Engineering Geology 185 (2015) 8195

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Geology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Experimental studies on ignimbrite and the effect of lichens and

capillarity on the deterioration of Seljuk Gravestones
Ali zvan a,, smail Diner b, Mutluhan Akn c, Vural Oyan c, Mcip Tapan d
a

Department of Geological Engineering, Yuzuncu Yil University, Van, 65080, Turkey

Department of Geological Engineering, Nevehir Hac Bekta Veli University, Nevehir, 50300, Turkey
Department of Mining Engineering, Yuzuncu Yil University, Van, 65080, Turkey
d
Department of Civil Engineering, Yuzuncu Yil University, Van, 65080, Turkey
b
c

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 23 November 2013
Received in revised form 1 December 2014
Accepted 4 December 2014
Available online 15 December 2014
Keywords:
Ignimbrite
Deterioration
Seljuk gravestones
Capillarity
Lichen

a b s t r a c t
Ignimbrites are used extensively in masonry and decorative cladding not only in historical structures, but also in
residential houses recently as well as monuments around Ahlat (Bitlis-Turkey) region because of their light
weight, softness and insulating properties. The most famous architectural monument is the Ahlat Seljuk
Tombs, in which ignimbrites were used for the structure. These are thousand year old gravestones that have
been subjected to signicant degradation over time caused by many physical and chemical effects. The aim of
this study is revealing the mineralogical, petrographical, petrophysical and mechanical properties of fresh ignimbrites as well as determining the effect of lichens and capillarity on the deterioration of Seljuk gravestones in accordance with laboratory studies and eld observations. A total of four different ignimbrite levels have been
evaluated, which are widespread in the region and named as N1 (reddish brown), N2 (dark brown), N3 (yellowish gray) and N4 (black), respectively. Among these ignimbrites, the samples of N1 and N2 were employed in the
construction of Seljuk gravestones. The lithic material content and welding degree are the main controlling factors of the engineering properties of ignimbrites. Laboratory test results indicate that high porosity of ignimbrites
and transport of water mediated by capillarity accelerate the deterioration of ignimbrites. Furthermore, lichens
play a preventive role in the deterioration mechanism of ignimbrites rather than disintegrating the tombstones.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Natural stones have been widely used by the mankind in the history.
Especially, easily processed stones have been preferred in numerous
historical structures, which reect the cultural habits of the societies
lived in the period of the construction. Additionally, natural stones,
used as building material, have been employed for decorative purposes
after a certain period. Lightness, strength and good heat-insulation have
been the most important characteristics of these stones considered during the selection phase. Many of these natural stones have been either
deteriorated or completely destroyed under atmospheric conditions.
Accordingly, so many studies have been conducted to reveal the
physico-mechanical properties as well as the deterioration mechanisms
of natural building stones in the preserved historical structures (Topal
and Doyuran, 1997; Siegesmund et al., 2002; Aydan and Ulusay, 2003;
Topal and Szmen, 2003; imek and Erdal, 2004; ner et al., 2006;
Yaar et al., 2007; Binal, 2008; Koralay et al., 2011).
Ignimbrite is one of the most preferred building stones in the natural stone market because of its lightness and structure that can be
easily processed. Besides, they have been also used in numerous
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: aozvan@yyu.edu.tr, aliozvan@gmail.com (A. zvan).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.12.001
0013-7952/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

historical structures. In this study, the ignimbrites used in the Ahlat

Seljuk Tombs have been investigated. The Ahlat Province is located on
the western shore of the largest lake of Turkey, the Lake Van. The Seljuks
settled in Anatolia in 1000s, especially around Ahlat and its vicinity. The
graveyard is located on a at terrain between the Lake Van and the
Nemrut Caldera (Figure 1). Ahlat is located at approximately 1700 m
above average sea level. The regional climate may cause intensive deterioration for the ignimbrites. The winters are rainy and snowy, whereas
the humidity levels are low during the summer in the region. Based on
the meteorological observation between 1967 and 2012, an arid climate
was dominant throughout the region. The year of 2000 was extraordinarily arid with the annual temperature of 10 C and average annual
rainfall of 103 kg/m2, approximately. Detailed temperature and precipitation data of the study area have been obtained from Meteorological
Agency of Turkey given in Table 1 (www.meteor.gov.tr). The region is
exposed to freezingthawing cycles under saturated condition. These
freezingthawing cycles can be considered as one of main factors of
the degradation process which is observed in the Seljuk gravestone as
well.
The ignimbrites used in Ahlat Seljuk Tombs, which look like an openair museum with historical importance, have been deteriorated under
atmospheric conditions in the course of time (Figure 2a and b). The ignimbrites were not widely used only in the construction of gravestones,

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A. zvan et al. / Engineering Geology 185 (2015) 8195

Fig. 1. The location map of the Ahlat Seljuk Tombs.

but also used in the important structures of Seljuks called as kumbets

and baths (Figure 2c). The ignimbrites, which can be easily affected by
chemical and mechanical weathering, are the products of Nemrut Volcano (Aydar et al., 2003; Karaolu et al., 2005; zdemir et al., 2006).
They have different colors such as gray, reddish brown, brown and
black. Reddish brown and dark brown ignimbrites were widely used
in the structures of Seljuks during their period of ruling.
These cultural heritage tombstones have been threatened by significant deterioration. For this reason, the weathering performance of natural stones used in cultural structures like Ahlat cemetery should be
well-dened for the protection purposes. Similar to all stone types
used in historical structures, lichen colonization is widespread on the
Seljuk tombstones especially in the close vicinity of the settlement, in
which the air is also arid and carbon-rich. It should be noted that the lichens are not observed on the lower levels of the gravestones, whereas

different type of lichens are extensively observed on the upper parts. As

known, lichen reproduction may alter the appearance and original
properties of the natural building stones in the course of time (Garty,
1992; Lisci et al., 2003). However, in some cases, lichens covering the
surface of the rocks may also protect the rock against physical
weathering (Garcia-Valles et al., 2003).
As seen in Fig. 2b, Seljuk tombs have been subjected to degradation
caused by some physical and chemical effects. According to eld observations performed on the Seljuk graveyard in Ahlat (Turkey), the tombstones were broken approximately from the middle section as well as
discoloration and lichen colonization are the most remarkable problems
seen on the surface of these historical structures. However, most of the
inscriptions on the gravestones have been preserved despite the aforementioned effects. Then, what could be the principal cause for the disintegration of tombstones leading to discoloration and particularly

Table 1
Average temperature and precipitation for the city of Ahlat.

Average (C)
Average maximum (C)
Average minimum (C)
Average precipitation (kg/m2)

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

3.0
1.2
6.3
154.1

2.1
2.3
5.7
178.4

1.7
6.1
2.0
175.2

7.6
12.9
3.2
170.2

13.2
19.3
7.4
101.2

18.5
25.4
11.5
23.4

22.8
30.4
15.6
5.8

22.3
30.7
15.2
4.2

17.6
26.3
10.7
18.0

11.3
18.6
6.3
93.0

4.7
10.3
0.8
149.6

0.8
3.4
4.1
158.8

9.48
15.57
4.38
102.65

A. zvan et al. / Engineering Geology 185 (2015) 8195

83

Fig. 2. (a) Ignimbrite gravestones in Ahlat Seljuk Tombs. (b) Signs of deterioration in ignimbrite gravestone. (c) Seljuk Kumbets constructed by ignimbrites.

breaking from the mid-point? What is the role of lichen colonization

and capillarity during this process? Based on these questions, a research
project was performed to highlight the main reasons of deterioration of
Ahlat gravestones. The determination of the degradation process is very
crucial both for conservation projects and for the protection of such cultural heritages. The main purpose of this study is revealing the mineralogical, petrographical and physico-mechanical properties of ignimbrites
and also determining the effect of lichens and capillarity on the deterioration of Seljuk gravestones in accordance with laboratory studies and
eld observations. To this end, a detailed eld investigation has been
carried out, and some block samples were collected for the tests to be
carried out in the laboratory from quarries. Core samples were extracted
from these blocks in the laboratory to determine the petrophysical and
mechanical properties of the ignimbrites. Thereafter, the selected ignimbrites samples were subjected to a model test in order to assess
the effect of capillary water absorption on weathering. The results obtained from eld observations on Seljuk tombs and laboratory studies
are given in the following sections in detail.
2. Historical signicance of the Seljuk Tombs
Ahlat is a historic settlement located in the Eastern Anatolian Region
of Turkey. It is situated between the Nemrut and Sphan volcanoes on
the north-western shore of the Lake Van. Ahlat has numerous famous
historical structures like mosques, baths, tombs, etc. The settlement history dates back to the 15th Century, BC. The Seljuk Turks came to Ahlat
in 1093 and ruled the close vicinity until 1230. The historical structures

of the region are among the nest monuments of Seljuk Architecture.

The Seljuk Tombs are the largest historical graveyards of the Islamic
world presenting 800 years of Turkish art and cultural history
(Karamaaral, 1992). The tombstones are included in UNESCO's
World Heritage Tentative List. The gravestones with different patterns
and symbolic elements are a meter and a half or even two meters high
on the surface, and the tallest gravestone is about 5 m with the buried
portion in the ground. The tombstones are made of ignimbrites, which
are also called as Ahlat stone in the region.
3. Materials
3.1. Geology
The high Plateau of Eastern Anatolia is one of the best examples of
continentcontinent collision zone in the world (Keskin, 2007). The
zone of convergence between the Arabian and the Eurasia plates has occurred along the BitlisZagros suture zone in the Middle Miocene
(engr and Kidd, 1979). Following this collision, extensive volcanic activities began across the region. Main volcanic centers such as Nemrut,
Sphan, Tendrek, Ar and Etrsk started to emerge on this high
plateau.
Quaternary Nemrut stratovolcano, located in the southwestern of
the Lake Van, is one of the most important collision-related volcanic
centers in the Eastern Anatolia with an elevation of 2950 m above the
sea level and a base area of about 210 km2, and it has also 7 8 km caldera in diameter (Figure 3). Ylmaz et al. (1998) indicate that the

84

A. zvan et al. / Engineering Geology 185 (2015) 8195

Fig. 3. Geological map of the Nemrut volcano.

volcanic activity of the Nemrut stratovolcano can be divided into ve

(pre-cone, cone-building, climatic, post-caldera and late) stages. In contrast, recent studies (Karaolu et al., 2005; zdemir et al., 2006) have
proposed three main volcanic activity stages (pre-caldera, postcaldera and late) during the evolution of the volcano. While initial products of volcano, erupted in the pre-caldera stage, are characterized with
lava ows, lava domes and large volumes of ignimbrites and associated
with pyroclastics, post-caldera stages consist of rhyolitic lava ows and
dykes (zdemir et al., 2006). In the late stage of the volcano, vitrophyric,
rhyolitic and basaltic lava ows exist.
Nemrut ignimbrite erupted in the pre-caldera stage (Karaolu
et al., 2005; zdemir et al., 2006) and spread in all directions from
the slopes of Nemrut Volcano (Figure 3). Aydar et al. (2003) mentions that the volume of the Nemrut ignimbrite is around 40 km3;
on the other hand, Karaolu et al. (2005) mention a total volume of
58.3 km3 based on three drill holes made by TPAO (Turkish Petroleum Corporation) companies.

3.2. Stone materials

Ignimbrites are highly heterogeneous throughout the region as they
involve various amounts of pumice, volcanic glass and lithic material
and they are pyroclastic ow units controlled by gravity and laminar
ow system within high temperatures. Therefore, it is possible to identify different ignimbrite levels separated by different colors, textures,
structural features and welding degrees in the Ahlat (Bitlis) region.
Koralay et al. (2011) have identied three different ignimbrite levels
based on welding degrees. All these levels were extensively used in
many parts of the Bitlis Castle as masonry materials.
In this study, a total of four different ignimbrite levels have been
evaluated, which are widespread in the region, and named as N1 (reddish brown), N2 (dark brown), N3 (yellowish gray) and N4 (black), respectively. Among these, the samples of N1 and N2 were used in the
construction of Seljuk gravestones. Although, N1, N2 and N4 are quite
different in terms of color, they can be accepted as similar materials

A. zvan et al. / Engineering Geology 185 (2015) 8195

based on their texture, structural features and welding degrees. The

ignimbrite deposits are characterized mainly by a massive, matrixsupported structure. Moreover, the lithological units are poorly
sorted with lithic fragments of various sizes scattered in the matrix,
which are poorly to strongly welded and massive. The welding degree of Nemrut ignimbrites is determined based on the attened degree of pumice fragments and the shape of amme structures as well.
A similar description about the degree of welding in pyroclastic rocks
is introduced by Karaolu et al. (2005) and zdemir et al. (2006). The
main important factor affecting the welding degree of ignimbrites is
the overburden pressure due to the accumulation of volcanic fragments during pyroclastic ow. Therefore, attened and welding degree may signicantly vary in volcanic areas considering the
amount of overburden pressure caused by volcanic fragments
(Sigurdsson et al., 2000). Lithic fragments are more abundant than
pumice class in the studied ignimbrites. The N3 ignimbrite is yellowish gray to cream color, which is welded moderately to strongly. It
can be distinguished from N1, N2 and N4 through its color and
welding degree, and also the portion of lithic fragments is higher
compared to N1, N2 and N4 (Figure 4). The sample of N4, which is
the bottom level of ignimbrites outcrops, could not be quarried due
to the lack of technology in the ancient times. Thus, the samples of
N1 and N2 were used in the construction of Seljuk gravestones,
while the N4 could not be used in gravestones. Apart from all these
levels, additional ignimbrite layers with different properties can
also be found in the close vicinity. The ignimbrites are fractured
along the layer boundaries where the colors of the layers vary.
Thick ignimbrite layers can be observed in deep valleys, whereas
the layers are thinner (0.53 m) in the at terrain. The ignimbrites
in the region are quarried by wire saw or breaking from the quarries.
The quarried rocks are cut and processed in different dimensions in
local factories (Figure 5).

3.2.1. Reddish brown ignimbrite (N1)

The N1 is reddish brown in color, poorly to moderately welded
and was extensively used in Seljuk Tombs (Figure 2 and 4). The reddish brown ignimbrites contain plagioclase, sanidine, hornblende,
volcanic glass, opaque minerals and lithic fragments (Figure 6). Lithic fragments are usually volcanic rocks that are similar to obsidian,
trachyte and rhyolite erupted from Nemrut volcano. The ratio of
the lithic fragments within the N1 samples is about 13%. According
to XRD analysis, cristobalite, quartz and feldspar minerals are

85

observed extensively (Figure 7). An intensive oxidation is also noticeable in N1 samples.

3.2.2. Dark brown ignimbrite (N2)
The N2 is dark brown in color, poorly to moderately welded and
was extensively used in Seljuk Tombs same as N1 samples. It contains plagioclase, sanidine, hornblende, volcanic glass, opaque minerals and lithic fragments (Figure 6). Lithic fragments are usually
volcanic rocks that are similar to obsidian, trachyte and rhyolite
erupted from the Nemrut volcano. The ratio of the lithic fragments
within the N2 samples is about 17%. According to XRD analysis,
cristobalite, quartz, feldspar and hematite minerals are observed extensively (Figure 7). An intensive oxidation is also noticeable in N2
samples.
3.2.3. Yellowish gray ignimbrite (N3)
The N3 ignimbrite is yellowish gray to cream color and moderately
to strongly welded. It can be distinguished from N1, N2 and N4 by its
color and welding degree. In addition, the portion of lithic fragments
is higher than other samples (Figure 4). The sample of N3 consisting
of plagioclase, sanidine and volcanic glass, does not contain hornblende
mineral, and the oxidation ratio is smaller than other samples
(Figure 6). Lithic fragments are usually volcanic rocks that are similar
to obsidian, trachyte and rhyolite erupted from the Nemrut volcano.
The ratio of the lithic fragments within the N3 samples is about 32%. According to XRD analysis, cristobalite, quartz and feldspar minerals are
observed extensively (Figure 7).
3.2.4. Black ignimbrite (N4)
The N4 contains plagioclase, sanidine, volcanic glass, opaque minerals and lithic fragments (Figure 6). Lithic fragments are usually volcanic rocks that are similar to obsidian, trachyte and rhyolite erupted from
the Nemrut volcano. The ratio of the lithic fragments within the N4 samples is about 20%. According to XRD analysis, cristobalite and feldspar
minerals are observed extensively (Figure 7). An intensive oxidation is
not observed in the samples. The N4 samples are poorly to moderately
welded.
4. Methods
In this study, 4 different ignimbrite samples, which are commonly
used in historical structures around the Ahlat region, were selected.
These samples were prepared for descriptive and experimental tests

Fig. 4. Close-up views of (a) N1, (b) N2, (c) N3 and (d) N4 ignimbrites.

86

A. zvan et al. / Engineering Geology 185 (2015) 8195

Fig. 5. (a) Quarried ignimbrites in the study area, (b) a close-up view of processed ignimbrite and (c) possible cut directions for tombstones.

on the basis of Turkish Standard Test TS 699 and Spanish Standard Test
UNE-EN 1925 as well.
4.1. Sampling and sample preparation
For the essential laboratory studies for physico-mechanical properties, block samples (approximately 0.50 0.50 0.30 m) were

collected from the ignimbrite quarries. The quarries are very close
to the Seljuk tombs and were probably used in the construction of
this graveyard. At least 12 NX size cores were drilled from the
block samples obtained. It should be considered that the length to diameter ratio was 2:1 in core samples. Following, ve thin sections
about 30 microns in size were prepared for each ignimbrite sample.
Finally, weathered surfaces of selected samples were cleaned by

Fig. 6. Microphotographs of the Ahlat Stone (a) N1 pumice fragment and opaque (Opq) minerals and pyroxene (Prx) minerals, eutaxitic texture (b) N2 lath-shaped sanidine (Sn), plagioclase (Plg), pumice fragment, rock fragment (Rf), Opaque (Opq) minerals, (c) N3 amphibole (Amf) and rock fragment (Rf) minerals, (d) N4 pumice fragment.

A. zvan et al. / Engineering Geology 185 (2015) 8195

87

Fig. 7. XRD graphs of ignimbrite (Ahlat stone) samples.

using diamond cutting disc, and then fresh samples were crushed
with jaw crasher. Afterwards, the samples were ground in an agate
ball in order to make them ready for geochemical analysis and XRD.

weight periodically. Capillary water absorption coefcient (C) was

calculated by using the following equation;
wCt

0:5

4.2. Petrographical and geochemical analysis

The analyses of thin sections under the polarizing microscope
were carried out to determine petrographic descriptions and degree
of alteration and amount of lithic materials of the samples. The analyses of major oxide element of the ignimbrite samples were performed at the ACMELab Analytical Laboratories in Vancouver
(Canada), using ICP-MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass
Spectrometry).
4.3. Petrophysical and mechanical tests
The laboratory tests were performed in accordance with ISRM
(2007), UNE-EN 1925 (1999) and TS 699 (2009). In the tests, the unit
weight (), apparent porosity (n), water absorption by weight, Pwave velocity (Vp), uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock
specimens and capillary water absorption coefcient (C) have been
determined.
The water absorption potential of ignimbrites used in Seljuk
tombs was determined, and capillary water effect on deterioration
was discussed. For this purpose, capillary water absorption tests
were performed in accordance with the standards of UNE-EN 1925
(1999). The bottom side of three core (diameter/length: 1/2) samples from each ignimbrite group were placed in a basin lled with
water (water depth: 3.00 1 mm). The basin was selected large
enough so that no signicant water level change occurred during
the test. Samples were kept in the water for 24 hours. During the
test, the mass of water absorbed by the samples was weighted for
the selected time durations (3, 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 480 and 1440 minutes, respectively). The relationship between the capillary water
absorption and time was determined by measuring the change in

where w is the absorbed water amount (gr/m2) and t is the absorption time (s).
The maximum height of the gravestones in the study area was
ve meters (Elmasta, 2001). For this reason, it is quite difcult to
use real-scale gravestones in laboratory conditions. Therefore,
small scale (1:10) rock specimens were used to simulate the effect
of capillary water. Therefore, 40 cm long ignimbrite samples were
placed into the soil (with 5 cm buried section) and poured with saline water (14% MgSO4 solution) twice a week to simulate capillary
salt movement in tombstones and to investigate the capillarity in
the laboratory.
Pore size distribution were obtained by using the mercury intrusion
technique which is suggested by ASTM method D4404 (1984), and tests

Table 2
Results of major oxide chemical analyses of four different Nemrut ignimbrite (Ahlat stone)
(all major element data were recalculated on a volatile-free basis).
Samples

N1

N2

N3

N4

%
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
TiO2
P2O5
MnO
SUM

66.25
16.03
4.47
0.21
1.45
5.90
5.11
0.40
0.06
0.14
100

66.80
15.53
4.49
0.20
1.46
5.85
5.11
0.38
0.07
0.14
100

72.43
12.44
4.28
0.04
0.45
4.96
5.10
0.26
0.01
0.11
100

66.04
16.24
4.62
0.23
1.55
5.73
5.01
0.40
0.06
0.14
100

88

Fig. 8. (a) Total alkali-silica classication diagram (b) K2O-SiO2 diagram (c) Na2O-K2O
diagram.

A. zvan et al. / Engineering Geology 185 (2015) 8195

were carried out at the Central Laboratory of Middle East Technical

University. Mercury porosimetry tests were performed on oven-dried
samples using a Poremaster 60 porosimeter, which is capable of delivering a maximum pressure of 55 psi and measuring pore diameters ranging between 0.004 and 200 m.

Table 3
Petrophysical and mechanical properties of the Nemrut Ignimbrites.
Sample no

Reddish brown (N1)

Dry unit weight (kN/m )

Saturated unit weight (kN/m3)
Apparent porosity (%)
Water absorption by weight (%)
Uniaxial compressive strength (MPa)
Uniaxial compressive strength (MPa)
P-wave velocity (m/sn)
P-wave Velocity (m/sn)

Dark brown (N2)

Yellowish gray (N3)

Black (N4)

(Koralay et al. (2011))

Max

Min

Mean

Max

Min

Mean

Max

Min

Mean

Max

Min

Mean

UL

ML

LL

15.61
18.48
31.36
20.28
17.40
17.84
1976
1875

14.64
17.55
26.41
17.26
14.41
10.21
1141
1384

15.13
17.89
28.89
18.68
15.78
13.59
1709
1554

(30)
(7)
(11)
(11)
(5)
(10)
(14)
(6)

16.54
19.12
30.47
18.71
15.01
18.31
2600
2567

14.95
17.84
25.11
15.27
10.05
6.76
1711
1807

15.77
18.60
27.40
16.92
12.10
12.17
2378
2257

(21)
(12)
(12)
(12)
(3)
(10)
(7)
(7)

18.0
19.28
21.83
13.07
29.92
30.40
2696
2598

16.37
18.37
18.26
10.81
28.55
23.12
2520
1662

16.82
18.59
20.35
12.03
28.92
26.83
2623
2212

(8)
(7)
(6)
(6)
(6)
(3)
(4)
(4)

15.85
18.66
34.11
22.81
17.90
16.42
1746
1333

14.30
17.41
28.57
17.69
8.33
8.63
1296
1228

14.85
18.00
31.53
20.80
12.43
12.31
1491
1287

(26)
(12)
(12)
(12)
(6)
(10)
(10)
(7)

15.98
18.93
24.61

15.85

18.44
20.40
24.81

25.03

22.65
22.95
25.40

41.12

Saturated test results, N: number of test, UL: upper level, ML: middle level, LL: lower level.
Mean values of Koralay et al. (2011) are presented.

A. zvan et al. / Engineering Geology 185 (2015) 8195

5. Experimental test results

5.1. Geochemistry
The chemical composition of the samples is given in Table 2. Analyses were carried out on the most porous ignimbrite samples in terms of
lithic material based on mineralogical analysis and eld observations.
On the total alkali (Na2O + K2O) vs. silica (SiO2) classication diagram
(TAS (Total Alkali Silica)), (Le Bas et al., 1986), all ignimbrite samples
were plotted in trachyte and rhyolite eld (Figure 8a). The samples having narrow range total alkali (Na2O + K2O) are classied as alkaline
with respect to Irvine and Baragar (1971) and Kuno (1968). On the
SiO2 vs. K2O and Na2O vs. K2O diagrams, all ignimbrite samples were
plotted in high K-series and shoshonitic elds (Figure 8a and b). Besides,
the samples of Koralay et al. (2011), which are obtained from the same
region, were plotted in these diagrams in order to compare with the
samples of this study. The ignimbrite samples of Koralay et al. (2011)
are consistent with the Nemrut ignimbrite on all diagrams and classied
as trachyte. These data indicate that the ignimbrites of this study and
Bitlis ignimbrite might have erupted from the Nemrut volcano and
they geochemically come from the same origin.
5.2. Petrophysical and mechanical properties
Laboratory test results are presented in Table 3. As seen in Table 3,
average dry unit weight of N1, N2, N3 and N4 are 15.13, 15.77, 16.82
and 14.85 kN/m3, respectively. Ignimbrites, which are used in the
Seljuk tombs, can be classied as rock with very low unit weight
based on the Norwegian Rock Mechanics Group (NBG, 1985). Koralay
et al. (2011) have obtained higher values than those in this study
apart from N3 (Table 3). According to NBG (1985), the porosity of the
investigated ignimbrites is very high. It is clear that the Nemrut ignimbrites have higher porosity than those of Bitlis ignimbrites (Koralay
et al., 2011). Uniaxial compressive strength of N3 is higher than the
other samples. According to Deere and Miller (1966), the N3 sample is
regarded as low strength rock considering the mean uniaxial compressive strength (28.92 MPa). Furthermore, the mean uniaxial compressive
strength of N1, N2 and N4 are 15.78, 12.10 and 12.43 MPa, respectively.
The latter specimens are classied as very low strength rocks based on
Deere and Miller (1966). In the study of Koralay et al. (2011), it has been
presented that the uniaxial compressive strength of middle (ML) and

89

lower levels (LL) of ignimbrites is higher than the samples of this

study, except the upper levels which are very similar to the N3 samples
(28.92 MPa). There is no signicant difference between saturated and
dry uniaxial compressive strength (UCS). Accordingly, the average
saturated UCS of N1, N2, N3 and N4 are 13.59, 12.17, 26.83 and
12.31 MPa, respectively. The highest saturated strength decrease is
7.22% in N3 samples. The dry P-wave velocity of the studied ignimbrites
is within the range of 1710, 2378, 2624 and 1491 m/s; whereas, the saturated values are 1554, 2257, 2212 and 1287 m/s, respectively. Ignimbrites used in Seljuk tombs are quite different from those used in
Bitlis Castle except the upper level (UL).
5.3. Capillary water absorption characteristics
Yldz et al. (2010) have indicated that historical buildings wear out
due to various natural effects and these buildings are exposed to serious
deteriorations if continuous maintenance is not provided. Water is one
of the most important environmental factors affecting these buildings.
Cueto et al. (2009) have stated that water, either alone or in combination with other environmental elements, increases damage and diminishes the mechanical properties of rocks. It is known that rocks also
deteriorate due to moisture effects. Moisture content of rocks may
vary in different ways. Capillary water absorption is one of the most
common ways. Once a porous media touches liquid, it absorbs the liquid
because of its capillarity characteristics. The water raises from the bottom to the upper part depending on the capillary water absorption characteristics of the dimension stone (Figure 9). The water evaporates and
causes deterioration in rocks by its solute property contained in the
absorbed water. In the previous studies, it has been reported that deterioration occurred as a result of capillary water absorption in the
volcanic rocks (zdemir, 2002; Aydan et al., 2007, 2008a,b; Yldz
et al., 2010). Similar to the aforementioned studies, deterioration due
to capillary water absorption can be clearly observed especially in the
middle of the Seljuk tombs.
General views of ignimbrite core samples (diameter/length:
1) exposed to capillary water absorption are presented in Fig. 10.
As seen in Fig. 10, ignimbrites of N2 and N4 were completely wet in
the rst 25 minutes, and a rapid capillarity rise was observed during
the test. For ignimbrites of N1 and N3, water could only rise to 9.27
and 2.74 cm, respectively from the bottom of samples in the same
time duration (Figure 10). The lithic materials and strong welding

Fig. 9. Deterioration of natural building stones (ignimbrites) due to capillarity in Gate of Nevehir University.

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A. zvan et al. / Engineering Geology 185 (2015) 8195

Fig. 10. General views of ignimbrite samples subjected to capillary water absorption at different time intervals.

degree of N3 samples have prevented the capillary water rise inside

the specimens, which can be clearly observed in Fig. 10. Although the
sample was completely wetted, the lithic material on the upper right
is dry. Lithic materials inside the specimens are so called water barriers since they are impermeable. Time versus capillary water levels
of samples is illustrated in Fig. 11. A similar pattern can be found also
in N1, N2 and N4 samples, whereas the capillary water absorption
characteristic of N3 is quite different. Recently, Sato and Aydan
(2014) have investigated the water absorption process of these soft
rocks sampled from antique rock structures by using the X-Ray CT
imaging technique. It has been concluded that the technique is
quite suitable to visualize and quantify the absorption process of
water by minerals or grains constituting soft rocks. It is suggested
that these methods may be used to understand the migration of
water in porous stones.
Average capillary water absorption in gr/m 2 versus the square
root of the time (seconds) is presented in Fig. 11b. Water absorption
coefcients have been found as 476.81, 685.71, 187.32 and 821.88
(g/m 2.sn0.5) for the samples of N1, N2, N3 and N4, respectively. It
can be concluded that water absorption coefcients of N1, N2 and

N4 ignimbrites are higher than that of N3. In this study, all ignimbrite
samples are classied as highly absorbing rocks with respect to
Snethlage (2005) based on their water absorption values (w).
The pore size results obtained from mercury porosimeter tests for
each ignimbrite and typical porosimetry curves of cumulative pore volume plotted versus pore diameter are given in Fig. 12. The cumulative
mercury intrusion per gram of sample (cm3/g) and pore diameter is
shown on Y and X axes, respectively. As it can be seen in Fig. 12, total
pore volume is 0.085 cm3/g for yellowish gray ignimbrite (N3), while
the values vary between 0.148 cm3/g and 0.189 cm3/g for reddish
brown ignimbrite (N1), dark brown ignimbrite (N2) and black ignimbrite (N4). In all samples, the diameter of pores varies between 0.004
and 200 m, but there is a sharp increase around 7 and 5 m for yellowish gray ignimbrite (N3). A similar rapid increase is also observed between 20 and 50 m for the others. Turul (2004) has emphasized
that the smoothness of curves indicates generally an equal distribution
of different pore diameters. Accordingly, it can be concluded that the regions, where a sharp increase is observed, indicate the dominant pore
diameter. Thus, 5 and 7 m are the main pore diameter values for yellowish gray ignimbrite (N3). The main pore diameters of other

A. zvan et al. / Engineering Geology 185 (2015) 8195

91

The capillary water absorption coefcients versus unit weight (d),

apparent porosity (n), water absorption by weight (Aw), P-wave velocity (Vp) and uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of the samples are
correlated (Figure 13). High determination coefcients (R2) are retrieved between these parameters except P-wave velocity. The determination coefcients vary between 0.73 and 0.96. The most signicant
relationship is for the apparent porosity and UCS whereas the lowest
determination coefcient is for the P-wave velocity.
6. Deterioration of tombstones

Fig. 11. Time versus capillary water absorption graphs.

ignimbrites are higher than the diameter of yellowish gray ignimbrite

(N3). However, there is a secondary sharp increase in the samples of
N1, N3 and N4. Therefore, the secondary dominant pore diameter is observed between 0.007 and 0.005 m.

The major reason of higher engineering properties of the sample of

N3 than the others is the high lithic material content and stronger
welding degree. Therefore, these facts should be considered as the controlling factors of the engineering properties of ignimbrites. In addition
to this, one of the main problems for ignimbrites, which are used as
building stone, is the deterioration caused by the capillary water. Strong
welding degree and high lithic fragments ratio as seen in sample of N3
avoided the rise of capillary water inside the rock. In other words, low
permeable lithic materials act as an impermeable barrier in the rocks.
Three different porosity classes are indicated by Benavente et al.
(2001) based on pore size and forces producing the movement of the
uid in porous media: macroporosity, when the pore size is higher
than 2500 m and uid mobility is mainly driven by gravity forces;
mesoporosity, when the pore size is ranged between 0.1 and 2500 m
and uid movement is mainly driven by capillary forces; and microporosity, when the pore size is less than 0.1 m and uid motion is mainly
driven by adsorption forces. Accordingly, the porosity of ignimbrites
used in this study is commonly classied as mesoporosity and microporosity in accordance with the mercury intrusion tests. Hence, the
Nemrut ignimbrites have a considerable potential of uid movement
driven by capillary forces. The samples of N3 reveal high capillary
water absorption potential as their pore size varies between 5 and
7 m. However, there is a contradiction between test results and the
above-mentioned outcome. The most important reason of this conict
can be addressed to the lithic material content, which acts as an impermeable barrier.
The main reason of the physical deterioration observed on the gravestones may be attributed to the high water capillary absorption characteristics of the ignimbrites. The middle section of the gravestone is
inside the capillary zone, and salt crystallization is much more effective
in this section. A similar result was also obtained by Benavente et al.
(2001) in their study, in which two degradation zones (immersion
and capillary zones) were identied. Salt crystallization in the capillary
zone is higher than it is in the immersion zone. Therefore, degradation is

Fig. 12. Pore volume versus pore diameter for the samples of ignimbrite.

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A. zvan et al. / Engineering Geology 185 (2015) 8195

Fig. 13. Correlations between capillary water absorption coefcient and (d), n, UCS, P-wave velocity, water absorption by weight.

more effective in the capillary zone which is the middle section of the
gravestones. According to eld observations, it has been determined
that some tombstones were broken at a certain height. The heights of
941 broken tombstones were measured on site. In general, the height
where the tombstone was broken (from the ground level) is about 10
to 70 cm, which can be assumed as the average height of capillary
water rise (Figure 14a and b). The rise of saline water up to the middle
level of gravestones, also supported by laboratory simulations, is supposed to be the main reason for the deterioration of tombstones. The
soluble salt in the graveyard may derive from decomposition of the
dead bodies (Dent, 2002). In laboratory simulations, as seen in
Fig. 14c, it has been observed that the capillary water rises up to the
top of samples and carries salt all the way up after three months. The
laboratory samples are quite small compared to the gravestones in the
eld. Thus, saline water has reached up to the top of laboratory specimens by capillary effect. Similarly, the core samples, illustrated in
Fig. 10, were completely wet in a very short time span (about 25 to 48
minutes). Furthermore, it is evident that salt is concentrated almost in
the middle and lower level of the samples leading to a signicant deterioration at the middle of the ignimbrite tombstones in the graveyard
based on the height of tombstone. The average length of broken

tombstones in Ahlat graveyard is 6070 cm that approximately corresponds to the middle and lower level of these tombstones.
Traces of deterioration due to weathering agents can be inspected on
Seljuk tombstones. It should be noted that deterioration with respect to
capillary water is much more effective on the middle of the gravestones,
while lichen colonization is much more dominant on the top. The patterns on the stones are defected, and it is unable to read the writings
due to physical deterioration and lichen formation on the gravestones
(Figure 15a, b and c).
Lichens are a type of fungi that live in symbiosis with
photosynthesizing organisms (green algae) (Hale, 1974; Lisci et al.,
2003). Therefore, lichens may grow on a large variety of surfaces such
as trees (epiphytes), the ground (terricolous lichens), stone (epilithic lichens) and even glass. On stones, the pH of the substrate controls the
rst selection of lichen ora (Lisci et al., 2003). The reproductive structures are dispersed in the atmosphere by wind or transported by birds
and insects. If they are placed into cracks, pores or cavities of rocks that
retain water, new colonization of lichens may arise (Garty, 1992).
The Seljuk gravestones have been subjected to intensive lichen colonization due to the nitrogen-rich environment of the close vicinity.
Lecanora muralis (greenish colored) and Candelariella (yellowish

A. zvan et al. / Engineering Geology 185 (2015) 8195

93

Fig. 14. (a, b) Height of deterioration on Seljuk tombstone and (c) laboratory simulation of capillary salt movement in ignimbrites.

orange) are the two lichens that are extensively observed in the study
area. These lichens are mostly found on historical structures. Additionally, the anthropogenic effects in the region play an important role on the
formation of lichens. The effect of lichen colonization on the deterioration of rock masses is discussed by Garcia-Valles et al. (2003). According
to the authors, lichen growth is a biolm that decelerates the penetration rate of surface water into the rock. In other words, the surface of
the rock coated by lichens is less permeable to water than clean

surfaces, which result in high-resistant surface to deterioration

(Garcia-Valles et al., 2003).
Rosa et al. (2013) have concluded that the temperature of the
surface of stone is an important factor in the spatial distribution of
saxicolous lichen on surfaces of historic stones. A few environmental
dynamics such as temperature, humidity, wind and etc., play role in
the degradation of gravestones. To be precise, the micro-climate parameters should also be measured by using suitable instruments in

Fig. 15. (a) The gravestone carved by Seljuk patterns. (b) Deterioration due to lichen colonization and (c) capillary water. (d) A general view of tombstones after the removal of lichens
(deterioration is much more prominent on the lower section than the upper part where lichen colonization is not observed).

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A. zvan et al. / Engineering Geology 185 (2015) 8195

order to evaluate the degradation mechanism of gravestones. In this

study, the micro-climate measurements could not be performed, and
the environmental dynamics were evaluated on the basis of eld observations. Accordingly, the direction of tombstones does not have a
signicant role in the deterioration process since degradation is observed at both sides of the gravestones (Figure 2 and 15). Besides,
humidity stands out as the most important environmental factor.
The humidity, which is triggered by capillary water rising, prevents
the development of lichens at the lower level of gravestones. Thus,
the role of lichens against deterioration cannot be observed in the
middle and lower levels. Eventually, it can be stated that lichens
play a preventive role for deterioration rather than an accelerating
effect. Disintegration is signicant in the middle of the Seljuk tombstones, where lichen growth is not observed, whereas lichens appear
on the upper side as a source of visual defect. After the removal of lichens from the tombstones using special methods by the restoration
team (www.http://eskiahlatkazisi.com), it has been seen that the
structures and the patterns are conserved supporting the protective
role of lichens (Figure 15d). According to Ioannou et al. (2004), the
presence of a natural organic coating decreases the water absorptivity of limestone signicantly. Furthermore, surface contamination of
dimension stones by organic materials is responsible for the partial
water wettability of stones, which strongly coincides with the preventive effect of lichens on the ignimbrite tombstones. Similarly, according to a study carried out by Taylor et al. (2000), it has been
suggested that the absorptivity of organic liquids is anomalously
low resulting in partial wetting of stones.
Lichens provide the necessary moisture for photosynthesis from air.
However, excessively humid environment on the lower levels of the
gravestones due to capillarity prevents the formation of favorable conditions for the lichen growth. Besides, the upper levels of tombstones
get much more daylight than that of lower part. Therefore, the protective role of lichens from deterioration is valid for the upper sections of
the Seljuk gravestones. Consequently, an intensive disintegration is
mostly observed on the lower-middle sections of the stones than it is
observed on the upper sections.
7. Conclusions
High lithic material content and strong welding degree can be considered as the main controlling factors of the engineering properties of
ignimbrites. Furthermore, strong welding degree and high lithic fragments ratio avoids the rise of capillary water inside ignimbrites. Thus,
low permeable lithic materials act as an impermeable barrier in these
stones. As salts are active due to being in the capillary fringe, salt crystallization is found to be much more effective in the capillary zone than it is
in the immersion zone. Therefore, degradation is more signicant in the
capillary zone corresponding to the middle section of the gravestones.
The test results conrm that the capillary is the main reason for the
deterioration at the middle level of the ignimbrite tombstones. Besides,
lichen colonization is not observed at the lower and middle levels of the
studied gravestones due to high moisture content. Thus, the preventive
role of lichens cannot be observed on these sections. After the removal
of lichens from the upper parts of tombstones by special methods, it
has been seen that the structures and the patterns are preserved proving the protective role of lichens.
Acknowledgments
This study was nancially supported by the Scientic Research Projects Ofce of Yznc Yl University (YYU-BAP, Project Number 2012
MIMB011). We also thank Prof. Dr. Recai Karahan and his colleagues
considering their support during different stages of this study. The authors wish to thank Adem irin for his support. Samad Joshani Shirvan
is gratefully acknowledged for his review on the use of English. The
manuscript proofreading was provided by Blue Tower Educational

Services. The authors are grateful to the reviewers for their valuable
comments and suggestions.

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