11/23/2016

G.R. No. L-2662

TodayisWednesday,November23,2016

RepublicofthePhilippines
SUPREMECOURT
Manila
ENBANC
G.R.No.L2662March26,1949
SHIGENORIKURODA,petitioner,
vs.
MajorGeneralRAFAELJALANDONI,BrigadierGeneralCALIXTODUQUE,ColonelMARGARITOTORALBA,
ColonelIRENEOBUENCONSEJO,ColonelPEDROTABUENA,MajorFEDERICOARANAS,MELVILLES.
HUSSEYandROBERTPORT,respondents.
PedroSerran,JoseG.Lukban,andLiberatoB.Cincoforpetitioner.
FredRuizCastroFedericoArenasMarianoYengco,Jr.,RicardoA.ArcillaandS.MelvilleHusseyforrespondents.
MORAN,C.J.:
ShigenoriKuroda,formerlyaLieutenantGeneraloftheJapaneseImperialArmyandCommandingGeneralofthe
JapaneseImperialForcesinThePhilippinesduringaperiodcovering19433and19444whoisnowchargedbefore
amilitaryCommissionconvenedbytheChiefofStaffoftheArmedforcesofthePhilippineswithhavingunlawfully
disregardedandfailed"todischargehisdutiesassuchcommand,permittingthemtocommitbrutalatrocitiesand
otherhighcrimesagainstnoncombatantciviliansandprisonersoftheImperialJapaneseForcesinviolationofthe
lawsandcustomsofwar"comesbeforethisCourtseekingtoestablishtheillegalityofExecutiveOrderNo.68of
the President of the Philippines: to enjoin and prohibit respondents Melville S. Hussey and Robert Port from
participating in the prosecution of petitioner's case before the Military Commission and to permanently prohibit
respondentsfromproceedingwiththecaseofpetitioners.
Insupportofhiscasepetitionertendersthefollowingprincipalarguments.
First. "That Executive Order No. 68 is illegal on the ground that it violates not only the provision of our
constitutional law but also our local laws to say nothing of the fact (that) the Philippines is not a signatory nor an
adherent to the Hague Convention on Rules and Regulations covering Land Warfare and therefore petitioners is
chargedof'crimes'notbasedonlaw,nationalandinternational."Hencepetitionerargues"Thatinviewoffthe
factthatthiscommissionhasbeenempanelledbyvirtueofanunconstitutionallawanillegalorderthiscommission
iswithoutjurisdictiontotryhereinpetitioner."
Second.ThattheparticipationintheprosecutionofthecaseagainstpetitionerbeforetheCommissioninbehalf
oftheUnitedStateofAmericaofattorneysMelvilleHusseyandRobertPortwhoarenotattorneysauthorizedbythe
SupremeCourttopracticelawinthePhilippinesisadiminutionofourpersonalityasanindependentstateandtheir
appointmentasprosecutorareaviolationofourConstitutionforthereasonthattheyarenotqualifiedtopracticelaw
inthePhilippines.
Third.ThatAttorneysHusseyandPorthavenopersonalityasprosecutiontheUnitedStatenotbeingapartyin
interestinthecase.
ExecutiveOrderNo.68,establishingaNationalWarCrimesOfficeprescribingruleandregulationgoverningthetrial
ofaccusedwarcriminals,wasissuedbythePresidentofthePhilippinesonthe29thdaysofJuly,1947ThisCourt
holdsthatthisorderisvalidandconstitutional.Article2ofourConstitutionprovidesinitssection3,that
The Philippines renounces war as an instrument of national policy and adopts the generally accepted
principlesofinternationallawaspartoftheofthenation.
In accordance with the generally accepted principle of international law of the present day including the Hague
Convention the Geneva Convention and significant precedents of international jurisprudence established by the
United Nation all those person military or civilian who have been guilty of planning preparing or waging a war of
aggression and of the commission of crimes and offenses consequential and incidental thereto in violation of the
laws and customs of war, of humanity and civilization are held accountable therefor. Consequently in the
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promulgationandenforcementofExecutionOrderNo.68thePresidentofthePhilippineshasactedinconformity
withthegenerallyacceptedandpoliciesofinternationallawwhicharepartoftheourConstitution.
ThepromulgationofsaidexecutiveorderisanexercisebythePresidentofhispowerasCommanderinchiefofall
ourarmedforcesasupheldbythisCourtinthecaseofYamashitavs.Styer(L129,42Off.Gaz.,664)1whenwe

said
Warisnotendedsimplybecausehostilitieshaveceased.Aftercessationofarmedhostilitiesincidentofwar
mayremainpendingwhichshouldbedisposedofasintimeofwar.Animportanceincidenttoaconductof
waristheadoptionofmeasurebythemilitarycommandnotonlytorepelanddefeattheenemiesbuttoseize
andsubjecttodisciplinarymeasurethoseenemieswhointheirattempttothwartorimpedeourmilitaryeffort
have violated the law of war. (Ex parte Quirin 317 U.S., 1 63 Sup. Ct., 2.) Indeed the power to create a
military commission for the trial and punishment of war criminals is an aspect of waging war. And in the
languageofawriteramilitarycommissionhasjurisdictionsolongasatechnicalstateofwarcontinues.This
includes the period of an armistice or military occupation up to the effective of a treaty of peace and may
extend beyond by treaty agreement. (Cowles Trial of War Criminals by Military Tribunals, America Bar
AssociationJournalJune,1944.)
Consequently,thePresidentasCommanderinChiefisfullyempoweredtoconsummatethisunfinishedaspectof
warnamelythetrialandpunishmentofwarcriminalthroughtheissuanceandenforcementofExecutiveOrderNo.
68.
Petitioner argues that respondent Military Commission has no Jurisdiction to try petitioner for acts committed in
violationoftheHagueConventionandtheGenevaConventionbecausethePhilippinesisnotasignatorytothefirst
and signed the second only in 1947. It cannot be denied that the rules and regulation of the Hague and Geneva
conventions form, part of and are wholly based on the generally accepted principals of international law. In facts
these rules and principles were accepted by the two belligerent nation the United State and Japan who were
signatoriestothetwoConvention,Suchruleandprinciplesthereforeformpartofthelawofournationevenifthe
Philippines was not a signatory to the conventions embodying them for our Constitution has been deliberately
generalandextensiveinitsscopeandisnotconfinedtotherecognitionofruleandprincipleofinternationallawas
continuedinntreatiestowhichourgovernmentmayhavebeenorshallbeasignatory.
Furthermore when the crimes charged against petitioner were allegedly committed the Philippines was under the
sovereigntyofUnitedStatesandthuswewereequallyboundtogetherwiththeUnitedStatesandwithJapantothe
rightandobligationcontainedinthetreatiesbetweenthebelligerentcountries.Theserightsandobligationwerenot
erasedbyourassumptionoffullsovereignty.Ifatallouremergencyasafreestateentitlesustoenforcetherighton
ourownoftryingandpunishingthosewhocommittedcrimesagainstcrimesagainstourpeople.Inthisconnectionit
iswelltorememberwhatwehavesaidinthecaseofLaurelvs.Misa(76Phil.,372):
...ThechangeofourformgovernmentfromCommonwealthtoRepublicdoesnotaffecttheprosecutionof
those charged with the crime of treason committed during then Commonwealth because it is an offense
againstthesamesovereignpeople....
BythesametokenwarcrimescommittedagainstourpeopleandourgovernmentwhilewewereaCommonwealth
aretriableandpunishablebyourpresentRepublic.
PetitionerchallengestheparticipationoftwoAmericanattorneysnamelyMelvilleS.HusseyandRobertPortinthe
prosecution of his case on the ground that said attorney's are not qualified to practice law in Philippines in
accordancewithourRulesofcourtandtheappointmentofsaidattorneysasprosecutorsisviolativeofournational
sovereignty.
InthefirstplacerespondentMilitaryCommissionisaspecialmilitarytribunalgovernedbyaspeciallawandnotby
theRulesofcourtwhichgovernordinarycivilcourt.IthasalreadybeenshownthatExecutiveOrderNo.68which
providesfortheorganizationofsuchmilitarycommissionisavalidandconstitutionallaw.Thereisnothinginsaid
executive order which requires that counsel appearing before said commission must be attorneys qualified to
practicelawinthePhilippinesinaccordancewiththeRulesofCourt.Infactsitiscommoninmilitarytribunalsthat
counselforthepartiesareusuallymilitarypersonnelwhoareneitherattorneysnorevenpossessedoflegaltraining.
SecondlytheappointmentofthetwoAmericanattorneysisnotviolativeofournationsovereignty.Itisonlyfairand
properthatUnitedStates,whichhassubmittedthevindicationofcrimesagainsthergovernmentandherpeopletoa
tribunal of our nation should be allowed representation in the trial of those very crimes. If there has been any
relinquishment of sovereignty it has not been by our government but by the United State Government which has
yieldedtousthetrialandpunishmentofherenemies.Theleastthatwecoulddointhespiritofcomityistoallow
themrepresentationinsaidtrials.

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AllegingthattheUnitedStateisnotapartyininterestinthecasepetitionerchallengesthepersonalityofattorneys
HusseyandPortasprosecutors.ItisofcommonknowledgethattheUnitedStateanditspeoplehavebeenequally
ifnotmoregreatlyaggrievedbythecrimeswithwhichpetitionerstandschargedbeforetheMilitaryCommission.It
canbeconsideredaprivilegeforourRepublicthataleadernationshouldsubmitthevindicationofthehonorofits
citizensanditsgovernmenttoamilitarytribunalofourcountry.
The Military Commission having been convened by virtue of a valid law with jurisdiction over the crimes charged
whichfallundertheprovisionsofExecutiveOrderNo.68,andhavingsaidpetitionerinitscustody,thisCourtwillnot
interferewiththedueprocessofsuchMilitarycommission.
Foralltheforegoingthepetitionisdeniedwithcostsdeoficio.
Paras,Feria,Pablo,Bengzon,Tuason,MontemayorandReyes,JJ.,concur.

SeparateOpinions
PERFECTO,J.,dissenting:
AmilitarycommissionwasempanelledonDecember1,1948totryLt.Gen.ShigenoriKurodaforViolationofthe
lawsandcustomsoflandwarfare.
Melville S. Hussey and Robert Port, American citizens and not authorized by the Supreme Court to practice law
wereappointedprosecutorrepresentingtheAmericanCICinthetrialofthecase.
ThecommissionwasempanelledundertheauthorityofExecutiveOrderNo.68ofthePresidentofthePhilippines
the validity of which is challenged by petitioner on constitutional grounds. Petitioner has also challenged the
personalityofAttorneysHusseyandPorttoappearasprosecutorsbeforethecommission.
ThechargesagainstpetitionerhasbeenfiledsinceJune26,1948inthenameofthepeopleofthePhilippinesas
accusers.
WewillconsiderationbrieflythechallengeagainsttheappearanceofAttorneysHusseyandPort.Itappearingthat
theyarealiensandhavenotbeenauthorizedbytheSupremeCourttopracticelawtherecouldnotbeanyquestion
thatsaidpersoncannotappearasprosecutorsinpetitionercaseaswithsuchappearancetheywouldbepracticing
lawagainstthelaw.
Saidviolationvanisheshoweverintoinsignificanceatthesideofthemomentousquestioninvolvedinthechallenge
againstthevalidityofExecutiveOrderNo.68.Saidorderischallengedonseveralconstitutionalground.Togeta
clear idea of the question raised it is necessary to read the whole context of said order which is reproduced as
follows:
EXECUTIVEORDERNO.68.
ESTABLISHINGANATIONALWARCRIMESOFFICEANDPRESCRIBINGRULESAND
REGULATIONGOVERNINGTHETRIALOFACCUSEDWARCRIMINAL.
I,ManuelRoxaspresidentofthePhilippinesbyvirtueofthepowervestedinmebytheConstitutionandlaws
of the Philippines do hereby establish a National War Crimes Office charged with the responsibility of
accomplishing the speedy trial of all Japanese accused of war crimes committed in the Philippines and
prescribetherulesandregulationsuchtrial.
TheNationalWarcrimesofficeisestablishedwithintheofficeoftheJudgeAdvocateGeneraloftheArmyof
thePhilippinesandshallfunctionunderthedirectionsupervisionandcontroloftheJudgeAdvocateGeneral.
ItshallproceedtocollectfromallavailablesourcesevidenceofwarcrimescommittedinthePhilippinesfrom
thecommencementofhostilitiesbyJapaninDecember1941,maintainarecordthereofandbringaboutthe
prompttrialmaintainarecordthereofandbringabouttheprompttrialoftheaccused.
The National War Crimes Office shall maintain direct liaison with the Legal Section General Headquarters,
SupremeCommanderfortheAlliedpowerandshallexchangewiththesaidOfficeinformationandevidence
ofwarcrimes.
Thefollowingrulesandregulationshallgovernthetrialoffpersonaccusedaswarcriminals:
ESTABLISHMENTOFMILITARYCOMMISSIONS
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(a)General.personaccusedaswarcriminalshallbetriedbymilitarycommissiontobeconvenedbyor
undertheauthorityofthePhilippines.
II.JURISDICTION
(a)OverPerson. Thee military commission appointed hereunder shall have jurisdiction over all persons
chargedwithwarcrimeswhoareinthecustodyoftheconveningauthorityatthetimeofthetrial.
(b)OverOffenses.Themilitarycommissionestablishedhereundershallhavejurisdictionoveralloffenses
includingbutnotlimitedtothefollowing:
(1)Theplanningpreparationinitiationorwagingofawarofaggressionorawarinviolationofinternational
treatiesagreementorassuranceorparticipationinacommonplanorconspiracyfortheaccomplishmentof
anyoftheforegoing.
(2) Violation of the laws or customs of war. Such violation shall include but not be limited to murder ill
treatment or deportation to slave labor or for other purpose of civilian populationof or in occupied territory
murder or illtreatment of prisoners of war or internees or person on the seas or elsewhere improper
treatment of hostage plunder of public or private property wanton destruction of cities towns or village or
devastationnotjustifiedbymilitarynecessity.
(3) Murder extermination enslavement deportation and other inhuman acts committed against civilian
populationbeforeorduringthewarorpersecutiononpoliticalracialorreligiongroundinexecutiveoforin
connectionwithanycrimedefinedhereinwhetherornotinviolationofthelocallaws.
III.MEMBERSHIPOFCOMMISSIONS
(a)Appointment. The members of each military commission shall be appointed by the President of the
Philippines or under authority delegated by him. Alternates may be appointed by the convening authority.
Such shall attend all session of the commission, and in case of illness or other incapacity of any principal
member,analternateshalltaketheplaceofthatmember.Anyvacancyamongthemembersoralternates,
occurringafteratrialhasbegun,maybefilledbytheconveningauthoritybutthesubstanceofallproceeding
hadevidencetakeninthatcaseshallbemadeknowntothesaidnewmemberoralternate.Thisfactsshall
beannouncedbythepresidentofthecommissioninopencourt.
(b)NumberofMembers.Eachcommissionshallconsistofnotlessthanthree(3)members.
(c)Qualifications.Theconveningauthorityshallappointtothecommissionpersonswhomhedetermines
tobecompetenttoperformthedutiesinvolvedandnotdisqualifiedbypersonalinterestorprejudice,provided
thatnopersonshallbeappointedtohearacaseinwhichhepersonallyinvestigatedorwhereinhispresence
as a witness is required. One specially qualified member whose ruling is final in so far as concerns the
commissiononanobjectiontotheadmissibilityofevidenceofferedduringthetrial.
(d)Voting.ExceptastotheadmissibilityofevidenceallrulingsandfindingoftheCommissionshallbeby
majorityvoteexceptthatconvictionandsentenceshallbebytheaffirmativevoteofnotlessthanconviction
andsentenceshallbebytheaffirmativevoteofnotlessthantwothirds(2\3)ofthememberpresent.
(e)PresidingMember.Intheeventthattheconveningauthoritydoesnotnameoneofthememberasthe
presidingmember,theseniorofficeramongthememberoftheCommissionpresentshallpreside.
IV.PROSECUTORS
(a)Appointment.Theconveningauthorityshalldesignateoneormorepersontoconducttheprosecution
beforeeachcommission.
(b)Duties.Thedutiesoftheprosecutorare:
(1)Toprepareandpresentchargesandspecificationsforreferencetoacommission.
(2)Topreparecasesfortrialandtoconducttheprosecutionbeforethecommissionofallcasesreferredfor
trial.
V.POWERANDPROCEDUREOFCOMMISSION
(a)ConductoftheTrial.ACommissionshall:
(1)Confineeachtrialstrictlytofairandexpeditioushearingontheissuesraisedbythecharges,excluding
irrelevantissuesorevidenceandpreventinganyunnecessarydelayorinterference.
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(2)Dealsummarilywithanycontumacyorcontempt,imposinganyappropriatepunishmenttherefor.
(3)Holdpublicsessionwhenotherwisedecidedbythecommission.
(4)Holdeachsessionatsuchtimeandplaceasitshalldetermine,orasmaybedirectedbytheconvening
authority.
(b)RightsoftheAccused.Theaccusedshallbeentitled:
(1)Tohaveinadvanceofthetrialacopyofthechargesandspecificationsclearlywordedsoastoapprise
theaccusedofeachoffensecharged.
(2)Toberepresented,priortoandduringtrial,bycounselappointedbytheconveningauthorityorcounselof
hisownchoice,ortoconducthisowndefense.
(3)Totestifyinhisownbehalfandhavehiscounselpresentrelevantevidenceatthetrialinsupportofhis
defense,andcrossexamineeachadversewitnesswhopersonallyappearsbeforethecommission.
(4)Tohavethesubstanceofthechargesandspecifications,theproceedingsandanydocumentaryevidence
translated,whenheisunableotherwisetounderstandthem.
(c)Witnesses.TheCommissionshallhavepower:
(1)Tosummonwitnessesandrequiretheirattendanceandtestimonytoadministeroathsoraffirmationsto
witnessesandotherpersonsandtoquestionwitnesses.
(2)Torequiretheproductionofdocumentsandotherevidentiarymaterial.
(3)TodelegatetheProsecutorsappointedbytheconveningauthoritythepowersanddutiessetforthin(1)
and(2)above.
(4)Tohaveevidencetakenbyaspecialcommissionerappointedbythecommission.
(d)Evidence.
(1)Thecommissionshalladmitsuchevidenceasinitsopinionshallbeofassistanceinprovingordisproving
thecharge,orsuchasinthecommission'sopinionwouldhaveprobativevalueinthemindofareasonable
man. The commission shall apply the rules of evidence and pleading set forth herein with the greatest
liberality to achieve expeditious procedure. In particular, and without limiting in any way the scope of the
foregoinggeneralrules,thefollowingevidencemaybeadmitted:
(a)Anydocument,irrespectiveofitsclassification,whichappearstothecommissiontohavebeensignedor
issuedbyanyofficer,department,agencyormemberofthearmedforcesofanyGovernmentwithoutproofof
thesignatureoroftheissuanceofthedocument.
(b) Any report which appears to the commission to have been signed or issued by the International Red
Crossoramemberofanymedicalservicepersonnel,orbyanyinvestigatororintelligenceofficer,orbyany
otherpersonwhomcommissionconsidersaspossessingknowledgeofthematterscontainedinthereport.
(c)Affidavits,depositionsorothersignedstatements.
(d)Anydiary,lettertootherdocument,includingswornstatements,appearingtothecommissiontocontain
informationrelatingtothecharge.
(e) A copy of any document or other secondary evidence of the contents, if the original is not immediately
available.
(2)Thecommissionshalltakejudicialnoticeoffactsofcommonknowledge,officialgovernmentdocumentsof
any nation, and the proceedings, records and findings of military or other agencies of any of the United
Nation.
(3) A commission may require the prosecution and the defense to make a preliminary offer of proof
whereuponthecommissionmayruleinadvanceontheadmissibilityofsuchevidence.
(4) The official position of the accused shall not absolve him from responsibility nor be considered in
mitigationofpunishment.Furtheractionpursuanttoanorderoftheaccused'ssuperior,orofhisGovernment,
shall not constitute a defense, but may be considered in mitigation of punishment if the commission
determinesthatjusticesorequires.
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(5) All purposed confessions or statements of the accused shall bee admissible in evidence without any
showing that they were voluntarily made. If it is shown that such confession or statement was procured by
meanwhichthecommissionbelievetohavebeenofsuchacharacterthatmayhavecausedtheaccusedto
make a false statement the commission may strike out or disregard any such portion thereof as was so
procured.
(e) Trial Procedure. The proceedings of each trial shall be conducted substantially as follows unless
modifiedbythecommissiontosuittheparticularcircumstances:
(1)Eachchargeandspecificationshallbereadoritssubstancestatedinopencourt.
(2)Thepresidingmembershallaskeachaccusedwhetherhepleads"Guilty"or"Notguilty."
(3)Theprosecutionshallmakeitsopeningstatement."(4)Thepresidingmembermayatthisoranyothertime
requiretheprosecutortostatewhatevidenceheproposestosubmittothecommissionandthecommission
thereuponmayruleupontheadmissibilityofsuchevidence.
(4) The witnesses and other evidence for the prosecution shall be heard or presented. At the close of the
casefortheprosecution,thecommissionmay,onmotionofthedefenseforafindingofnotguilty,consider
and rule whether he evidence before the commission may defer action on any such motion and permit or
requiretheprosecutiontoreopenitscaseandproduceanyfurtheravailableevidence.
(5)Thedefensemaymakeanopeningstatementpriortopresentingitscase.Thepresidingmembermay,at
thisanyothertimerequirethedefensetostatewhatevidenceitproposestosubmittothecommissionwhere
uponthecommissionmayruleupontheadmissibilityofsuchevidence.
(6) The witnesses and other evidence for the defense shall be heard or presented. Thereafter, the
prosecution and defense may introduce such evidence in rebuttal as the commission may rule as being
admissible.
(7)Thedefenseandthereaftertheprosecutionshalladdressthecommission.
(8)Thecommissionthereaftershallconsiderthecaseinclosedsessionandunlessotherwisedirectedbythe
conveningauthority,announceinopencourtitsjudgmentandsentenceifany.Thecommissionmaystatethe
reasononwhichjudgmentisbased.
(f)RecordofProceedings.Eachcommissionshallmakeaseparaterecordofitsproceedinginthetrialof
each case brought before it. The record shall be prepared by the prosecutor under the direction of the
commission and submitted to the defense counsel. The commission shall be responsible for its accuracy.
Suchrecord,certifiedbythepresidingmemberofthecommissionorhissuccessor,shallbedeliveredtothe
conveningauthorityassoonaspossibleafterthetrial.
(g) Sentence. The commission may sentence an accused, upon conviction to death by hanging or
shooting, imprisonment for life or for any less term, fine or such other punishment as the commission shall
determinetobeproper.
(h)ApprovalofSentence.No.sentenceofamilitarycommissionshallbecarriedintoeffectuntilapproved
bythechiefoffStaff:Provided,Thatnosentenceofdeathorlifeimprisonmentshallbecarriedintoexecution
untilconfirmedbythePresidentofthePhilippines.ForthepurposeofhisreviewtheChiefofStaffshallcreate
a Board of Review to be composed of not more than three officers none of whom shall be on duty with or
assignedtotheJudgeAdvocateGeneral'sOffice.TheChiefofStaffshallhaveauthoritytoapprove,mitigate
remit in whole or in part, commute, suspend, reduce or otherwise alter the sentence imposed, or (without
prejudicetotheaccused)remandthecaseforrehearingbeforeanewmilitarycommissionbutheshallnot
have authority to increase the severity of the sentence. Except as herein otherwise provided the judgment
andsentenceofacommissionshallfinalandnotsubjecttoreviewbyanyothertribunal.
VI.RULEMAKINGPOWER
SupplementaryRuleandForms.Eachcommissionshalladoptrulesandformstogovernitsprocedure,not
inconsistentwiththeprovisionofthisOrder,orsuchrulesandformsasmaybeprescribedbytheconvening
authority]orbythePresidentofthePhilippines.
VII.Theamountofamountofsevenhundredthousandpesosisherebysetasideoutoftheappropriationsfor
theArmyofthePhilippinesforusebytheNationalWarCrimesOfficeintheaccomplishmentofitsmissionas
hereinabovesetforth,andshallbeexpendedinaccordancewiththerecommendationoftheJudgeAdvocate
GeneralasapprovedbythePresident.Thebuildings,fixtures,installations,messing,andbilletingequipment
and other property herefore used by then Legal Section, Manila Branch, of the General Headquarters,
Supreme Commander for the Allied Power, which will be turned over by the United States Army to the
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PhilippinesGovernmentthroughtheForeignLiquidationCommissionandtheSurplusPropertyCommission
areherebyspecificationreservedforuseofftheNationalWarCrimesOffice.
ExecutiveOrderNo.64,datedAugust16,1945,isherebyrepealed.
DoneintheCityofManila,this29thdayofJulyintheyearofOurLord,nineteenhundredandfortyseven,
andoftheIndependenceofthePhilippines,thesecond.
MANUELROXAS
PresidentofthePhilippines
BythePresident:
EMILIOABELLO
ChiefoftheExecutiveOffice
EXECUTIVELEGISLATION
ExecutiveOrderNo.68isaveritablepieceofLegislativemeasure,withoutthebenefitofcongressionalenactment.
Thefirstquestionthatistrustatourfacespearheadingagroupofothernolessimportantquestion,iswhetherornot
the President of the Philippines may exercise the legislative power expressly vested in Congress by the
Constitution..
TheConstitutionprovides:
TheLegislativepowersshallbevestedinaCongressofthePhilippineswhichshallconsistofaSenateand
HouseofRepresentatives.(Section1,ArticleVI.)
Whilethereisnoexpressprovisioninthefundamentallawprohibitingtheexerciseoflegislativepowerbyagencies
other than Congress, a reading of the whole context of the Constitution would dispel any doubt as to the
constitutional intentthat the legislative power is to be exercised exclusively by Congress, subject only to the veto
powerofthePresidentofthePresidentofthePhilippines,tothespecificprovisionwhichallowthepresidentofthe
Philippines to suspend the privileges of the writ of habeas corpus and to place any part of the Philippines under
martiallaw,andtotherulemakingpowerexpresslyvestedbytheConstitutionintheSupremeCourt.
There cannot be any question that the member of the Constitutional Convention were believers in the tripartite
system of government as originally enunciated by Aristotle, further elaborated by Montequieu and accepted and
practicedbymoderndemocracies,especiallytheUnitedStateofAmerica,whoseConstitution,afterwhichourshas
been patterned, has allocated the three power of government legislative, executive, judicial to distinct and
separatedepartmentofgovernment.
Because the power vested by our Constitution to the several department of the government are in the nature of
grants,notrecognitionofpreexistingpower,nodepartmentofgovernmentmayexerciseanypowerorauthoritynot
expresslygrantedbytheConstitutionorbylawbyvirtueexpressauthorityoftheConstitution.
ExecutiveOrderNo.68establishesaNationalWarCrimesOfficeandthepowertoestablishgovernmentofficeis
essentiallylegislative.
The order provides that person accused as war criminals shall be tried by military commissions. Whether such a
provision is substantive or adjective, it is clearly legislative in nature. It confers upon military commissions
jurisdiction to try all persons charge with war crimes. The power to define and allocate jurisdiction for the
prosecutionofpersonaccusedofanycrimeisexclusivelyvestedbytheConstitutioninCongress..
It provides rules of procedure for the conduct of trial of trial. This provision on procedural subject constitutes a
usurpationoftherulemakingpowervestedbyConstitutionintheSupremeCourt.
It authorized military commission to adopt additional rule of procedure. If the President of the Philippines cannot
exercise the rule making power vested by the Constitution in the Supreme Court, he cannot, with more reason,
delegatethatpowertomilitarycommission.
It appropriates the sum of P7000,000 for the expenses of the National War Crimes office established by the said
ExecutiveOrderNo.68.Thisconstitutesanotherusurpationoflegislativepowerasthepowertovoteappropriations
belongstoCongress.

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Executive Order No. 68., is, therefore, null and void, because, though it the President of the Philippines usurped
powerexpresslyvestedbytheConstitutioninCongressandintheSupremeCourt.
ChallengedtoshowtheconstitutionalorlegalauthorityunderwhichthePresidentissuedExecutiveOrderNo.68,
respondent could not give any definite answer. They attempted, however, to suggest that the President of the
PhilippinesissuedExecutiveOrderNo.68undertheemergencypowergrantedtohimbyCommonwealthActNo.
600,asamendedbyCommonwealthActNo.620,andCommonwealthActNo.671,bothofwhicharetranscribed
below:

COMMONWEALTHACTNO.600.
ANACTDECLARINGASTATEOFEMERGENCYANDAUTHORIZINGTHEPRESIDENTTO
PROMULGATERULESANDREGULATIONTOSAFEGUARDTHEINTEGRITYOFTHE
PHILIPPINESANDTOINSURETHETRANQUILITYOFITSINHABITANTS.
BeitenactedbytheNationalAssemblyofthePhilippines:
SECTION1.Theexistenceofwarinmanypartsoftheworldhascreatedanationalemergencywhichmakes
it necessary to invest the President of the Philippines with extraordinary power in order to safeguard the
integrity of the Philippines and to insure the tranquility of its inhabitants, by suppressing espionage,
lawlessness,andallsubversivetothepeopleadequateshelterandclothingandsufficientfoodsupply,andby
providing means for the speedy evacuation of the civilian population the establishment of an air protective
service and the organization of volunteer guard units, and to adopt such other measures as he may deem
necessaryfortheinterestofthepublic.TocarryoutthispolicythePresidentisauthorizedtopromulgaterules
and regulations which shall have the force and effect off law until the date of adjournment of the next
regulation which shall have the force and effect of law until the date of adjournment of the next regular
session of the First Congress of the Philippines, unless sooner amended or repealed by the Congress of
Philippines. Such rules and regulation may embrace the following objects: (1) to suppress espionage and
other subversive activities (2) to require all ablebodied citizens (a) when not engaged in any lawful
occupation, to engage in farming or other productive activities or (b) to perform such services as may bee
necessary in the public interest (3) to take over farm lands in order to prevent or shortage of crops and
hunger and destitution (4) to take over industrial establishment in order to insure adequate production,
controllingwagesandprofitstherein(5)toprohibitlockoutsandstrikeswhenevernecessarytopreventthe
unwarrantedsuspensionofworkinproductiveenterprisesorintheinterestofnationalsecurity(6)toregulate
thenormalhoursofworkforwageearningandsalariedemployeesinindustrialorbusinessundertakingsof
allkinds(7)toinsureanevendistributionoflaboramongtheproductiveenterprises(8)tocommandership
and other means of transportation in order to maintain, as much as possible, adequate and continued
transportationfacilities(9)torequisitionandtakeoveranypublicserviceorenterpriseforuseoroperationby
the Government(10) to regulate rents and the prices of articles or commodities of prime necessity, both
imported and locally produced or manufactured and (11) to prevent, locally or generally, scarcity,
monopolization, hoarding injurious speculations, and private control affecting the supply, distribution and
movement of foods, clothing, fuel, fertilizer, chemical, building, material, implements, machinery, and
equipment required in agriculture and industry, with power to requisition these commodities subject to the
paymentofjustcompensation.(AsamendedbyCom.ActNo.620.)
SEC.2.ForthepurposeofadministeringthisActandcarryingoutitsobjective,thePresidentmaydesignate
any officer, without additional compensation, or any department, bureau, office, or instrumentality of the
NationalGovernment.
SEC.3.Anyperson,firm,orcorporationfoundguiltyoftheviolationofanyprovisionofthisActorofthisAct
oranyoftherulesorregulationspromulgatedbythePresidentundertheauthorityofsectiononeofthisAct
shall be punished by imprisonment of not more than ten years or by a fine of not more than ten thousand
pesos,orbyboth.Ifsuchviolationiscommittedbyafirmorcorporation,themanager,managingdirector,or
person charge with the management of the business of such firm, or corporation shall be criminally
responsibletherefor.
SEC. 4. The President shall report to the national Assembly within the first ten days from the date of the
openingofitsnextregularsessionwhateveractionhasbeentakenbyhimundertheauthorityhereingranted.
SEC.5.TocarryoutthepurposedofthisAct,thePresidentisauthorizedtospendsuchamountsasmaybe
necessary from the sum appropriated under section five Commonwealth Act Numbered four hundred and
ninetyeight.

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SEC. 6. If any province of this Act shall be declared by any court of competent jurisdiction to be
unconstitutionalandvoid,suchdeclarationshallnotinvalidatetheremainderofthisAct.
SEC.7.ThisActshalltakeuponitsapproval.
Approved,August19,1940.

COMMONWEALTHACTNO.671
ANACTDECLARINGASTATEOFTOTALEMERGENCYASARESULTOFWARINVOLVINGTHE
PHILIPPINESANDAUTHORIZINGTHEPRESIDENTTOPROMULGATERULEANDREGULATIONS
TOMEETSUCHEMERGENCY.
BeitenactedtheNationalAssemblyofthePhilippines
SECTION 1. The existed of war between the United State and other countries of Europe and Asia, which
involves the Philippines, makes it necessary to invest the President with extraordinary powers in order to
meettheresultingemergency.
SEC. 2. Pursuant to the provision of Article VI, section 16, of the Constitution, the President is hereby
authorized,duringtheexistenceoftheemergency,topromulgatesuchrulesandregulationashemaydeem
necessarytocarryoutthenationalpolicydeclaredinsection1hereof.Accordingly,heis,amongotherthings,
empowered (a) to transfer the seat of the Government or any of its subdivisions, branches, department,
offices,agenciesorinstrumentalities(b)toreorganizetheGovernmentoftheCommonwealthincludingthe
determination of the order of precedence of the heads of the Executive Department (c) to create new
subdivision,branches,departments,offices,agencyorinstrumentalitiesofgovernmentandtoabolishanyof
thosealreadyexisting(d)tocontinueinforcelawsandappropriationwhichwouldlapseorotherwisebecame
inoperative,andtomodifyorsuspendtheoperationorapplicationofthoseofanadministrativecharacter(e)
to imposed new taxes or to increase, reduce, suspend, or abolish those in existence (f) to raise funds
through the issuance of bonds or otherwise, and to authorize the expensive of the proceeds thereof (g)to
authorize the National, provincial, city or municipal governments to incur in overdrafts for purposes that he
may approve (h) to declare the suspension of the collection of credits or the payment of debts and (i)to
exercisesuchotherpowerashemaydeemnecessarytoenabletheGovernmenttofulfillitsresponsibilities
andtomaintainandenforceitsauthority.
SEC.3.ThePresidentofthePhilippinesreporttheretoalltherulesandregulationpromulgatedbyhimunder
thepowerhereingranted.
SEC. 4. This Act shall take effect upon its approval and the rules and regulations. promulgated hereunder
shallbeinforceandeffectuntiltheCongressofthePhilippinesshallotherwiseprovide.
ApprovedDecember16,1941.
The above Acts cannot validly be invoked, Executive Order No. 68 was issued on July 29, 1947. Said Acts had
elapsed upon the liberation of the Philippines form the Japanese forces or, at the latest, when the surrender of
JapanwassignedinTokyoonSeptember2,1945.
When both Acts were enacted by the Second National Assembly, we happened to have taken direct part in their
considerationandpassage,notonlyasoneofthemembersofsaidlegislativebodyaschairmanoftheCommittee
on Third Reading population Known as the "Little Senate." We are, therefore in a position to state that said
measureswereenactedbythesecondnationalAssemblyforthepurposeoffacingtheemergencyofimpendingwar
andofthePacificWarthatfinallybrokeoutwiththeattackofPearlHarboronDecember7,1941.Weapprovedsaid
extraordinary measures, by which under the exceptional circumstances then prevailing legislative power were
delegatedtothePresidentofthePhilippines,byvirtueofthefollowingprovisionsoftheConstitution:
Intimeofwarorothernationalemergency,theCongressmaybylawauthorizethePresident,foralimited
period and subject to such restrictions as it may prescribe to promulgate rules and regulations to carry out
declarednationalpolicy.(ArticleVI,section26.)
IthasneverbeenthepurposeoftheNationalAssemblytoextendthedelegationbeyondtheemergencycreatedby
thewarastoextenditfartherwouldbeviolativeoftheexpressprovisionoftheConstitution.Weareoftheopinion
thatthereisnodoubtonthisquestion.butiftherecouldstillbeanythesameshouldberesolvedinfavorofthe
presumptionthattheNationalAssemblydidnotintendtoviolatethefundamentallaw.
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TheabsurdityofthecontentionthattheemergencyActscontinuedineffectevenafterthesurrenderofJapancan
notbegainsaid.OnlyafewmonthsafterliberationandevenbeforethesurrenderofJapan,orsincethemiddleof
1945,theCongressstartedtofunctionnormally.Inthehypothesisthatthecontentioncanprevail,then,since1945,
thatis,fouryearsago,evenaftertheCommonwealthwasalreadyreplacedbytheRepublicofthePhilippineswith
theproclamationofourIndependence,twodistrict,separateandindependencelegislativeorgans,Congressand
thePresidentofthePhilippineswouldhavebeenandwouldcontinueenactinglaws,theformertoenactlawsof
everynatureincludingthoseofemergencycharacter,andthelattertoenactlaws,intheformofexecutiveorders,
under the socalled emergency powers. The situation would be pregnant with dangers to peace and order to the
rightsandlibertiesofthepeopleandtoPhilippinesdemocracy.
ShouldtherebeanydisagreementbetweenCongressandthePresidentofthePhilippines,apossibilitythatnoone
candisputethePresidentofthePhilippinesmaytakeadvantageofhelongrecessofCongress(twothirdsofevery
year)torepealandoverrulelegislativeenactmentsofCongress,andmaysetupaveritablesystemofdictatorship,
absolutelyrepugnanttotheletterandspiritoftheConstitution.
ExecutiveOrderNo.68isequallyoffensivetotheConstitutionbecauseitviolatesthefundamentalguaranteesof
thedueprocessandequalprotectionofthelaw.Itisespeciallyso,becauseitpermittheadmissionofmanykinds
evidencebywhichnoinnocentpersoncanaffordtogetacquittalandbywhichitisimpossibletodeterminewhether
anaccusedisguiltyornotbeyondallreasonabledoubt.
TherulesofevidenceadoptedinExecutiveOrderNo.68areareproductionoftheregulationgoverningthetrialof
twelvecriminal,issuedbyGeneralDouglasMacArthur,CommanderinChiefoftheUnitedStateArmedForcesin
Western Pacific, for the purpose of trying among other, General Yamashita and Homma. What we said in our
concurring and dissenting opinion to the decision promulgated on December 19, 1945, in the Yamashita case, L
129, and in our concurring and dissenting opinion to the resolution of January 23, 1946 in disposing the Homma
case, L244, are perfectly applicable to the offensive rules of evidence in Executive Order No. 68. Said rules of
evidencearerepugnanttoconscienceasunderthemnojusticecanexpected.
For all the foregoing, conformably with our position in the Yamashita and Homma cases, we vote to declare
ExecutiveOrderNo.68nullandvoidandtograntpetition.
TheLawphilProjectArellanoLawFoundation

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