Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

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CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
TO
CALCULUS

This chapter reviews the basic ideas you

need to start calculus. The topics include
the sets, real number system , functions and
trigonometry.
1.1 Real Numbers and the Real Line
SETS
Sets : A set is a collection of objects.
The objects are called elements of
the set.
Set Notation: In Mathematics, we noted
the sets in capital letters such as A, B, C,
and so forth. And the elements of these sets
as a, b, c, and so forth respectively. A set
S with elements 1, 2, 3, , 8, 9, 10 can be
written as:
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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

S = {1, 2, 3,, 8, 9, 10}

or
S {x : x 1, 2,3,...,8,9,10} { x :1 x 10}
The notation xS means that the object x
is an element of the set S, and x S means
that x is not an element of S . The notation
S = {a, b, c, ...} means that S is the set
whose elements are a, b, c, ... and so forth.
If P is particular property, the notation
S = {x: x satisfies P}, means that S is the set
of all objects x that satisfy the property P.
b
a
S

c
.

S {a,b,c,........} {x : x a,b,c,.......}
Figure 1 : Set S

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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

The Empty Set or Null Set: The empty

set is the set with no elements, and is often
denoted as or S { }.
Note: S {0} is not an empty set or null set
because it has an element 0.
S
S

Figure 2: The Empty Set

Subset: A set S is a subset of set T,

denoted S T , if every element of S is also an
element of T.

T
S T

Figure 3 : Subset

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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

Sets S and T are equal, S = T, if they have

exactly the same elements, and S T T S .
The union of sets S and T is the set of
objects belonging to either of the sets S OR
T or BOTH of the sets, and is written
S T {x : x S or x T }
T
S

S T

Figure 4: The Union of Sets

The intersection of sets S and T is the set of

objects belonging to both the sets S AND T,
and is written

S T {x : x S and x T }

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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

S T

Figure 5: The Intersection of Sets

REAL NUMBERS
The set of real numbers is often denoted by
R. Much of calculus is based on properties
of the real number system. Real numbers
are numbers that can be expressed as
decimals, such as

3
1
0.75000... , 0.3333....
3
4

and 2 1.4142... .Occasionally, we shall

refer to the following subsets of R:

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The set of natural

(counting numbers) :
N = {1, 2, 3 ...}

The set of integers :

numbers

Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

Z = {....,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 ...}

The set of rational numbers :
a
Q = x : x b ,a, b Z , b 0

Examples are:

1 4 4 4 200
,

,
3 9 9 9 13

and 57

57
.
1

The rational numbers are precisely the real

numbers with decimal expansions that are
either
a) terminating (ending in an infinite
string of zeros), for example
3
0.75000... 0.75
or
4
b) eventually repeating (ending with a
block of digits that repeats over and
over), for example
23
2.090909... 2.09
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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

Any number that is not rational is

called irrational, x Q . Examples are
,

2, 3 5, log10 3

Real
Numbers

Rational
Numbers

Counting
Numbers

Irrational
Numbers

Integers

Figure 6: Set of Real Number

Component Chart

The system of real numbers consists of the

set R together with the usual operations of
addition and multiplication and the usual
notation of equality and order.
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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

The Real Line

O
-3 -2 -1 0

Figure 7 : The Real Line

The real number system can be studied

geometrically by identifying each real
number with a point on a line. This is done
by selecting a point on the line, called the
origin O, as a reference point. The number
0 is identified with the origin. Each point on
the right side of O are positive numbers and
the left side of O are negative numbers.
Inequality
Consider two real numbers r and s. The
notation r < s (meaning: r is less than s)
means that r is left to s on real line (Figure
8).
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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

+
r

Figure 8 : r < s

If r is less than or equal to s, we write r s

.
The notation r > s (meaning: r is greater
than s) means that r is on the right to s
(Figure 9).
-

+
s

Figure 9 : r > s
If r is greater than or equal to s, we write
r s.
Note: The relation r < s also means s > r.

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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

Rules for Inequalities

If a, b, and c are real numbers, then : (the
symbol means implies)
1.
2.
3.
4.

a b ac bc
a b ac bc
a b and c 0 ac bc I
a b and c 0 bc ac

Special Case: a b b a
1
0
a

5.
6. If a and b are both positive or both
a 0

negative, then

ab

1 1

b a

Note: Multiplying by a positive number

preserves the inequality; multiplying by a
negative number reverses the inequality.
Also reciprocation reverses the inequality
for numbers of the same sign. For example,
2 5 but 2 5 and

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1 1

2 5
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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

Intervals
A
a

B
intervals

Figure 10 : Intervals

An interval is a certain kind of subset of the

real line. An interval can be denoted by a
line between two points of A and B. The
element of intervals are each point value are
located between A and B. The several types
of intervals are described in the table
(Figure 11).
An open interval from a to b is the line
segment with endpoints a and b, but the
endpoints do not belong to the interval. The
closed interval from a to b is the same
segment, including the endpoints a and b. A
half-open interval could also be called
half-closed, and contains only one
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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

endpoint of the segment. The interval (a,b]

is open at a and closed at b, while the
interval [a,b) is closed at a and open at
b. The infinite intervals represent interval
where one or both endpoints are the infinite
values. The symbol represents infinity.
It does not represent a number, but rather
the
idea
of
unboundedness.
Consequently, an endpoint at - or is
never included in an interval; for example,
we write [2, ), never [2, ].
Type

Interval
Notation

Set Notation

Open
Closed
Half-open

( a, b )

{x : a x b}

[ a, b]

{x : a x b}

[ a , b)

{x : a x b}

( a, b]

{x : a x b}

( a, )

{x : x a}

[ a, )

{x : x a}

( , b)

{x : x b}

( , b]

{x : x b}

Infinite

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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

( , )

Figure 11 : Type of Intervals

Example :
Rewrite the following intervals using
inequalities:
( a )(1,5)
( d )( ,1]

(b)[1,4]

(c )( 4,20]

Solution :
We simply apply the definition of each
interval notation, to get the following:
(a ) (1,5) {x :1 x 5}
(c) (4, 20] {: 4 x 20}

(b) [ 1, 4] { x : 1 x 4}
( d ) ( ,1] { x : x 1}

Example :
Rewrite the set
notation.
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{x : x 2 x 6 0}

in interval

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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

Solution:
The stated condition x x 6 0 can be written
in factored from as (x + 3)(x 2) < 0. That
is, the product of the numbers must be
negative. Therefore, one of the numbers
must be positive and the other, negative.
Since x + 3 is greater than x - 2, it must be
that
x+3>0
and x - 2 < 0,
x > -3
and
x <2
-3 < x < 2
2

Hence, the given set is{x: -3 < x < 2} =

( -3 , 2 )
Example:
Solve the following inequalities and show
their solution sets on the real line.
(a) 2 x 1 x 3 (b)
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x
2x 1
3
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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

6
5
(c)
x 1

Solution:
2x 1 x 3
2x x 4

(a)

x4

The solution set is the open interval

(, 4) .
0

(b)
x
2x 1
3
x 6x 3
0 7x 3
3 7x

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3
x
7
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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

The solution set is the open interval

3
, .
7

3
7

(c) The inequality

6
5
x 1

can hold only if

6
is
x 1 , because otherwise
x 1
undefined or negative. Therefore, ( x 1)
is positive and the inequality will be
preserved if we multiply both sides by
( x 1) , and we have

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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

6
5
x 1
6 5x 5
11 5 x
11
x
5

The solution set is the half-open interval

11
1, .
5

11
5

Absolute Value and Distance

The absolute value of a real number x is
denoted by x and is defined by
x
x
x

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if x 0
if x 0

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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

Thus, x is the distance between point x and

the origin on the real line. Note that the
absolute value of a real number is always
nonnegative.
Example : Finding Absolute Values
3 3,

0 0,

5 5 5,

a a

Geometrically, the absolute value of x is the

distance from x to 0 on the real number
line. Since distances are always positive or
0, we see that x 0 for every real number
x, and x 0 if and only if x 0.
Also
x y = the distance between x and y on the

real line.

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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

5 5
-5

3
0

4 1 1 4 3
1

Since the symbol a always denotes the

nonnegative square root of a, an alternate
definition of x is
x x2

Note: It is important to remember that

a 2 a . Do not write a 2 a unless you
already know that a 0.
Relation between Absolute Value and
Intervals
Let p be a positive real number. If the real
number x has satisfies any the property,

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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

then relation between absolute value and

intervals are summarized in table.
With
absolute
value

Without
absolute value

Interval notation

x p

-p < x < p

x p

px p

( -p , p )
[ -p , p ]

x p

x > p or x < p

( , p ) ( p, )

x p

x p or x p

(, p ] [ p, )

xr p

r-p<x<r+p

xr p

r pxr p

(r-p,r+p)
[r-p,r+p]

xr p

x > r + p or x <
r-p

(, r p ) (r p, )

xr p

x r p or x r p

(, r p ] [ r p, )

Note:

x a

if and only if x a

Figure 11: Inequality

Example: Solving an Equation with
Absolute Values
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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

Solve the equation 2 x 3 7

Solution:
2 x 3 7 ;
2x 3 7
2 x 10
x5

2 x 3 7
2 x 4
x 2

The solutions of
-2.

2x 3 7

are x = 5 and x =

Example: Solving an Inequality

Involving Absolute Values
Solve the inequalities
2
(a) 5 1
x

(b) 2 x 3 1

Solution :
(a) We have

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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

2
2
1 1 5 1
x
x
2
6 4
x
1
3 2
x
1
1
x
3
2

The solution set is the open interval

1 1
, .
3 2
2x 3 1

(b)

2x 3 1
x

3 1

2 2
x2

or

2 x 3 1
x

3
1

2
2
x 1

The solution set is ,1 2,

Absolute Value Properties
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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

1.

a a

2.

ab a . b

3.

a
a

b
b

4.

ab a b

b0
(The Triangle Inequality)

Note: a a . For example

whereas 3 3.

3 3 ,

Illustrating the Triangle Inequality

3 5 2 2 3 5 8
35 8 3 5
3 5 8 8 3 5

Proof for The Triangle Inequality

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Calculus MTH 3100

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Calculus

By using the definition of absolute value

x x , we get,
2

. Note that either a a or

a a , and therefore either a a or a a .
Hence, a a a so,
ab

a b a 2ab b

a a2 a
2

a 2a b b

ab a b

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a 2 2ab b 2

a b

ab

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