that because of the armature flux a there is

Electrical Power (ELX303)

Lesson 2: Performance Of Synchronous Machines

Figure 2 shows the flux pattern present in part of the machine

i.e. leakage reactance, xal, plus magnetising reactance, Xm.

Electrical Power (ELX303)

Lesson 2: Performance Of Synchronous Machines

COMPLETE PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR A

Figure 3 shows the complete phasor diagram for a generator

Figure 4: Simplified voltage phasor diagram (a)

Electrical Power (ELX303)

Lesson 2: Performance Of Synchronous Machines

Stator voltage p.u.

Field for armature creation

the saturation line is used to give linear characteristic with saturation.

Here the value of XS is equal to the open-circuit voltage produced

Electrical Power (ELX303)

Lesson 2: Performance Of Synchronous Machines

The value of XS at full-load current will be less than this value

Electrical Power (ELX303)

Lesson 2: Performance Of Synchronous Machines

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SYNCHRONOUS

where ob / 2 is the rms value of the subtransient current I''.

where oa / 2 is the rms value of the transient current, and

Electrical Power (ELX303)

Lesson 2: Performance Of Synchronous Machines

Electrical Power (ELX303)

Lesson 2: Performance Of Synchronous Machines

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS IN PARALLEL

Consider two machines A and B, the voltages of which have been

Electrical Power (ELX303)

Lesson 2: Performance Of Synchronous Machines

immediately results in a retarding torque being set up due to the

Figure 8(a) shows two machines operating in parallel with

If we ignore the effect of machine winding resistance the current

Electrical Power (ELX303)

Lesson 2: Performance Of Synchronous Machines

is of great interest. If the remaining machines in parallel are of

THE OPERATION OF A GENERATOR ON

Figure 9: (a) Synchronous machine connected to an infinite busbar

Figure 9(a) shows the single-line schematic diagram of a

sin( 90o + ) = cos