Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Food Engineering is a field which is a unique integration of various core fields like
Electrical, Mechanical, Civil, Chemical, Industrial and Agriculture Engineering. All
of the aforementioned Engineering fields have some critical role to play to
execute various operations and processes in the Food Industry. Various
definitions of Food Engineering have evolved since 1952 and majority of them in
general strongly bonds the Science and Engineering Principles to control various
Food materials. Hence the dimension of this interface has over the time
continued to grow in various fields like of Education, Research and Industries.
The origin of Food Engineering initiated since early 1800's which comprised
mainly of quantification and modeling for food preservation. Subsequently,
various Mathematical, Heat and Mass Transfer Modeling in food process industry
were developed to continuously increase the shelf life and reduce spoilage.
Consequently, three fields mainly Thermal Processing, Food Cooling and
Freezing and Food Dehydration turned out to be key research areas in Food
Engineering. Various food giants in Food Engineering had contributed to Food
Engineering field since the start of this 20th century. Additionally, various books
have been authored and published by these food giants that have greatly
enhanced the education system in the field. Further, various conferences,
journals and food engineering societies have been formed and promoted since
then which has greatly contributed to the enlargement and efficacy of the field in
the present world. Few changes that have been envisioned in the industry since
then are like firstly, mergers and acquisitions of companies in food and related
industries. Secondly, implementation of new and innovative processes in the
industry. Thirdly, changes in expectations of food industry to a more healthy food
practices. Fourthly, advancement in computer technology and its role in food
engineering. These changes have influenced the environment of food engineers
and will be incorporated in future educational programs of food engineers.
In food engineering the key research focus area is Integration of kinetics with
transport phenomenon to accomplish process design. The research model
concept encircles in three areas namely Kinetic parameters, transport
phenomenon, and process design. Research on kinetic model has increased the
availability of kinetic parameters and transport phenomenon has improved
understanding of heat and mass transfer in foods. In general, the concept is ideal
for optimizing product quality and process parameters. Hence, in general the
model in flowchart could be presented as:
In Kinetic model:
dA/dT=-kA where;
k=first order rate constant
A=the concentration or intensity of component.
The rate constants were initially interpreted in food preservation processes but in
this case are evaluated and expressed as function of temperature, water activity,
pressure, pH etc.
Similarly, in Transport phenomenon model:
N/t = -2 N where;
N=intensity of a process parameter
= appropriate property of food structure.
The expression is used to predict preservation process parameters like
temperature, moisture content, pressure and other parameters in microbial
populations.
Likewise, in Process design model:
A=(N)dt where;
A=intensity or concentration of quality attribute.
The focus of this design model is to assure maximum retention of product quality
attributes while ensuring desired reduction in microbial population for safety of
shelf life extension.
To produce the safer foods Knorr has demonstrated the kinetics of Escherichia
Coli population reductions at high pressures and henceforth retention of product
quality in sausage. Besides food processing food supply is another critical factor
in food industry. Process improvements like aspetic packaging and processing,
better throughput of processing lines and noticeable reduction in product quality
attributes has been a major contributor in efficient and cost effective food supply
chain. A process flow for aspetic processing and packaging is as shown:
Similarly, freeze drying is another food preservation method to increase shelf life
and give better quality to food product. Continuous efforts for evaluation are
being carried out to reduce the costs associated with food processing.
Furthermore improvements in texture of food have been researched upon
recently. Concept of "Water activity "has uniquely provided basis for product and
process development. Many relationships between reaction rates in foods and
water activity has guided development of various relationships between weight
composition, food ingredients and chemistry of food versus processing
temperature. Most of the product quality attributes could be now traced in "Food
stability map". Another quantitative concept could be found in "State Diagram".
This has very well guided the food industry with enhanced knowledge on process
parameters to achieve best product quality and increased shelf life. Sample
diagrams for the aforementioned items are shown as below.
active agents on the drying rate of solids have also been published. There has
been also a research prize named after Marcel Locin which is awarded annually
by Institute of food technology.
Ted Labuza: He has done significant contribution in water activity and practical
aspects of moisture sorption isotherm measurement and its use. He was able to
determine that it is actually the water activity and not the moisture content that is
the root cause of the problem pertaining to shelf life loss, texture changes etc.
d) Dennis R.Heldman: He has been a leading contributor in the field by
establishing novel researches in freezing processes to maximize food product
quality. Various relationships of surface heat transfer coefficient to product
dimensions and characteristics has been determined through his researches.
Influence on freezing rates, storage temperatures and thawing conditions on
quality of frozen foods has also been provided under the leadership of Dr.
Heldman.
e) Q.Tuan Pham: He has contributed to the field of food engineering through
optimizing the refrigeration processes in the food industry. He has also provided
prediction on calorimetric properties and freezing time of foods from composition
data. In these formulations various effects like sensible heat by calculating
precooling, phase change and sub cooling times are also considered.
f) J.Kuprianoff: He has contributed greatly in food industry by distinguishing the
various forms of water like bound, free etc. inside the food which largely
contributes to water activity or moisture content in food complex systems. Such
types also critically comment on the food rehydration and dehydration cycle.
g) H.A.Leniger: He is the pioneers to integrate chemical engineering with the food
complex systems to form food engineering. Study of chemical reactions initiated
by addition of chemicals with raw and auxiliary materials has been researched
and developed by Dr. Leniger. He has also studied the complexities of Newtonian
flow in pipes and ducts. Besides, similar concepts in high temperature during
short time extrusion cooking have also been applied. Such processes are
considered to be thermal processing and its criticality to food quality.
shelf life etc. Dr. Singh has also played a vital role in establishing robust grounds
for wheat production across the globe.
j) D.B.Lund: He has been the leading researchers in establishing the sterilizing
temperatures of the food product. On the similar lines he has developed kinetics
of thermal softening of food and corresponding physical changes. He has
published materials on the textural degradation via use of activation energies
which is induced when vegetable is kept in thermal environment. With a same
view he has also predicted the quality factor retention in both conduction and
convection methods.
***************************************************
****************
Please list and briefly describe 5 important
concepts introduce by food engineers and
closeley related colleagues. This concepts
should be or relevance because of the
changes promoted and the impact in the
food industry and the analysis of engineering
problems.
Important concepts:
Molecular weight Versus Glass Transition (State Diagrams): This concept was
largely developed by Karel Marcus. It basically mentions the effect of molecular
weight on glass transition. Any given food complex has weight fraction of solids
which influences the melting and boiling points of the food This eventually effects
the glass transition temperature of the food and signifies the content of water or
water activity within the food. All these concepts are put forth in a single diagram
called the State diagrams.
Water activity and practical aspects of moisture sorption isotherm measurement
and its use:- This concept was largely developed by Ted Labuza and
J.Kuprianoff. It states that when the water is present in the foods; it enters the
glassy state, and the movement of water is so slow that it is effectively bound.
Water potential is a quantitative measure of the binding energy of water in food.
Common moisture sorption isotherms have been developed that explain various
effects on moisture content and water activities of the product through
temperature of the surroundings. It also illustrates and compares the water
activity and moisture content.
Kinetics of reaction in food complex systems:- This concept was largely brought
by D.B.Lund. The concept basically was evolved due to the rising importance of
not only the nutritional quality but also the flavor, color, and texture. For
understanding all these behaviors it is necessary to create mathematical models
w.r.t food complex systems and understand the reaction kinetics going inside the
food during processing. Three main criteria that are required to understand the
reaction kinetics is
i) Stoichiometry ii) Order and rate of reaction iii) Mechanism.
Momentum, Heat and Mass transfer in food:-.This concept was initially pioneered
and developed by Marcin Loncin. It was seen during the drying of foods that
sorption equations and Fourier and Fick laws are primarily utilized to describe the
transfer of heat and mass in the solid. Mathematically it was determined that the
total system should be balanced and a transfer phenomenon is the medium
through which phase changes occurs through forced or natural changes in
environmental conditions.
Mobile Refrigeration Systems:- The invention of mobile refrigeration in around
1949 revolutionized' the food industry and the methodology of engineering
problems especially w.r.t mathematical modeling during their shelf lives. It also
removed the problem of food spoilage during transportation. It became also a
good solution to replace ice which was causing pollution and sewage dumping.
The pioneer in these efforts was Sir Frederick Jones.
***************************************************
***************
List important conferences around the world
dealing with Food engineering.
Food Automation & Manufacturing Conference and Expo (FAM)
It is one of important conferences that deal in automation of processing lines via
implementing latest state of art robots, precision machine control. It also is a
community that evaluates return on investment (ROI) on plant automation
projects in food industry. Its latest upcoming event is on 3rd April, 2011 in Florida.
International Conference on Food Engineering and Biotechnology(ICFEB)
It is one of the conferences in food engineering that bring together scientist,
leading engineers, industry researchers and scholar students to share their
experiences and research results and challenges encountered during their
researches. It latest upcoming conference is at Tokyo, Japan on 25th May, 2011.
International congress on Engineering and Food(ICEF)
It is one of conferences that contribute to the solution of vital problems in world of
increasing problems pertaining to severe constraints of limited resources of raw
materials, energy and environment. Its latest conference will be held in Athens,
Greece on 22nd May, 2011.
International Microwave Power Institute(IMPI)
It is one of the conferences that include all the scientists, researchers, product
developers who are interested in microwave/RF technology. Its latest 45th annual
symposium will be held at Louisiana, USA on 8th Jun,2011.
Pacific Fisheries Technologists Conference (PFT)
It is a conference that broadens the professional network, discuss current
seafood issues and exchange information on current research in seafood
technology. Its latest conference was held in Vancouver, British Columbia,
Canada on Feb13th, 2011.
International Society of Food Engineering (ISFE)
It is a forum that facilitates communication among professionals working of food
engineering in academia, industry or government from around the world. It
conducts various conferences in food engineering and Ibero-American food
engineering conferences.
***************************************************
****************
Please list and briefly describe 15 books
dealing with food engineering topics.
Food Engineering 2000:-It is authored by Pedro Fito Maupoei; Enrique OrtegaRodriguez; Gustavo V Barbosa-Canovas. It covers topics mainly like
Microstructural and Imaging Analyses, Rheological Properties of Fluid Foods,
Multilayer Sorption Isotherms, Structural Changes in the Minimal Processing of
Fruits and the study of fruits. It also covers the Study of Critical Variables in the
Treatment of Foods by Pulsed Electric Fields.
Solving problems in Food Engineering:- It is authored by S Yanniotis. This book
covers mathematical problems in fluid flow, heat transfer, mass transfer, and the
most common unit operations that have applications in food processing, such as
thermal processing, cooling and freezing, evaporation, and psychometrics and
drying. Hence, it is an excellent compilation of conceptual and quantitative Food
Engineering problems.
Unit operation in Food Engineering:-It is authored by Albert Ibarz; Gustavo V
Barbosa-Canovas. It covers various topics like molecular transport of
momentum, energy, and mass; rheology of food products; transport of fluid
through pipes; circulation of fluid through porous beds; filtration; separation
processes by membranes; thermal properties of food; heat transfer by
conduction; heat transfer by convection; heat transfer by radiation; thermal
processing of foods; food preservation by cooling; dehydration; distillation;
absorption; solid-liquid extraction; and adsorption and ionic exchange.
New Food Engineering research trends: It is authored by Alan P Urwaye. It
covers majorly new researches in the growing field of food engineering. Some of
topics included in book are Ionizing irradiation of foods, Fruits and vegetables
dehydration in tray dryers, Ultrasound in fruit processing, Protein hydrolysis with
enzyme recycle by membrane ultrafiltration and Far-infrared heating in paddy
drying process, It also consists of novel two-stage dynamic packaging for
respiring produce.
Food Engineering Principles and selected applications:- It consists of various
techniques employed in food industry. It also contains equations related to
transfer of mass, heat and momentum, equilibrium between phases, various
mechanical operations, applied biochemical kinetics, cleaning, disinfection and
rinsing. It is authored by Marcel Loncin and R.L.Merson.
Introduction to Food Process Engineering:- A basic introduction to the principles
of food process engineering, like physical properties of food, traditional fluid
mechanics, and heat transfer via conduction, convection, and radiation. It also
covers topics like transport phenomena, momentum, energy and mass balances,
as well as a new topic on macroscopic balances. It is authored by Albert Ibarz,
Gustavo V. Barbosa-Canovas.
Elements of Food Engineering:-It is authored by Ernest L Watson; John C Harper.
It majorly deals with production, preparation, processing, handling, packaging,
and distribution of food. The subject matter is treated from unit operations point of
view, i.e., materials, handling, cleaning, separating, disintegrating, pumping,
mixing, heat exchanging etc., to packaging.
Article 3
Introduction to Wireless
Power Transfer
October 28, 2016 by Marie Christiano
Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) makes it possible to supply power through an air
gap, without the need for current-carrying wires. WPT can provide power from an
AC source to compatible batteries or devices without physical connectors or wires.
WPT can recharge mobile phones and tablets, drones, cars, even transportation
equipment. It may even be possible to wirelessly transmit power gathered by solarpanel arrays in space.
WPT has been an exciting development in consumer electronics, replacing wired
chargers. The 2017 Consumer Electronics Show will have many devices offering
WPT.
The concept of transferring power without wires, however, has been around since
the late 1890s. Nikola Tesla was able to light electric bulbs wirelessly at his
Colorado Springs Lab using electrodynamic induction (aka resonant inductive
coupling).
An image from Tesla's patent for an "apparatus for transmitting electrical energy,"
1907.
Three light bulbs placed 60 feet (18m) from the power source were lit, and the
demonstration was documented. Tesla had big plans and hoped that his Long
Island-based Wardenclyffe Tower would transmit electrical energy wirelessly
across the Atlantic Ocean. That never happened owing to various difficulties,
including funding and timing.
WPT uses fields created by charged particles to carry energy between transmitters
and receivers over an air gap. The air gap is bridged by converting the energy into
a form that can travel through the air. The energy is converted to an oscillating
field, transmitted over the air, and then converted into usable electrical current by a
receiver. Depending on the power and distance, energy can be effectively
transferred via an electric field, a magnetic field, or electromagnetic (EM) waves
such as radio waves, microwaves, or even light.
The following table lists the various WPT technologies as well as the form of power
transfer.
Technology
Inductive coupling
Energy Transfer
Magnetic fields
Magnetic fields
Electric fields
Magnetic fields
Microwaves
Light/infrared/ultraviolet
Resonant circuits
Conductive coupling plates
Rotating permanent magnets
Phased arrays/dishes
Lasers/photocells
WPT technologies.
The Qi logo displayed on the Qimini wireless charging plate. Image courtesy
of Tektos.
The presence of a Qi logo means the device is registered and certified by the
Wireless Power Consortium.
When first introduced, Qi charging was low power, about 5W. The first
smartphones using Qi charging were introduced in 2011. In 2015, Qi was
expanded to include 15W, which allows for quick charging.
The following graphic from Texas Instruments shows what the Qi standard covers.
The electromagnetic fields involved in WPT can be quite strong, and human safety
has to be taken into account. Exposure to electromagnetic radiation can be a
concern, and there is also the possibility that the fields generated by WPT
transmitters could interfere with wearable or implanted medical devices.
The transmitters and receivers are embedded within WPT devices, as are the
batteries to be charged. The actual conversion circuitry will depend on the
technology used. In addition to the actual transfer of energy, the WPT system must
allow the transmitter and receiver to communicate. This ensures that a receiver
can notify the charging device when a battery is fully charged. Communication also
allows a transmitter to detect and identify a receiver, to adjust the amount of power
transmitted to the load, and to monitor conditions such as battery temperature.
The concept of near-field vs. far-field radiation is relevant to WPT. Transmission
techniques, the amount of power that can be transferred, and proximity
requirements are influenced by whether the system is utilizing near-field or far-field
radiation.
Locations for which the distance from the antenna is much less than one
wavelength are in the near field. The energy in the near field is nonradiative, and
the oscillating magnetic and electric fields are independent of each other.
Capacitive (electric) and inductive (magnetic) coupling can be used to transfer
power to a receiver located in the transmitter's near field.
Locations for which the distance from the antenna is greater than approximately
two wavelengths are in the far field. (A transition region exists between the near
field and far field.) Energy in the far field is in the form of typical electromagnetic
radiation. Far-field power transfer is also referred to as power beaming. Examples
of far-field transfer are systems that use high-power lasers or microwave radiation
to transfer energy over long distances.
Graphic of a wireless parking charge setup built into a parking space. Image
courtesy of Toyota.
Conclusion
While Tesla's dream of having power delivered wirelessly for everyone's use is still
far from feasible, many devices and systems are using some form of wireless
power transfer right now. From toothbrushes to mobile phones, from cars to public
transportation, there are many applications for wireless power transfer.
Article 4
An Overview of Quality by
Design Engineering article
Introduction:
In 2002, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) published a guidance
document for pharmaceutical companies on cGMP for the 21st century. This
guidance document expressed a strong desire that companies should build
quality, safety and efficacy in to their product. This concept is now known as
Quality by Design (QbD).
Till now, the meaning, benefits and impact of quality by design is confusing to
many people. Some says that it is a newer way to develop drugs, biologics and
devices; some says that it can shorten the production cycle; some says that it
provides more business flexibility but no one knows what it is exactly. Some
people do not even know that where, when and how should it be applied? Initially
there are so many companies who tried to adopt Quality by Design concept but
confusion gave way to frustration.
concept was first used in automobile industry. There is one article published in
June 2007 titled "Elucidation: Lessons from the Auto Industry" says that Toyota
Automobiles was the first company who implemented many Quality by Design
concept to improve their automobiles in 1970s. That is why we can say that
Quality by Design concept is new only for FDA regulated industries and not for
other industries like technology, aeronautics, telecommunications etc. In other
words, we can say that the computer we use, the phone we answer, the airplane
we ride, the car we drive and the camera we use are all products of Quality by
Design but we cannot say that whatever tablet we ingest and whatever biologics
we use are the products of Quality by Design.
In 1990s, many of the medical device manufacturing company has implemented
Quality by Design aspect which resulted in reduced risk and manufacturing cost
and at the same time increased patient safety and product efficacy. From the
success of QbD aspect in medical device manufacturing, the FDA officials felt
that this concept has to be applied to drugs and biologics also. So, the internal
discussion in FDA started in late 1990s and finally they published a concept
paper in 2002 on cGMP in 21st century. With the huge help of some
pharmaceutical companies, pilot programs were started to share the Quality by
Design application and process understanding with the other companies.
"The FDA publication defined Quality by Design as:
Developing a product to meet predefined product quality, safety and
efficacy; and
Identify and control the critical control parameters, Critical quality attributes
and source of variability.
Risk level: It is a function of the design space, FMEA result and process
and measurement capability, control and robustness [3].
The output of process control, design space and risk are consistent with this
approach. The building blocks needs to be assembled as mentioned below
before results can be realized.
Identify Critical Quality Attributes
trials or try adaptive trial. During the drug development process, when the product
reaches to the phase III trial stage a company must focus only on the micro
refinements to their process as well as their manufacturing process.
Scale-UP:
The scale-up is defined as conversion of an industrial process from a pilot plant
or a small laboratory set up to a large commercial manufacturing. It is also a part
of Quality by Design. Application of QbD during scale up allows us to document
changes and rationale during conversion from pilot plant manufacturing to full
scale manufacturing.
For example, imagine that Stevens Pharmaceuticals limited is actively engaged
in chlorpromazine tablet manufacturing. The pilot model was successful. Now the
company wants to switch the pilot model to a large commercial manufacturing.
During the coating of the tablet the company need increased nozzle size on a
sprayer so that they can meet the higher spray rate for faster manufacturing. As
long as the larger nozzle size maintained the
same droplet size as in pilot production, then no further testing and validation
would be required. Such information is then documented and attached in the final
submission for market approval.
Submissions for market approval:
"Submissions based on QbD have more scientific information on product,
process and controls which allows faster reviews" According to FDA's own
internal analysis, Quality by Design based applications are processed 63% faster
than traditional submissions [3].
2. Manufacturing:
When Quality by Design concept applied to drugs and biologics manufacturing, it
offers more business flexibility. Once upon a time, it was quite a bit difficult for the
companies if they want to modify their manufacturing process. In those cases,
they have to wait for the regulatory approval prior to implementing changes. But
now, under QbD, this review can be eliminated by relying on design space,
Process Analytical Technology and 'Real Time' quality control.
Design Space:
Product manufacturing processes that do not impact final product quality, its
safety and efficacy are called "design space" As per the ICH guidelines the
design space is "the multi dimensional combination and interaction of input
variables (e.g. material attributes) and process parameters that have been
3. Control Strategies:
Embedding quality control checks throughout manufacturing process is one of the
control strategies that helps ensure production quality. We all know that Quality
by Design is simply designing and developing the product and manufacturing
process in order to get predefined product quality, safety and efficacy. If we link
the product design and development stage directly with process development
then it gives us the degree of control required.
Continuous improvement:
If we remember back on the definition of Quality by Design as "everything we do
to directly promote and prove safety, efficacy and quality of our product," then
Conclusion:
Pharmaceutical quality by design is a systemic approach to the pharmaceutical
development which begins with predefined quality objectives. QbD is about using
correct tool for specific job. It is a mind-set and not a process. QbD works for any
process and does not require a 'project'. The only reason why most organization
are still thinking about QbD rather than implementing is "Too many other things to
do". But if understood and implemented well then it enhances and modernize the
regulation of pharmaceutical manufacturing and product quality at the same time
offers immense benefits. The results shows that companies who adopt QbD can
expect significantly reduced risk of costly deviation and rejects. It also reduces
the time required by the FDA to review the NDA submissions 63 % faster. Since it
is a FDA's 21st century's risk based approach, any company if understand and
implement QbD correctly can build five star quality product and make FDA happy.
"If a screw is loose ------ Tight it ------ Don't rebuild the whole house!"
Article 5
Copying a code fragment and reusing the same in several parts of the
project is a common phenomenon in software project development.
1. Introduction
Copying code fragments and then reuse by
pasting with or without minor modifications or adaptations are
common activities in software development. This type of reuse
approach of existing code is called code cloning and the pasted code
fragment with or without modifications is called a clone of the original
[1]. It is not easy to find which is clone and which is original after the
development phase. It was found that the maintenance of the systems
with clones is more difficult [12] [3].
Clones are usually results of copy paste activity. Such activities are
known as software reuse and it reduces programming efforts and
time. This kind of practice is common when algorithms are similar and
often it happens in operating systems development. There is also
accidental cloning, which
is not the result of direct copy and paste activities but
by using the same set of APIs to implement similar protocols [7].
1.1 Advantages of code duplication
Clones are also introduced in the systems to obtain several
maintenance benefits.
The results of the code clone detection are usually given as clone
pairs/clone clusters along with their location/occurrence.
Type 3 is copy with further modifications (i.e. a new statement can be
added, or some statements can be removed)
Type 4 clones are the results of semantic similarity between two or
more code fragments.
Clone Pair (CP): pair of code portions or fragments which are identical
or similar to each other.
Clone Cluster (CC): the union of all clone pairs which have code
portions in common [2].
Exact clones: Two or more code fragments are called exact clones if
they are identical to each other with some differences in comments
and white space or layout (type 1 clones).
Renamed clones: People use the term renamed clones when
identifier names, literals values,
comments or white space changes in the copied fragments (type 2
clones).
Parameterized Clones: A parameterized clone or p- match clone is a
renamed clone with systematic renaming.
Near-Miss Clones: Near-miss clones are those clones where the
copied fragments are very similar to the original. Editing activities
such as changing in comments, layouts, changing the position of the
source code elements through blanks and new lines, changing the
identifiers, literals, macros may have been applied in such clones
which actually imply that all parameterized and renamed clones are
near-miss clones.
Structural Clones: Software components can be compared with
various degrees of accuracy. Structural similarity reflects the degree to
which the software specifications looks alike, i.e., have similar design
structures.
In the approach by Koschke et al. [18], the AST nodes are serialized
in preorder traversal, a suffix tree is created for these serialized AST
nodes, and the resulting maximally long AST node sequences are
then cut according to their syntactic region so that only syntactically
closed sequences remain. In stead of comparing the AST nodes, their
approach compares the tokens of the AST-nodes using a suffix treebased algorithm and therefore, this approach can find clones in linear
time and space, a significant improvement to usual AST-based
approaches.
Davey et al. [19] detects exact, parameterized and near-miss clones
by first computing certain features of code blocks and then using
neural networks to find similar blocks based on their features.
Table .1
Method
Precision
Recall
Line-based
100%, No
False positives as checks for exact copies
Low, only
Finds exact copies
Parameterized
Line based
Medium, may
return false positives
Medium, can
Detect only exact and parameterized clones
Token-based
Low, due to
Normalization and/or transformation returns many false
Positives
High, can
Detect
most clones
Parse-tree
based
High, parsetree considers structural info also
Low, cannot
detect all types of clones, however, several approaches
taken to
overcome it
PDG-based
High,
considers structural and semantic info too
Medium,
cannot detect all clones
Metrics-based
Medium, two
code blocks with similar metrics values may not be same
Medium,
cannot detect many clones
AST + Suffix
tree
High,
considers structural info
Low, cannot
detect
all clones
Conclusion
Clone detection is an active research area and the literature is
overwhelmed with plenty of work in
Detecting and removing clones from software systems. Research is
also done in maintaining clones in software systems in its evolution
life cycle. In this paper, a comprehensive survey on the area of
software clone detection research is made putting
Emphasis on the types of clones, mechanism used and
Corresponding tools. Several issues are also pointed out for further
research. Reports by various researchers are the source for an
overview of clone detection research. The results of this study may
serve as a roadmap to potential users of clone detection techniques,
to help them in selecting the
Right tool or technique for their interests. We hope it may also assist
in identifying remaining open research questions, possible avenues
for future research, and interesting combinations of existing
techniques.
References
://pharmtech.findpharma.com/pharmtech/Special+Section:
+Quality+by+Design/Building- a- Framework-for-Quality-byDesign/ArticleStandard/Article/detail/632988
[4] Watmough, Peter, & Morris, Laura. (2009, September 17). Implementation of
quality by design in new product development. Retrieved from
http://www.icheme.org/pdfs/17Sept09WatmoughandMorris.pdf
[5] Avellanet, John. (2008, March). Why Quality by design? an executive's guide
to
the fda's quality by design. Retrieved from
http://www.ceruleanllc.com/Downloads_private/Cerulean_QbD_Executive_Guide.
pdf
[6] Neway, Justin. (2007). Achieving manufacturing process excellence with
quality
by design, design space development, design of manufacturing and pat.
http://www.pharmaqbd.com/files/articles/QbD_Aegis_Pharmaceutical_Quality_
by%20_Design_V3_4JN.pdf
[7] http://www.palgrave-journals.com/jgm/journal/v4/n4/full/4950073a.html
[8] http://www.ngpharma.com/article/Quality-by-Design-is-Essential-in-the-NewUS-Regulatory-Environment/
[9] A change of course for pharmaceutical manufacturing.
http://www.healthcarepackaging.com/archives/2009/06/a_change_of_course_f
or_pharmac.php
[10]Quality by Design is breathing new life into quality systems and process
analytical technology.
http://www.pharmamanufacturing.com/articles/2007/172.html
[11] Discoverant enables quality by Design.
http://www.aegiscorp.com/industries/pharmaceutical-and-biotechnology-/lifesciences-trends- /quality-by-design.html
[12] A change of course for pharmaceutical manufacturing.
http://www.pharmainfo.net/reviews/total-quality-management-promisingfixation-accomplish-zero-defects