Biology Maintaining A Balance 10

9.
2 - Maintaining a Balance:
1. Most organisms are active within a limited temperature range:
Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical
composition and use a simple model to describe their specificity in
substrates:
Role of enzymes in metabolism:
Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions occurring in organisms
Anabolism- synthesis of larger molecules from smaller ones
Catabolism- Breakdown of larger molecules into simpler ones
Examples of cellular processes involved in metabolism- respiration, glycolysis,
photosynthesis, protein synthesis
Chemical reactions needed to:
Obtain energy
Build new chemicals for growth and repair of cell
Make substances needed by other cells
Enzymes are biological catalysts which accelerate chemical reactions
Without enzymes, metabolism would be too slow to support life
Important in cells as heat damages living cells
Lowering of activation energy
Enzymes do not produce activation energy rather they reduce the amount of
activation energy
Lower the activation energy to start a reaction so that the reaction can
proceed quickly without a change in temperature
Example of enzyme (Sucrase)
Sucrose- Sugar used in sweets and cakes- obtained by crushing out the
contents of phloem tissue of sugarcane plants
This carbohydrate consists of 2 simpler sugar molecules- one glucose and one
fructose molecule
Sucrose- too large to be absorbed into the bloodstream from digestive
system
Broken down in the small intestines into its 2 component sugars by an
enzyme called sucrose
Molecules of glucose and fructose are small enough to be directly absorbed
through the membranes of the digestive system into the blood stream
Substrate
Products
Sucrase enzyme present
Sucrose molecule
Glucose + Fructose
Another example (Maltase)

Maltose sugar- found in a lot of sweets
Needs to be digested using an enzyme before it can be absorbed into the
bloodstream
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Substrate
Products
Maltase
Maltose molecule
Glucose + Glucose
Enzymes are very specific

Each enzyme changes the rate of one kind of chemical reaction only
Many different enzymes within each organism to control all the reactions that are
part of the organisms metabolism
Chemical composition of enzymes:

Most enzymes are made up of protein
Proteins are composed of long chains of amino acids joined together by
peptide bonds
20 different amino acids make up proteins and enzymes in organims
These long chains are called polypeptide chains
Proteins consist of one or more polypeptide chains
The shape of each enzyme makes it able to take part in a specific kind of chemical
reaction
Structure of enzymes:
In enzymes, the polypeptide chain is folded into a 3-dimensional globular
shape
Active site- where the enzyme binds to the substrate
The substrate are the molecules the enzymes acts upon
Specificity of enzymes:
Enzymes are highly specific in their action; this means that each enzyme acts
on one substrate only
This is because the shape of the active site of the enzyme matches the shape of the
substrate material
The molecules the enzyme act upon are called the substrate
The substrate molecules bind to the active site and a chemical reaction occurs
The products are the substances that the substrate(s) become. One substrate
can be split, or two substrates can be joined
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Enzyme models
The Lock and Key Model
Enzyme must fit the shape of the substance for it to influence a chemical reaction
suggests that the substrate fits exactly into the active site of the enzyme like a key
fits into a lock. It assumes that the enzyme had a rigid and unchanging shape.
The enzyme is sometimes referred to as the 'lock' and the initial reactant substrate
molecule as the 'key'
This is where only one small part of the enzyme molecule can form a complex with
the substrate. This part of the molecule is called the active site.
Only a specific substrate(s) can bond in that site and this makes the enzyme specific
to that substrate.
The Induced Fit Model

states that the binding of the substrate to the enzyme induces a temporary change
in shape of the enzyme.
The new shape of the enzyme better accommodates the shape of the substrate and
a reaction occurs.
It suggests that the active site continues to change until the substrate is completely
bound to it, at which point the final shape and charge is determined.
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Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance:

pH means the power or concentration of dissolved hydrogen in the solution
The substance that makes a solution acidic is hydrogen ions
pH is a measure of the acidity or the alkalinity of a substance
The pH scale is from 0 to 14: a pH of 7 is neutral (pure water); above 7 is alkaline/
basic and below 7 is acidic
On pH scale a change in one pH unit is a change in concentration of 10 times e.g. pH
14 is 10 times more basic than pH 13
pH of a solution can be found by:
1. Using an electronic probe or sensor
2. Using universal indicator
Factors affecting enzymes

identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation
to test the effect of:
increased temperature
change in pH
change in substrate concentrations on the activity of named enzyme(s)
(IN BIO PRAC BOOK)

1. Changing pH:
Many enzymes work best at a pH that is just slightly alkaline
Decreasing or increasing acidity from the optimum (the best possible) pH reduces
the activity of an enzyme.
Enzymes change shape and are denatured (take away natural qualities) when the pH
varies too much from their optimum
Any change in pH above or below the Optimum will quickly cause a decrease in the
rate of reaction, since more of the enzyme molecules will have Active Sites whose
shapes are not, or at least less, Complementary to the shape of their Substrate.
Small changes in pH above or below the Optimum do not cause a permanent change
to the enzyme, since the bonds can be reformed but extreme changes are
irreversible.
2. Changing temperature
Decreasing temperature decreases the activity of an enzyme- molecules have
lower energy
Increasing temperature increases its activity until the shape of the enzyme
begins to alter
If the temperature is high enough to permanently change the enzymes
shape then the enzyme is denatured and can no longer catalyse the reaction
Human optimum temp- 35-40c
Enzymes that are partially denatured by heat may regain their correct shape
on cooling but complete denaturation is irreversible
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3. Changing substrate concentration

Decreasing the concentration of substrate decreases the activity of an
enzyme
Increasing the concentration of substrate increases its activity until all the
enzyme is involved in catalysing reactions
If substrate concentration is increased an enzyme concentration stays the
same then the rate of reaction will increase to a point and then remain
constant caused by all active sites on the enzyme molecule being occupied
known as the saturation point. A further increase in substrate molecules
cannot increase the rate of reaction cause no more active sites available.
Cofactors- inorganic chemicals that help catalyse, either by binding tightly to the enzymes
active site as permanent residents or by bonding loosely alone with the substrate
Coenzymes- perform same function but are organic molecules
Enzyme inhibitors- certain chemicals inhibit the action of specific enzymes, either by
attaching to the active site or changing its shape.
Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal
metabolic efficiency:
Enzymes are essential for proper metabolic function in an organism
However, enzyme efficiency is affected greatly by certain factors

These include:
_ Temperature
_ pH
_ Substrate concentration
Enzymes work best within a limited range therefore, a constant and stable internal
environment is needed so that enzymes will always be working at an optimum rate, and thus
metabolism will be at an optimum efficiency
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Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable

internal environment:
Homeostasis is the process by which the body maintains a stable internal
Environment despite changes in the external environment
Multicellular organisms regulate their internal environment in order to remain
Healthy
The internal environment of cells are kept within certain limits by the coordinating
systems of the body
These systems monitor all the activities of cells, their requirements and the wastes they
produce
-Homeostasis keeps conditions as close to the optimum as possible so that the organisms
metabolism can operate as efficiently as possible
- Through homeostasis, organism maintain an internal equilibrium (stableness) by adjusting
physiological processes through the use of feedback systems
-Feedback systems are a self regulating mechanism that maintains homeostasis (a balance).
-Role: maintain conditions and reaction within the small range to sustain life
-Consists of 3 main parts:
1. Receptor- monitors/detects changes in the internal and external environment
2. Control centre (hypothalamus)- monitors information passed from the receptor and
determines and appropriate response.
3. Effectors- carries a message from the control centre
Explain that homeostasis consists of two stages
_ Detecting changes from the stable state;
_ Counteracting changes from the stable state:
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If homeostasis is to be maintained; the body must be able to detect stimuli that indicate a change in
internal / external environment.
Stage 1) Detecting Changes:

The body needs to maintain a stable state in order to function properlyMade possible by
the presence of receptors in living organisms
_Receptors in body tissues detect changes in the environment (internal & external).
-
Mechanoreceptors
Photoreceptors
Chemoreceptors
Thermoreceptors.
Messages sent along neurones (nerve cells) as an electrochemical impulse. Brain receives &
interprets message. Receptors detect a change in the variable.
_ Changes, or deviations, from the stable state are caused by the external and internal
environment
_ Any change, or information, that provokes a response is called a STIMULUS
_ RECEPTORS detect stimuli; organisms then react to the change
_ There are two types of receptors within the body:
_ Disturbance receptors: These receptors, usually in the skin, detect changes caused by the
external environment
_ Misalignment receptors: These receptors detect changes from the bodys stable state.
_ Examples of external stimuli: light, day length, sound, temperature, odours
_ Examples of internal stimuli: levels of CO2, oxygen levels, water, wastes, etc.
Stage 2)-Counteracting Changes:
Brain responds to message by sending a nervous message to an effector to counteract the

changes in the environment.
Effectors counteract the change (muscle / gland).
After receptors detect changes, organisms can then react to the change.
When a change affects the organisms normal/stable state, the response is homeostatic.
This type of response will counteract the change to ensure the stable state is
maintainedbrought about by effectors
EFFECTORS bring about responses to stimuli Can either be muscles or glands.
Muscles bring about change by movement.
Glands bring about change by secreting chemical substances
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Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to
develop a model of a feedback mechanism
Homeostasis is maintained by feedback mechanisms. The response to a change may involve negative
or position feedback:
- Negative feedback acts to counteract any changes in the cells. For example, if blood sugar levels
are high the response counteracts this change by reducing blood sugar levels.
- Positive feedback operates by reinforcing the changes in the cell
No Change
Figure 2: Homeostatic control of

blood glucose levels
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Negative feedback:
A specific change that results in a response opposite to the initial situation
E.g. in humans if body temp becomes too low (stimulus), the person may shiver
(response). The shivering generates heat and the body becomes warmer (new
stimulus). The feedback mechanism monitors the rise in temperature and will cause
the opposite to the initial response- it will stop the shivering
Positive feedback
The monitoring will re-enforce and amplify the situation, causing more of the same
situation to take place
E.g- process of labour. Once labour begins, it needs to be completed quickly to avoid
unduly stressing both mother and baby. The pressure of the babys head near the
opening of the uterus stimulates uterine contractions, which cause greater pressure
against the uterus opening, heightening the contractions which causes still greater
pressure.
Outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and responding to environmental
changes:
The nervous system works to regulate and maintain an animals internal environment and
respond to the external environment
- Important in homeostasis
- Sensory nerves of peripheral N.S detects changes. They are the receptors and they
carry the message to the brain
- CNS (Brain) response to counteract the change is decided. message is sent back to
the affected body parts via the motor nerves of the P.N.S. These are the effectors
-Role of nervous system:
1. Detect information about animals internal and external environment and then
coordinates the bodys response to these changes
2.Transmit information to a control centre
3. Information processed in the control centre, generates a response
The nervous system is made up of two parts:
_ Central Nervous System:

- acts as the CONTROL CENTRE for all of the bodys responses.
- It coordinates all the responses.
- made up of the brain and the spinal cord.
- receives information, interprets it and initiates a response.
- Hypothalamus one of these regions of regulate release of hormone responsible for
-
controlling many variables (major role in maintaining homeostasis).
-Thalamus receives impulses from sensory neurones, directs them to parts of the
brain.
_ Peripheral Nervous System:
- This is a branching system of nerves that connects receptors and effectors.
- This system transmits messages from the central nervous system and back.
- It acts as a communication channel.
- Composed of all neurons outside the CNS
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Includes sensory and motor neurons

Sensory neurons- transmit messages to the CNS from receptor organs
Motor neurons- Transmit messages from the CNS to the effector organs such as
muscles
The nervous system works closely with the endocrine system- This system produces
hormones in response to certain stimuli in order to maintain homeostasis
-
Identify the broad range over which life is found compared with the narrow limits for
individual species:
Ambient temperature is the temperature of the environment
The range of temperatures over which life is found is broad compared to the
narrow limits for individual species
Life can only exist between temperatures because:
Enzymes that catalyse the reactions of metabolism are very temperature
sensitive- stable but slow if too cold and unstable and denature when too hot
Many cell membrane proteins only function properly of they are floating in
the lipid bilayer
- Organisms live in environments with ambient temperatures ranging from less than 70 degrees (at the poles) to over 50 degrees (in deserts).
- Individual organisms cannot survive this whole range of temperatures.
To survive, organisms must be able to live within the temperature range of their
local environment.
- This means that life is found in a very wide range of temperatures, but individual
species can only be found in a narrow temperature range in which they can survive
(Eg humans can only survive unclothed and unsheltered from 27C to 43C) because
of certain behavioral, structural and physiological adaptations
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Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms to

changes in the ambient temperature and explain how these responses assist in
temperature regulation:
ECTOTHERMS (cold blooded) organisms that have a limited ability to control their body
temperature. Their cellular activities generate little heat. Their body temperatures rise and
fall with ambient temperature changes. Most organisms are ectotherms.(cold blooded)
Examples are plants, all invertebrates, fish, amphibians and reptiles
ENDOTHERMS are organisms whose metabolism generates enough heat to maintain an
internal temperature independent of the ambient temperature (warm blooded)
Examples are birds and mammals
Heat exchange with the environment:
All organisms exchange heat with their external environment in 4 ways:
1. Conduction: direct transfer of heat from the environment to the body surface
2. Convention: transfer of heat by the movement of air or liquid past the body surface
3. Radiation: Transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves between objects that rent in
contact
4. Evaporation: heat loss form the surface of a liquid when it changes to a gas
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Behavioural adaptations:
- Ways that organisms behave in order to help it survive in its environment
- E.G. Migration, nocturnal activity, burrowing, basking
Structural adaptations:
- Physical features of the organism that help it survive e.g. shape, appearance,
structure
Insulation-Fur in mammals & feathers in birds trap a layer of air that slows down
heat exchange with the external environment.
- Thickness of fur / feathers can be changed with changing seasons.
- Subcutaneous fat traps heat beneath skin.
- eg. Cockatoo.
- Can contract muscles to lift feathers up in cold conditions.
- eg. Whales.
- Have layer of blubber to prevent transfer of heat to water.
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Piloerection:
- Hair standing on end
- Important for most mammals.
- Trapped air beneath hair/fur acts as insulation.
- Sympathetic neurones carry impulses from hypothalamus to base of
each hair, muscle contracts, hair stands on end.
Surface area : volume:
- Large volume with small surface area loses heat less efficiently than
- large surface area & small volume.
- E.G. Blubber as insulation in whales/dolphins, animal fur
Physiological adaptations:
- a change metabolism or biochemistry to deal with an environmental problem i.e. realted to
-
the functioning of the organism body

E.G. endotherms speed up their metabolism in cold environment or hibernate in winter
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Example of an Australian endotherm and ectotherm

Name of
Endothermic or Adaptation/response
organism
ectothermic
Red
kangaroo
Endothermic
Keeping warm:
Produces heat to keep warm
using its metabolism
Insulating covering of fur
Obtains heat by being active
and in direct sunlight
Keeping cool:
Less active during warm
periods of the day
Seeks shelter under shade
Pants (rapid, shallow breaths),
so that heat is lost from its
nasal passages (air passages
inside its nose)
Licks its forearms so saliva
evaporates and cools the skin
and blood below
Sweats through its skin when
it is active
Australian
diamond
python
Ectothermic
Cold conditions:
Lies on eggs and shivers to
create more heat within the
body
Dark in colour to absorb heat
and therefore can tolerate
colder temperatures than
most snakes
Bask in sun to raise body temp
Hibernate during winter
Migrate to warmer areas
Warm conditions:
Nocturnal- hunting at night
Burrowing during the day
Behavioral,
Structural,
Physiological
Physiological
Structural
Behavioral
Behavioral
Behavioral
Structural
Behavioral
Physiological
Physiological
Structural
Behavioral
Behavioral
Behavioral
Behavioral
Behavioral
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Identify some responses of plants to temperature change:

Enzymes in plants have same characteristics to those in animals. Have optimum temperature at
which maximal efficiency occurs. Plants tend to maintain temperature in optimal range for optimal
metabolic activity to occur & to minimise damage. Optimal temperature is also required for
germination of seeds & growth
Responses to change;
- In extreme heat or cold, plants can die, but leave behind dormant seeds.
- Plants may die above the ground, but leave bulbs, roots, rhizomes or tubers to survive
underground. These then sprout when favourable conditions return
- Vernalisation: this means that some plants need exposure to cold condition before they can
flower
- Seed dispersal is also stimulated sometimes by fire
Leaf Fall
Plants reduce their surface area exposed to heat by dropping their leaves.
This also reduces the amount of water that is lost through transpiration.
Radiation
Some plants living in very exposed areas, such as sand dunes, reduce the amount of
heat absorbed by having shiny leaves that reflect solar radiation.
Heat-Shock Proteins
These are proteins produced by plants that are under stress from very high
temperatures. These molecules are thought to stop enzymes denaturing, so normal
cell reactions can continue.
Transpiration
The movement of water up the plant from the roots to the leaves via the
transpiration system serves to cool the plant during hot conditions.
The evaporation of the water from the stomata of the leaves also serve to cool the
plant.
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Die back
In harsh conditions the shoots and leaves of a plant may die, but left in the soil are
bulbs, roots or rhizoids that will begin to grow again when favourable conditions
return.
Orientation of Leaves
Vertical orientation of some leaves has the advantage of reducing the amount of leaf
surface area in contact with sun rays, e.g. Eucalyptus leaves hang vertically.
Seed Dispersal
Some Australian natives require extremely high temperatures, such as those

produced by a fire, to germinate their seeds.
Plant seeds from species such as Banksia ericifolia are only able to open their seed
coats when they are exposed to fire.
Vernalisation
This is when plants must be exposed to cold conditions to produce flowers and
therefore reproduce. Plants in alpine regions use vernalisation to reproduce when
conditions are more favourable at the end of winter.
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The presence of cold conditions will stimulate flowers to grow, and when spring
approaches they are almost mature.
Many
native
plants
respond
They
flower
after
fire to high temps caused by bushfires by:
Have fruits that open and release seed after fire
Have seeds that need to be heated in a fire to germinate
EXAMPLES:
Page 17 of 51
Alpine groundsel
Australian plant- Kosciuszko area of NSW and victoria

Air temp in those areas vary between -10c and 3c
Plant is small so it is buried by snow during the coldest parts of the year
Snow cover protects the plant, keeping its temp around 0c
Leaves and stems remove the moisture to reduce the risk of damage to the cells
caused if water freezes inside them
Hairy layer on leaves and stems reduces likelihood of freezing (and reduces water
loss)
Roots and sub-soil buds are close to the surface where the soil rarely freezes
Mulga
Australian tree that lives in dry areas of most states

Leaves have a thick silvery cuticle (outer layer) that reflects and insulates against
heat (as well as reducing water loss)
Shape of tree means that water falling on the plant runs down leaves and stems to
the base of the tree to be absorbed by its roots
Adequate water is essential to prevent overheating of the plant tissues
Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources and use
available evidence to develop a model of a feedback mechanism:
Homeostasis involves the detection of the change in the environment and the
response to that change
The mechanism that brings about this change is called FEEDBACK
In feedback systems, the response alters the stimulus
In living organisms, the feedback system has 3 main parts:
_ Receptors: A type of sensor that constantly monitors the internal environment
_ Control Centre: Receives info from the receptors and determines the response
_ Effector: Restores the set value. Keeps environments stable.
(IN BIO PRAC BOOK- RESEARCH TASK)
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(In BIO PRAC BOOK)
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2. Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid

medium:
Identify the forms in which each of the following is carried in mammalian
blood:
_ Carbon Dioxide
_ Oxygen
_ Water
_ Salts
_ Lipids
_ Nitrogenous wastes
_ Other products of digestion
The mammalian circulatory system has four main functions:

1. TRANSPORT: The major function of the circulatory system is to transport
water, gases, nutrients and wastes.
2. BLOOD CLOTTING: This complex mechanism repairs damage to blood vessels
and seals wounds to prevent loss of blood
3. DEFENCE AGAINST DISEASE: White blood cells help to fight infection in the
body. Antibodies provide immunity against further attack
4. TEMPERATURE REGULATOIN: The flow of blood distributes heat around the
body. Control of the amount of blood passing close to the skin helps control
heat loss from the body.
Composition Of The Blood:

PLASMA:
make up 55% of the volume of the blood.
sticky, straw-coloured and slightly salty.
Substances transported in the plasma include waste minerals
It is made up of 90% water. Other substances found in the plasma include:
_ salts (as ions)
_ plasma proteins (including antibodies, clotting factors, lipid transporters)
_ products of digestion (sugars, amino acids, hormones, etc)
_ waste products (carbon dioxide, urea)
BLOOD CELLS:
Red Blood Cells:
Also called erythrocytes
Shape is bi-concave discs, thinner at centre than at edges
Contains the pigment haemoglobin
Their function is to transport respiratory gases; mainly oxygen
They have no nuclei; they only live for 3 months. After this they are destroyed in the
liver or spleen.
They are produced in the bone marrow
6-8um
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_ White Blood Cells:

Also called leucocytes
Shape is irregular; can change shape
Function: to defend against disease
The two main types of leucocytes are phagocytes and lymphocytes
1. PHAGOCYTES surround and ingest foreign bodies, bacteria and dead cells and collect
around areas of infection or injury
2. LYMPHOCYTES act only on specific foreign material. They make antibodies which help
the bodys defence against disease.
much less common than red blood cells
They are the largest blood cell
They have nuclei, unlike red blood cells
They are produced in the lymph nodes and glands.
PLATELETS:
They are fragments of old cells made in the bone marrow
function is to make the blood clot
Smallest blood cell
No nucleus
Transporting Substances In The Blood:
CARBON DIOXIDE:
Most carbon dioxide enters the red blood cells and is combined and altered to form
bicarbonates
It is produced as a waste product of respiration in body cells. After entering the
bloodstream it may:
1. Be converted into carbonic acid which is then changed into hydrogen carbonate ions. This
change from carbon dioxide to carbonate ions happens on the red blood cells. Then they are
transported in the plasma (only 70% of the carbon dioxide).
2. Binds to haemoglobin in erythrocytes forming carbaminohaemoglobin
(only 23% of the carbon dioxide).
3. Be dissolved directly in the plasma (only 7% of the carbon dioxide).
OXYGEN:
1. Oxygen is needed in the body for respiration. It is brought in across
the respiratory surfaces of the lungs.
2. Some are dissolved directly into the plasma as oxygen gas
3. It binds with haemoglobin in red blood cells, forming oxyhaemoglobin.
- O2 diffuses from the external environment into the blood; through alveoli.
- Diffuses from air into blood due to concentration gradient.
- Less in blood than in the air ... moves into the blood.
- Circulates throughout body to cells via circulatory system.
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In the lungs:
- When O2 concentration is high;
Hb + 4O2 Hb(O2)4
Haemoglobin + Oxygen oxyhaemoglobin
In body tissues:
- O2 concentration is low
Hb(O2)4 Hb + 4O2
WATER:
1) Water is the solvent of plasma
2) made up of 90% of the blood plasma hence carried as water molecules in the plasma
3) It makes up 60% of the volume of blood

SALTS:
1. Carried as ions dissolved in the plasma
2. E.G. sodium, potassium, magnesium, etc
LIPIDS:
1lipids are encases in a protein coat, and becomes lipoproteins dissolved in plasma
2.Digested lipids are changed into triglycerides (this happens in the lining of the small
intestine).
3. Triglycerides, together with phospholipids and cholesterol, are wrapped in
a coat of protein to form a package called a chylomicron.
3.These are released into the lymph and eventually pass into the veins
NITROGENOUS WASTES:
1. Wastes such as ammonia are changed in urea
2. Uric acid are dissolved directly in the plasma
OTHER PRODUCTS OF DIGESTION:
1. Includes amino acids, sugars, glycerol and vitamins
2. They are mainly water soluble and transported and dissolved directly in the plasma
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Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin:

Structure of haemoglobin:
_ Globule-shaped protein containing four polypeptide sub-units
_ 4 polypeptide chains:
1. 2 identical alpha chains
2. 2 identical beta chains
_ Each polypeptide encloses an IRON-containing structure, called the HAEM
group (4 HAEM groups altogether)
_ The haem groups combine with the oxygen.
Oxygen fuses with haemoglobin where the concentration of oxygen in the blood
is low; that is, in the lungs.
It makes an unstable compound oxyhaemoglobin
One haemoglobin molecule can carry four molecules of oxygen
Where oxygen is needed, the oxygen bond easily breaks and the oxygen is used.
Adaptive Advantage:
_ Mammalian cells need a lot of energy and therefore must have a continual
supply of OXYGEN for RESPIRATION
energy through respiration
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_ This ability of blood to carry large quantities of oxygen gives mammals a

considerable survival advantage e.g
Organisms with blood (containing haemoglobin) are able to deliver oxygen to cells more
efficiently than other organisms with blood that has no haemoglobin.
The net effect is that these organisms are more effective operators in a given environment
than their competitors.
This higher rate of respiration allows an increase in the amount of released energy which
can allow the animal to: move faster, grow large, live in cold areas and give mammals the
ability to maintain a constant body temperature enabling them to be active in a large
temperature range for example.
The structure of haemoglobin is also an adaptive advantage because it is a type of molecule
that can combine with oxygen loosely at the respiratory surfaces and then release the
oxygen freely in capillaries.
Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their

function:
ARTERIES:
_ Carry blood away from heart (high blood pressure)
_ The pressure created by the hearts pumping creates great stress in the arteries
_ This is why the arteries are thick walled, elastic and muscular.
_ The arteries are not motionless; they have muscle fibres in them which can
contract and relax.
_ This contracting maintains the pressure on the blood, so that the blood travels
in spurts towards the body tissues (the contracting and relaxing also creates
the pulse on your wrist or neck).
_ The muscle fibres of the arteries also maintain the rate of the flow of blood.
_ Arteries usually carry oxygenated blood
_ Arteries lead to arterioles (small arteries).
CAPILLARIES:
_ Capillaries are an extension of the inner layers of the arteries and veins
_ They join arterioles and venules (small veins)
_ Capillaries are only one cell thick, and are so narrow, that only one red blood
cell can pass at a time.
_ Capillaries surround all tissue cells
_ Thus, they provide a very large surface area over which exchange of materials
between blood and body can occur.
VEINS:
_ Veins carry blood back to the heart
_ The capillaries join to form venules, which join to form veins
_ Veins are not under a lot of stress - blood pressure is low
_ This is why they have thinner walls than arteries, less muscle and a wider
diameter.
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_ Since there are no thick muscular walls to keep the blood pulsing along, the
veins have a series of valves which prevent the blood from back-flowing on its
way back up to the heart.
_ The veins also run through muscles, such as your leg muscles, and as you use
these muscles, they press on the veins, pushing blood through the veins.
Describe the main changes in the composition of the blood as it moves around the body
and identify tissues in which these changes occur:
PULMONARY CIRCUIT:
_ Blood flows from heart to lungs and then back to the heart
_ Blood is under lower pressure than in the systemic circuit
_ However, the rate of blood flow is faster
_ Very little body fluid is formed
_ The blood, having just returned from the body, contains high CO2 levels and
low oxygen levels
_ In the lungs, blood loses CO2 collects oxygen
SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT:
Blood flows from the heart to the body (except the lungs) and returns back to the
heart
Blood is under high pressure due to contractions of the left ventricle of the heart,
but pressure gradually lessens
Blood pressure forces some fluid out of blood to become body fluid
In the tissues:
1. Blood gives up oxygen and other ions and nutrients
2. Waste products, eg urea, CO2, enter the blood
Page 26 of 51
KIDNEYS:
Blood loses urea and has the composition of water and salt balanced
INTESTINES:
Blood collects the products of digestion
Levels of glucose, lipids, and amino acids rise
LIVER:
Regulates the level of glucose in blood
Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and is stored
Converts excess amino acids to urea
Changes in blood composition
1) Excess vitamins broken down in the liver to form urea
2) Liver stores salt in the form of glycogen
3) Water, old red blood cells and glucose are broken down by liver and is .: expected to
be less of them in the blood leaving the liver
4) Amino acids leaves the blood via the kidney as it is toxic
5) Excess bicarbonate leave the blood through the kidney
6) Carbon dioxide in the form of dissolved bicarbonate ions leaves the blood through
the lungs as it would otherwise make the blood too toxic
7) Blood entering the right side of the heart is high in carbon dioxide and low in oxygen
8) It is sent to the lungs where it picks up oxygen and deposits carbon dioxide
9) Blood leaving the left side of the heart id high in oxygen and low in carbon dioxide
Page 27 of 51
Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why the removal of carbon dioxide
from cells is essential:
All living cells need oxygen for respiration to produce energy that is required to maintain metabolic
processes, to survive and reproduce
As a result of respiration, carbon dioxide is produced

if a lot of carbon dioxide is produced, the body cells (and the
blood and lymph) will become acidic
Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of

materials through plants in xylem and phloem tissue:
Page 28 of 51
In XYLEM:
Xylem cells are dead at maturity, so physical processes are responsible for the upward
movement of water and minerals. Passive transport and one-way only (up).
Transport of water is passive and depends on transpiration and the physical properties of
water. A current theory, called the cohesion-tension theory:
1) Cohesion: Water molecules tend to bind together, forming a continuous Column in the xylem,
which replaces any loss
2)
Transpiration: Water is evaporated through stomates and replaced by water from leaf cells
and xylem tissue.
3) Tension: Water moves up the xylem like wire being pulled up, due to cohesion.
4) Adhesion: When the pull stops, water sticks to the sides of the tube and does not fall down capillarity.
1. Transpiration: Evaporation of water from the leaf cells through the stomates initiates the
pull of the TRANSPIRATON STREAM. Water is then drawn up the xylem tubes to replace this
loss
2. Cohesion: Water molecules tend to bind together, forming a continuous column in the
xylem, which replaces any loss
3. Adhesion: Water molecules stick to the sides of the xylem tubes (cellulose walls).
In phloem:
Movement of materials through phloem is called translocation.
Materials move both up and down the stem.
Materials are distributed especially to the growing points and reproductive structures,
including developing fruits and seeds.
Flow of materials in the phloem is an active process that requires energy.
It is thought to occur by a mechanism called the source-path-sink system and Is driven by a
gradient generated osmotically.
Source-to-sink mechanism:
Sugars can move via translocation in any direction but always from a place where they are
abundant (sugar source) to a place they are needed (sugar sink).
Sieve elements accumulate solutes such as sugars from leaves.
Companion cells also accumulate solutes & deliver them to sieve elements.
At these sites the sugar concentration is high causing entry of water.
The resulting pressure causes water and solutes to flow along under the force of turgor
pressure to the places where sugar is being removed (sink).
Theory 1: the source-path-sink system
Sugars and other mineral nutrients are loaded into phloem sieve tubes of the leaves.
As sugars enter the phloem the concentration of phloem sap increasescauses the entry of
water by osmosis from the surrounding cells.
This resulting pressure causes water and dissolved solutes to flow towards a sink.
A sink region of the plant where sugars and other nutrients are actively removed from the
phloem.
As sugars move out of the phloem, water flows out with them. This reduces the pressure in
the sieve cells at the sink region.
Page 29 of 51
Theory 2:
sugars moved through the phloem by cytoplasmic streaming and active diffusion within the
sieve tubes.
Analyse information from secondary sources to identify the products extracted from donated
blood and discuss the uses of these products:
While whole blood is used for some transfusions, several different things are often extracted to
make its usage more effective and efficient. These are:
* Red blood cells - used in people who have problems with transporting
oxygen (ie anaemia), or to help replace blood cells following significant bleeding from
trauma or surgery. It increases haemoglobin levels while not increasing blood volume.
* White blood cells- used for patients who are not producing their own
white blood cells to assist patients to fight infection

* Platelets - used to promote blood clotting and control bleeding. It is often
used for leukaemia and bone marrow transplant patients.

* Stable protein plasma is used in emergencies before whole blood
becomes available. It is also used in patients with burns, who tend to lose fluid rather
than whole blood. Plasma is also further processed to make:
- Cryoprecipitate which contains blood clotting proteins. Used for liver
transplant patients, treatment of massive bleeding and patients who have
deficiencies of the blood clotting proteins (Haemophilia A).
- Cryosupernate which undergoes further processing to produce Anti D
(prevents Rhesus in newborns), Immunoglobulin (carries antibodies against
common infectious diseases) and Intragam (boosts immune system, used in
treatment of some muscle and nerve disorders).
* Clotting factors can be used in people with severe bleeding problems, such as
haemophilia.
* Immunoglobins are antibodies used to protect people against infectious diseases
such as hepatitis, chickenpox and tetanus & in people with immune system problems,
such as AIDS.
* Serum albumin is used in people with low plasma protein levels, such as those
with liver/kidney disease. It is used to restore blood volume in the treatment of burns and
severe shock.
Page 30 of 51
Name of
product
Fresh
Frozen
Plasma
Description
How it is
prepared
Shelf
life*
Fresh frozen Separated

12
plasma.
from whole
months
Replaces
blood by
at -25'C
coagulation
centrifugation
factors if
platelet
concentration
is not
available or
appropriate
Helps
Centrifuge
Platelet
clotting of
plasma and
concentrate blood, used
remove
to treat
platelets
patients with
dysfunctional
platelets,
leukaemia
patients and
those with
other form of
cancer
5 days
at 20 24'C
agitated
CrossRisk of
Side effects*
matching infectious
needed?* agents?*
No
Low
Haemoglobin
(rare)
transfusion
related lung
injury
No
Yea
Incorrect use
(highest
leads to
risk blood haemorrhage
product)
Page 31 of 51
Table - Products of donated blood

3.Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases, water and waste products of
metabolism in cells and in interstitial fluid
Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow
range for optimal function
Water makes up around 70-90% of living things; it is essential for life.
essential that the concentration of water in cells is kept constant as even small
increases or decreases can lead to death.
Water solvent of all metabolic reactions in living cells, and sometimes directly
takes part in it (eg. Respiration).
It is a solvent in which all metabolic reactions take place.
It is a transport medium for sugars, salts, hormones, wastes.
The concentration must be kept within a narrow range as the amount of water
affects the concentration of solutes, which affects ability to diffuse in & out of cells.
Lack of water causes dehydration.
Blood pressure falls and circulation fails.
It can absorb and release large amounts of heat and requires a large amount of heat
to vaporize, and therefore plays an important role in regulating temperature.
It maintains the shape of the cell membrane too much water can cause a cell to
burst and it cushions and protects body organs
The osmotic pressure of living tissue can also affect the pH in cellsfor example, too
little water leads to an increase in the concentration of solutes such as carbon
dioxide and this in turn lowers pH. Both osmotic pressure and pH must be
maintained within a narrow range so that enzymes can function under optimal
conditions, to allow effective metabolism.
RECALL:
Isotonic: Concentration of solutes outside the cell is the same as inside the cell. No
overall movement of water.
Hypertonic: Concentration of solutes is greater outside the cell than inside. Water
tends to move out of the cell.
Hypotonic: Concentration of solutes is greater inside the cell than out. Water tends
to move inside the cell.
Living cells work best in an isotonic environment.
Page 32 of 51
Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity
Any accumulation of wastes may be toxic to cells and so metabolic wastes must be
removed from the body to maintain homeostasis.
If wastes not continuously removed, their levels in the body will increase and alter
the conditions in the internal environment. This in turn inhibits enzyme functioning
and prevents cells from undergoing normal metabolic activity.
Examples are:
the build-up of nitrogenous wastes such as ammonia, which causes an increase in pH in
cells, resulting in them becoming more alkaline, affecting enzyme activity
carbon dioxide accumulation, which lowers pH, resulting in the internal environment
becoming more acidic. These changes to the acidity or alkalinity of cells slow down or inhibit
enzyme functioning in metabolism. The accumulation of wastes that do not alter the pH
may cause other problemsincreased solute concentrations interfere with reaction rates
and an osmotic imbalance adversely affects membrane functioning.
Urea - not as toxic as ammonia but can soon build up to toxic levels in the blood, poisoning
the cells and retarding metabolism
Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals
primary role osmoregulation. This is the regulation of salt and water levels in the body
The Kidney controls water balance, eliminate nitrogenous wastes, osmoregulation; regulate
salt & water concentration and stabilises the internal environment by filtering the blood and
reabsorbing required nutrients.
The fish kidney
primary role of kidneys is osmoregulationthe regulation of the water and salt
concentrations in the body.
In fish, excretion of nitrogenous waste products occurs across the gills. The kidneys adjust
the levels of water and mineral ions in the fishs body in order to maintain a constant
concentration of internal fluid for the cells
Freshwater fish
Bony fish living in fresh water maintain a higher concentration of solutes in their body than
the concentration in the water outside (that is, they are hypertonic to their surroundings).
Water therefore tends to diff use into the body and so the fish need to continually get rid of
the excess.
Their kidneys produce copious amounts of very dilute urine in an almost continuous stream
in order to achieve this.
As fresh water has a lower concentration of ions than the fish do, the kidneys actively
reabsorb salts to prevent their loss.
Saltwater fish
Their internal body fluids are less concentrated than the surrounding water.
To avoid water loss from their body, marine fish keep drinking salt water.
They absorb the water and salts.
The water is retained and the salts actively excreted, some via the gills and some via the
kidneys.
Page 33 of 51
Saltwater bony fish excrete very little urine.

The mammalian kidney
regulate the internal salt and water concentrations of the body, and excrete urea, the
nitrogenous waste produced by mammals.
Mammals urine contains urea as well as water and salts. The kidneys ensure that the
concentration of blood and interstitial fluid is constant
Deamination
Proteins are made from amino acids.
made, used and broken down in cell metabolism.
Mammals unable to store amino acids, so any excess becomes nitrogenous waste to be
removed.
These excess amino acids are transported to the liver, where they are broken down in a
process called deamination.
This involves removing the part containing nitrogen to form urea.
The remainder is converted to a carbohydrate which may be stored (as glycogen) or used
immediately.
Urea is transported by the blood to the kidneys and excreted in the urine.
The kidneys of mammals regulate the internal salt and water concentrations of the body,
and excrete urea.
Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved
nitrogenous wastes inn some organisms
Diffusion and osmosis require no energy input from cells and as a result they are slow processes.
Diffusion requires there to be a difference in concentrations for it to take place. Therefore when the
concentration of nitrogenous wastes within blood and urine are equalised, then no further waste
would be removed from the blood. Active transport is therefore essential at this point to remove
wastes from the blood
Diffusion is non selective (random movement of molecules). It is passive (will not work against a
concentration gradient).
Osmosis is the movement of water only. Passive (will not work against a concentration gradient). It is
the random movement of molecules.
Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes occurring in the
mammalian kidney
Passive transport includes the process of diffusion and osmosis. These types of movement require
no energy input from the cell because the molecules are moving along a concentration gradient
from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Example of passive transport in
the mammalian kidney include:
The excretion of excess water by osmosis
The excretion of nitrogenous wastes such as urea and ammonia by diffusion when the
concentration in the blood is higher than it is in the urine.

Active transport requires the input of cellular energy to actively move molecules against a
concentration gradient. This means that molecule can move from an area of low concentration to an
Page 34 of 51
area of high concentration. Active transport mainly moves sodium ions, glucose, amino acids and
hydrogen ions across the wall of the nephron. For example
All glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by the kidney so that they are not lost in the
urine
Additional nitrogenous wastes and hydrogen ions are removed from the capillaries in the
kidney and added to urine

Salts are actively transported from the urine back into the kidney cells.
o
Removing salts from the urine and increasing their concentration in the bloodstream
causes water to follow, but the movement of water is a passive form of transport
Reabsorption: The substances the body can reuse are reabsorbed into the capillaries
surrounding the nephron. Eg, vitamins and hormones. This is active transport and requires
energy. Some other substances passively re-enter the blood. Eg, water and salts. This occurs in
the proximal and distal tubules and in the loop of Henle.
Secretion: This is the process where the body actively transports substances from the blood
into the nephron. This is active transport.
Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron regulate body
fluid composition
The main processes that regulate body fluid composition and produce urine are filtrations and
reabsorption.
Filtration:
The renal artery that enters the kidney branches into numerous smaller and smaller vessels,
each terminating in a globular network of capillaries - the glomerulus.
Filtration of the blood takes place at the surface between the glomerulus and the lining of
each Bowmans capsule.
Substances that are small enough (water, amino acids, glucose, salts/ions and nitrogenous
wastes) squeeze through the capillary wall and into the glomeruler filtrate of the Bowmans
capsule.
Filtration separates substances from the blood based on their size and does not take into
account whether they are wastes that need to be excreted or if they are nutrients that are
still required by the body.
Therefore glomeruler filtrate is not the final product. Its composition is further adjusted as it
continues to flow along the nephron.
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney.
They are found in the outer cortex & central medulla.
Blood flows into the nephron under high pressure.
Network of capillaries known as the glomerulus carries blood.
The thin walls of capillaries & high pressure cause all substances to leave the blood.
Filtration is non selective; all components are removed except erythrocytes & large proteins.
Reabsorption:
Reabsorption of useful solutes from the glomeruler fluid takes place in the proximal
convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle and the distal convoluted tubule.
In the proximal tubule all organic nutrients (amino acids and glucose) and some ions
(sodium, potassium, calcium) are reabsorbed.
As the nutrients are actively reabsorbed, water follows them across by passive process of
osmosis.
Page 35 of 51
In the ascending loop of Henle and the distal tubule more ions are reabsorbed into the
surrounding capillaries and water by osmosis follows before the final product urine is passed
on via the collecting ducts to the ureters.
Feedback mechanisms determine the quantities of substances reabsorbed.
Substances re-enter through distal & proximal tubules, the loop of Henle & the collecting
duct. All excess nutrients & wastes removed for excretion.
Outline the role of the hormone aldosterone and ADH in the regulation of water and salt levels in
blood
What are hormones?
Hormones are chemical control substances secreted by endocrine glands directly into the blood
stream. They travel via the circulatory system, when they reach their target cells, the cells respond.
In this case the cells are the kidney nephrons.
Aldosterone - brings about salt retention
hormone produced and released from the adrenal gland situated above the kidneys.
The hormones stimulate the tubules to increase the active reabsorption of sodium ions
against the concentration gradients from the tubules back into the blood of the capillaries
surrounding the tubules.
This increases the solute concentration of the blood and hence stimulates the passive
reabsorption of water via osmosis, from the tubules back into the blood. This ultimately
corrects the blood pressure.
Release of aldosterone also stimulates the intestines to absorb more sodium ions which
cause a decrease in potassium ion concentration. The release of aldosterone increases the
blood pressure and concentration of urine
A decrease in the concentration of sodium ions in the bloodstream leads to a decrease in

blood volume
This stimulates the cells in the adrenal cortex (outer tissue of the adrenal glands which sit on
top of each kidney) to produce and secrete aldosterone
When aldosterone reaches the kidneys it increases the permeability of the nephron to
sodium
Reabsorption of sodium ions into the surrounding kidney tissue and capillaries occurs,
resulting in retention of salt by the body
That means that less salt is lost in urine. In the absence of aldosterone the salt concentration
in urine is higher
High Salt Levels:
High blood volume and blood pressure due to water diffusing in.
Levels of aldosterone decreased.
Less salt reabsorbed, less water diffusing in
Salt level decreased, blood volume and pressure decreases
Low Salt Levels:
Low blood volume and blood pressure due to water diffusing out.
Levels of aldosterone increased.
More salt reabsorbed, more water diffusing in
Salt levels increase, blood volume and pressure increase
Page 36 of 51
ADH (Anti-diuretic hormone) - brings about water reabsorption

When a mammal becomes dehydrated the blood volume drops, this is detected by the
hypothalamus
It stimulates the pituitary gland to release ADH
ADH increases the permeability of the distal tubules and collecting tubules in the nephron to
water
Water is reabsorbed from these tubules into the kidney tissue and bloodstream
Water is conserved within the body
High Salt Concentration:

ADH levels increased
collecting ducts and distal tubules become more permeable to water
more water reabsorbed
concentration returns to normal (Concentrated urine)
Low Salt Concentration:

ADH levels increased
collecting ducts and distal tubules less permeable
less water absorbed
concentration returns to stable state. (Dilute urine)
Present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in people who
cannot secrete aldosterone
Addison's disease a rare endocrine, or hormonal disorder that affects about 1 in 100,000
people.
The disease is characterized by weight loss, muscle weakness, fatigue, low blood pressure,
and sometimes darkening of the skin in both exposed and non-exposed parts of the body.
Addison's disease occurs when the adrenal glands do not produce enough of the hormone
cortisol and in some cases, the hormone aldosterone. For this reason, the disease is
sometimes called chronic adrenal insufficiency.
Cortisol is produced by the adrenal glands, located just above the kidneys.
It belongs to a class of hormones called glucocorticoids, which affect almost every organ and
tissue in the body.
Cortisol's most important job is to help the body respond to stress.
Among its other vital tasks, cortisol:
helps maintain blood pressure and cardiovascular function;
helps slow the immune system's inflammatory response;
helps balance the effects of insulin in breaking down sugar for energy; and
helps regulate the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
Aldosterone belongs to a class of hormones called mineralocorticoids, also produced by the
adrenal glands.
It helps maintain blood pressure and water and salt balance in the body by regulating the
amount of sodium and potassium in the kidney.
When aldosterone production falls too low, the kidneys are not able to regulate salt and
water balance, causing blood volume and blood pressure to drop.
Treatment of Addison's disease involves replacing, or substituting, the hormones that the
adrenal glands are not making.
Page 37 of 51
Cortisol is replaced orally with hydrocortisone tablets, a synthetic glucocorticoid, taken once
or twice a day.
If aldosterone is also deficient, it is replaced with oral doses of a mineralocorticoid, called
fludrocortisone acetate (Florine), which is taken once a day.
Without the therapy there will be incorrect salt levels in the body and dangerously high
potassium levels which can cause high blood pressure, electrolytes imbalances and cardiac
failures. Hence hormone replacement therapy is of great importance
Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the process of renal
dialysis with the function of the kidney
People with dysfunctional kidneys are not able to remove wastes such as urea. They have to
undergo renal dialysis to regulate their blood.
Dialysis means to separate. It simulates the role of the nephron in the kidney and separates
molecules from the blood.
It prevents waste products of metabolism building up as high concentrations can lead to
tiredness, weakness, loss of appetite.
It sustains the life of people with impaired kidney function.
Renal Dialysis removes wastes in blood by diffusion across a semipermeable membrane.
The blood is drawn out of a vein, into dialysing solution, which moves through plastic tubing
into the machine. A bundle of semipermeable fibres that allow wastes to pass out into
dialysing solution. The clean blood is then taken back into the blood stream.
The Kidney filters the entire blood volume once every an hour. It is faster & more efficient
than dialysis.
The two forms of dialysis are:
Haemodialysis:
The blood is extracted from the body from a vein and passed into a dialyser, which is a
bundle of hollow fibres made of a partially permeable membrane
The dialyser is in a solution of dialysing fluid, which has similar ion concentrations of blood
The dialyser only allows wastes to pass through, and not blood cells and proteins. In this way
it is similar to the filtrations stage of the nephron
The wastes diffuse into the solution, and it is constantly replaced
The anti-clotting agent, heparin, is also added to prevent clotting
The blood is then returned to the body
Peritoneal Dialysis:
This occurs in the body
Dialysis solution is introduced into the peritoneal (abdominal) cavity through a catheter
The lining of the peritoneal cavity is a natural semi-permeable membrane and has its own
rich blood supply
The wastes diffuse into the solution, which is replaced.
(IN BIO PRAC BOOK)
Page 38 of 51
Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the differences in urine
concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish
Organism
Environment
Urine Concentration
Marine Fish
Internal salt concentration is lower

than surroundings, therefore;
Water moves out of the fish by
osmosis
Kidneys reabsorb water, while
excreting salts
To reduce water loss
constantly drink saltwater and

excrete salt from gills
Produce small amounts of highly

concentrated urine
Reason: Problem of osmosis.
Concentration of ions lower in the body
than in the water. Water diffuses out, salts
diffuse in. Excess salts excreted through
gills, little urine excreted. Large amounts of
water drank to replace it.
Freshwater
Fish
Internal salt concentration is higher

than surroundings, therefore;
Water moves into fish by
osmosis while diffusing out salt

Kidneys absorb salts from
surrounding water through gills

Removes excess water. They
also rarely drink water
Excrete large amounts of dilute urine

Reason: Concentration of dissolved ions
higher in the body, water diffuses in. Must
remove excess water through large
quantities of dilute urine.
Terrestrial
Mammals
Variable conditions. Kidneys must

respond to changes in environment;
Water loss through lungs and
skin
Gain water by drinking water
and food
Regulates concentration of
blood, while at the same time
excretes urea and conserves
water.
Mammals, generally excrete urine that is

more concentrated than body fluids to
reduce water loss. Concentration changes
with the availability of water, as well as
temperature and water loss through
sweat. Water levels in blood rise, urine
amount rises, and concentration decreases
and vice versa.
Reason: Problem of conserving water while
removing nitrogenous waste.
Page 39 of 51
Use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of water and the
production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects and
terrestrial mammals
Ammonia:
Highly toxic.
o Removed immediately.
Product of most aquatic animals.
Immediate product produced from the breakdown of amino acids.
Highly soluble in water.
o Requires large quantities of water to be safely removed.
Urea:
10,000 times less toxic than ammonia.
Can be stored in body fluid for a limited time.
Produced by mammals, sharks, amphibians.
Highly soluble in water.
o Small amounts of water required to remove it.
Produced
from the breakdown of amino acids.
Major source of water loss in mammals.

Uric Acid:
< toxic than urea & ammonia.
Stored in the body for extended time.
Product of terrestrial animals.
o Birds, reptiles, insects.
Highly insoluble in water.
o Minimal water required to remove it.
Spinifex hopping
mouse
Terrestrial
Urine in concentrated form. Arid environment. Drinks little H2O.
Wallaroo
Terrestrial
Concentrated urine. Efficient excretory system. Recycles N & urea to

make concentrated urea. Survives in an arid environment.
Insects
Terrestrial
Uric acid. Insects covered in a cuticle impervious to H2O. Conserve

H2O by producing a dry paste of uric acid.
Page 40 of 51
Type of nitrogenous
waste and
conservation of
water
Australian Insects
Insect 1
Grasshopper
Insect 2
Aquatic insect
Mammal 1
human
Mammal 2
Kangaroo
Low
High
Low
Low
Availability of water
in the environment
Nitrogenous waste
Toxicity
Energy
required
for
production
Amount of water
lost through
excretion
Dilute/concentra
ted urine and
explanation why
Identify organs of
Australian
Terrestrial
Mammals
uric acid
Low toxicity
Large energy
required
Ammonia
Urea
High
No energy
Toxic, but
ammonia so
10 000
can be stored
times less
in the body
toxic than
for longer
ammonia, More energy
so it can
to produce
be safely
than
stored in
ammonia,
the body
less than uric
for a
acid
limited
time
More
energy to
produce
than
ammonia,
less than
uric acid
Minimal
Large
amounts
Concentrated
Dilute (has to
be due to the
toxicity of
ammonia)
Malphigian
Malphigian
Minimal
Concentrated
Urea
Not as toxic as
Minimal
Concentrated
urine and dry

faeces to
conserve
water as
water
availability is
often low
Liver-
Page 41 of 51
Kidneys-
excretion and outline

their functioning
tubules:
increases the
surface area for
the transport of
wastes into the
digestive/excret
ory tracts
Rectumtransports most
solutes back
into the blood,
followed by
water
tubules:
increases the
surface area
for the
transport of
wastes
Rectumtransports
most solutes
back into the
blood,
followed by
water
multipurp
ose organ
which
include
functions
of 1)
making
bile, 2)
detoxifies
blood, 3)
destroys
red blood
cells, 4)
makes
urea from
excess
amino
acids.
Kidneysmaintain
the
balance
of salts
and
water in
the body
and so
has a vital
role in
homeost
asis
2. Ureter
carries urine to
bladder
3. Urinary
Bladder stores
urine
4. Urethra
carries urine
outside the body
Page 42 of 51
maintain
the balance
of salts and
water in
the body
and so has
a vital role
in
homeostasi
s
Bladdercollects
urine
excreted
by the
kidney
before
disposal by
urination
Urethratube that
carries
fluids
(urine) out
of the body
Background information
All animals must eliminate nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes that arise from the
breakdown of protein so that they do not accumulate in toxic amounts.
Excess amino acids (and nucleic acids) in the bodies of vertebrates are de-aminated and the
nitrogen-containing amino group is removed and combined with carbon dioxide to produce
ammonia.
The ammonia is still fairly toxic and so it must be excreted directly, diluted with large
quantities of water, or it may be changed to a less toxic form of nitrogenous waste. (Just as
carbon dioxide changes the pH of solutions to become more acidic, so ammonia makes the
pH more alkalinethus changing the internal environment from its optimal range and
affecting enzyme functioning and metabolism.)
Urea and uric acid are less toxic forms of nitrogenous wastes which can be excreted in a less
dilute form. The formation of all nitrogenous wastes occurs in the liver and they are then
carried to the kidneys for excretion.
Nitrogenous wastes and water conservation
The environment in which an organism lives determines how important the conservation of
water is for the survival of that organism.
In environments where water is scarce, for example some arid terrestrial habitats, natural
selection has favoured the survival of those organisms that secrete less toxic forms of
nitrogenous wastes, because they are able to conserve more water while still flushing out
their wastes.
Ammonia is very toxic compared with other nitrogenous wastes. It requires no energy to be
made, but must be excreted immediately and in a dilute form with a great deal of water.
It is therefore most commonly secreted by aquatic invertebrates and fish that live in fresh
water, where the availability of water is not a limiting factor.
Urea is the most common form of nitrogenous waste excreted by terrestrial mammals, adult
amphibians and some fish.
It is not as toxic as ammonia and so it can be excreted in a less dilute form, resulting in less
water loss. It does, however, require more energy for its production.
Uric acid is the least toxic form of nitrogenous waste and so it is excreted (as a semi-solid,
whitish paste) by animals that have a particular need to conserve as much water as possible,
for example birds and most invertebrates, including insects.
The synthesis of uric acid uses a large amount of energy in contrast to ammonia and urea,
although it has the smallest amount of water loss in the process of excretion.
The excretion of uric acid, which is not very soluble in water, allows animals such as insects
to conserve water within the body, as its low toxicity means it can be excreted with minimal
water loss.
Page 43 of 51
Excretion of nitrogenous wastes in insects
Insects have blind-ending kidney tubules (Malpighian tubules) that open directly into the
hind part of the digestive tract
Water and waste solutes are drawn into the blind end from the fluid in the body cavity of
the insect.
The open end of each kidney tubule empties into the hindgut of the digestive tract.
In some insects (e.g. the blowfl y) the blind-ending kidney tubules lie close to the end of
their digestive tracts and the solutes in the tubules draw water by osmosis across the
epithelium (lining) of the rectum, in this way modifying their excretory fluid so that most
water is reabsorbed from their rectal contents into the body.
As a result, they produce very dry faeces (which contain nitrogenous wastes as well as
undigested food).
Some insects such as the desert silverfish and the larval forms (meal worms) of a particular
moth (Tenebrio molitor) are able to absorb water vapour from the air through the mouth or
anus.
Water that enters the anus of the meal worm is absorbed through the rectum and is then
drawn into the adjacent kidney tubules by osmosis.
These are simple forms of tubular reabsorption, more primitive versions of that in mammals
that need to conserve water.
Conclusion
The challenge of regulating water content during excretion is therefore solved by varying the
type of nitrogenous waste excreted, which in turn determines whether urine needs to be
dilute (to safely flush out more toxic forms of waste), or if it can be more concentrated (to
flush out less toxic forms).
This affects the physiology of the animal: the amount of water that must be reabsorbed into
the body or the amount that can be lost in urine depends on the type of nitrogenous waste
excreted, as well as the concentration of salts that are being excreted. All of these factors
contribute to determining the eventual concentration of urine that is excreted.
Process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to discuss
processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline environments
Grey Mangroves:
- Salt Exclusion: Special glands in the mangroves can actively exclude the salt from the water,
so that the water absorbed has a lower salt concentration than the water in the
environment.
- Salt Accumulation: Salt is accumulated in old leaves that drop off, so that thesalt is out of the
plants system
- Salt Excretion: Salt can be excreted from the underside of the leaves of the mangrove plants.
Page 44 of 51
Halophytes:
Plants adapted to live in a salty environment.

- Able to tolerate higher levels of salt than other organisms.
- Have mechanisms to control the levels of salt.
Mechanisms:
Salt barriers.
- Tissues in roots & lower stems stop salt from entering the plant, but
allow water to enter.
Secretion.
- Able to concentrate salt & secrete it through glands on the leaves;
where it is washed off.
Salt deposits.
- Salt deposited in old tissue which is disregarded.
Eg.
- Grey mangrove secretes salt.
- Salt marsh plants use salt deposits.
Salt regulation in plants in saline environments

Background information
Salt, even in relatively small concentrations in soil water, has a damaging effect on cell
ultrastructure and cellular metabolism.
Plants that are adapted to saline environments are called halophytes.
The plants use either salt tolerance (salt accumulation) or salt avoidance (salt exclusion) as
strategies to survive in environments where they are exposed to high salt concentrations.
Salt tolerant plants (e.g. sea grass and mangroves) are able to maintain metabolic
functioning even though their cells accumulate sodium and chloride ions. They minimise salt
toxicity by increasing their water content in large vacuoles.
Salt avoidant plants (salt excluders) minimise the salt concentrations of cells through
structural and physiological adaptations such as stopping salt from entering at the roots.
Examples of halophytes
Saltbush (Atriplex vesicaria) is an excluder

Actively transports excess sodium and chloride ions into bladder cells situated on the tip of
hairs on the surface of leaves
When the bladder cell reaches capacity it bursts, releasing the salts into the environment.
Palmers grass (Distichlis palmeri) also actively secretes salts from specialised cells to avoid
high salt concentration within the cells.
Page 45 of 51
Succulents minimise the salt toxicity through increasing water content in large vacuoles,
where the accumulation of excess salt is balanced with additional water drawn into the cells.
Pickleweed (Salicornia) uses this method and also actively transports salts from the
cytoplasm by a sodiumpotassium pump on the vacuole membrane.
Pigface (Carpobrotus glaucescens), a succulent that grows on coastal sand dunes, tolerates
salt by increasing water uptake to dilute the salt. It also stores excess salt in a location away
from sensitive cells.
Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to

variations in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining
appropriate salt concentrations.
Some organisms live in environments where they experience extreme fluctuations in
conditions.
To survive, these plants and animals have evolved adaptations that allow them to cope
physiologically with these fluctuations, a survival mechanism called enantiostasis.
Enantiostasis is the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to
variations in the environment.
The survival of species that live in an environment such as an estuary, where salt and water
concentrations fluctuate broadly on a daily basis, depends on their ability to either avoid
these changes or to tolerate them.
Organisms that move freely between the sea and rivers experience similar fluctuations in
environmental conditions, and they too have developed mechanisms of avoidance or
tolerance.
Enantiostasis is not limited to fluctuations in salt levels. For example, extreme changes in
environmental pressure are experienced by diving birds and so these animals must also rely
on enantiostasis for their survival.
Estuarine organisms maintaining a water and salt balance
In estuaries, where a river meets the sea, and freshwater mixed with saltwater, the daily change in
tides affects the salinity of the environment in the following ways:
At high tide, sea water flows into the river mouth, creating an environment with a higher salt
concentration (a higher osmotic pressure) than the cytoplasm of cells and body fluids in organisms.
This salt water has the tendency to draw water out of cells by osmosis.
At low tide, sea water flows out of the river mouth and fresh water flows into the estuary. Plants
and animals in the estuary which are subjected to this predominantly fresh water environment with
a high water potential face the challenge of water tending to move into living tissue.
Osmoregulation in organisms inhabiting an estuary is a challenge they need to maintain normal
metabolic functioning, despite these enormous fl uctuations within the environment.
Page 46 of 51
Living organisms employ one of two strategies in enantiostasis:

1.Osmoconformers
Organisms that allow their bodys osmotic pressure to vary with the environment.
Dont maintain homeostasis.
Concentrations of internal fluids remain isotonic to external fluids.
Vary the concentration of solutes within cells to maintain functioning.
are organisms that tolerate the changes in the environment by altering the concentration of
their internal solutes to match the external environment (their body fluids conform to that
of the environment).
Their metabolism is able to tolerate changes in salinity in their own body fluids and cells.
Eg. Sharks are osmoconformers. They are euryhaline; meaning they can tolerate changes in
salt concentration.
2. Osmoregulators
Maintain homeostasis regardless of the concentration of the external environment.
are organisms that avoid changes in their internal environment and have the ability to keep
the solutes at an optimal level (regulate solute concentrations within the body), regardless
of the differing external environment.
These organisms are unable to tolerate a range of salt concentrations in their body fluids
and cells and so they have mechanisms to exclude salt to keep the internal fluid
concentration constant, despite fluctuations in the environment.
Eg. Freshwater & marine fish regulate their internal environment to maintain homeostasis
However, as the salt concentration of body fluids in an osmoconformer changes, various
body functions are affected, such as the activity of enzymes. For normal functioning to be
maintained, another body function must be changed in a way that compensates for the
change in enzyme activity.
One example of enantiostasis is when a change in salt concentration in the body fluid, which
reduces the efficiency of an enzyme, is compensated for by a change in pH, which increases
the efficiency of the same enzyme.
Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in minimising water loss
Problems facing plants that minimise water loss
main form of water loss in plants is by means of transpiration evaporation of water from
the stomata of leaves.
Transpiration serves two main functionsit lifts water and dissolved ions up the stem to the
top of plants in a continuous transpiration stream and it is a form of evaporative cooling, a
process that is essential in regulating temperature in plants.
Those plants that live in areas where water is in limited supply must achieve a balance
between how much water the plant can afford to lose for cooling purposes and the risk of
dehydration.
Xerophytes are plants that live in arid conditions and possess adaptations that equip them
to achieve this balance and survive in their hostile environment.
Leaves of plants contain stomata and so they are the organs where most transpiration in
plants occurs.
Page 47 of 51
Stomata are stimulated to open in the presence of light and/or excess heat in well hydrated
pants, leading to a loss of water by the process of transpiration.
About 98% of water loss from plants occurs as a result of transpiration.
The advantage of the opening of stomata is to allow evaporative cooling and to allow carbon
dioxide to enter the leaves for photosynthesis. The disadvantage is that it exposes plants to
the risk of dehydration.
Most of Australia is hot and dry, so water (like soil nutrients) becomes a limited resource for
plants, available in short supply or only in sporadic bursts.
Stomata close in response to darkness, dehydration and a lack of carbon dioxide.
Three main problems face plants with regard to minimising water loss:
1. If plants lose too much water through transpiration they run the risk of dehydrating, yet loss of
water by this evaporative cooling mechanism is an essential part of temperature regulation to keep
plant cells within the optimal temperature range for metabolic functioning.
2. If plants reduce the surface area of their leaves or lose their leaves, the number of stomata
exposed to the external environment may be reduced, but the reduced exposure of photosynthetic
surface area to sunlight may be inadequate for photosynthesis to occur.
3. If plants retain their leaves, but develop ways of ensuring that stomata do not open, gaseous
exchange between the leaf and the surrounding air becomes limited and, as a result, may not allow
sufficient carbon dioxide into the planta necessary requirement for photosynthesis.
Adaptations in Australian plants to minimise water loss
Many plants that live in arid conditions display complex xerophytic adaptations, features
which have evolved and allow these plants to minimise water loss while maintaining
functions such as cooling of the plant and photosynthesis.
Most of these adaptations are evident as modifications of leaves, but other organs may also
show modifications.
Stems and leaf stalks (petioles) have sparsely distributed stomata, but are green and thus
have adequate photosynthetic tissue. This can be used to advantage in allowing xerophytes
with reduced leaves to carry out other essential functions to survive in their arid habitat.
Xerophytes, such as some Australian plants, live in hot, dry habitats where they are exposed
to bright sunlight. They minimise water loss in four main ways, as outlined below.
Reducing the internal temperature
Some plants have developed structural features or physiological mechanisms other than
transpiration to reduce their internal temperature, allowing the plants to use less water for
evaporative cooling, but still keep their temperature within the correct range for
metabolism.
For example, their leaves may be coated in a shiny waxy cuticle or they may have white hairs
to refl ect sunlight.
Australian examples
The saltbush has waxy leaves that reflect heat and light.
Eucalypts and banksias have coarse, leathery leaves with a thick cuticle to protect them from
the excessive sunlight by giving some insulation and reducing the small amount of
evaporation that sometimes occurs through thinner leaf cuticles.
Plants with these tough, dry leaves are known as sclerophylls (Greek: sclerohard and
phylloleaf).
In addition, both of these features ensure that all the epidermal cells are waterproof,
preventing loss of water by evaporation from these surface cells to the outside.
Page 48 of 51
Reducing the exposure of transpiring plant structures to sunlight
Plant organs that have the most abundant stomata (leaves and leaf-like organs such as flower petals)
have the greatest rates of transpiration. Some plants reduce the exposure of these organs (and their
stomata) to light by:
changing the orientation of leaves so that stomata are not exposed to direct light (and so they do
not open)
reducing the surface area of organs that have the highest proportion of stomata
the complete loss of transpiring plant organs (for example, leaves or leaf-like parts of the plant
such as flowers). (These plants need to have some additional adaptations to prevent overheating,
increase their photosynthetic tissue or ensure pollination, as a result of their loss leaf or petal
surface area.)
Australian examples
Reduced leaves
Plants like Hakea and Acacias (wattles) also have leaves that have become reduced in size,
where each leaf is divided into pinna or leaflets.
Some plants have their leaves reduced to tiny brown bracts or scales and their
photosynthetic function is taken over by other parts of the plant, for example cladodes
(photosynthetic stems) and phyllodes (photosynthetic leaf stalks).
The photosynthetic stems or stalks that take over the function of the leaves have very few
stomata and therefore the amount of water lost by transpiration is reduced, while the
photosynthetic surface area is still sufficient.
Many phyllodes and cladodes have the added features of hairs and/or sunken stomata.
Cladodes are common features of Australian she-oaks (casuarinas).The green, needle-like
structures that resemble leaves are in fact modified stems.
These needles have tiny light-coloured markings at regular intervals along their length.
Closer examination (for example, with a hand lens) reveals that these light areas are actually
rings of tiny brown scale leaves, a feature to reduce the surface area of leaves and therefore
their exposure to the sun
Phyllodes, common to Acacia species (Australian mulga, for example Acacia Aneura), are
broad, fl at leaf-shaped leaf stalks (petioles) that take over the function of leaves. These are
common in Acacia species and the tiny, brown scale at the tip of each phyllode is all that
remains of the reduced leaf.
Reduced size of fl owers or having no petals can also reduce the amount of water a plant requires;
for example, the Acacia has small clustered fl owers, reducing the energy and water required to
needed to produce them. (Petals are considered to be modifi ed leaves, so reducing the size of fl
owers or loss of petals also reduces evaporation of water from their surfaces.)
Shedding leaves is another way of reducing the water lost by leaves, for example the river gum.
Orientation of leaves on the stem is another feature of plants to prevent overheating is the
orientation of leaves on the stem.
eucalypts have an adaptation that helps them to survivetheir leaves hang in a vertical
position to reduce the surface area that is exposed to the sun during the heat of the
noonday sun.
This serves an additional functionthat of minimising water loss because the stomata are
not directly exposed to sunlight during the hottest part of the day and will close.
Eucalypts therefore regulate the times of stomatal opening and closing during the cooler
early morning and late afternoon, stomata are open for photosynthesis, but when the
temperatures increase to a level that causes water stress to the plant the Stomata then
close.
Page 49 of 51
Reducing the difference in water concentration between the plant and the outside air
The difference in water concentration (or water potential) between the plant and the
surrounding atmosphere determines how much water is lost by transpiration.
On a hot, dry day, the water concentration in the air is much lower than that in the internal
tissues of the leaf and so more water is lost by transpiration than on a cooler or more humid
day.
Since plants cannot change the overall external environment, many have adaptations that
allow them to create their own smaller microclimate in the air immediately surrounding
each leaf.
Structures such as hairy leaves or rolled leaves trap water in the immediate vicinity and in
this way they keep air around the plant humid by preventing the moist air being swept away
by dry air currents and they also create a barrier to evaporation.
Australian examples
Sunken stomata or stomatal pits occur in Hakea and in the cladodes of sheoaks.
The actual stoma (breathing pores) are lower than the main surface of the leaf and this
allows moist air to be trapped in the pit, therefore reducing the difference in water potential
immediately outside the stoma (in the pit) and inside the leaf.
Epidermal hairs trap a moist layer of air, resulting in a smaller difference between the
concentration of water in the leaf tissue and the water vapour in the layer of air trapped by
the hairsfor example, hairs on the under-surface of leaves of the coastal banksia.
Curled or rolled leaves, such as those of porcupine grass (Miscanthus sinensis), enclose a
microclimate of humid air to reduce the difference in water potential (see Fig. 3.16b).
These adaptations allow plants to keep their stomata open for a longer period of time, as
there is not as much water being lost and so gaseous exchange for photosynthesis can occur
freely.
Water storage
Some plants, called succulents, have adaptations such as fleshy stems or leaves which are
able to swell up and retain moisture when it is available; they then survive by using this
moisture during dry periods.
Australia has some succulent species, including the desert plant Calandrinia (parakeelya), an
important food for Aboriginal people (the leaves provide an excellent source of moisture in
desert environments and were eaten as a green salad leaf).
Fruits are structures that are removed from plants so that the seeds that they contain can be
dispersed.
Many Australian plants produce woody fruits rather than fleshy fruits, as this reduces the
amount of water lost from the plant when the fruits fall off.
The adaptations aim to:

- Increase water taken in by the roots.
- Decrease water lost through evaporation.
- Extensive underground root systems
- Close stomata when temperature reaches a certain threshold
- Hard leaves with a thick waxy cuticle
- Shiny leaves to reflect sunlight
- Hairy leaves to reduce evaporation
- Small leaves or false, photosynthesising leaves
- Thick bark
- Reduces airflow over the surface, decreasing evaporation
Page 50 of 51
- Reduced leaves & branchlets, false leaves performing photosynthesis

- Extra thickening of cell walls throughout branches
- Prevents wilting even when large quantities of water are lost
Adaptations of Australian xerophyte (plants adapted to dry conditions) include;
Hard leathery, needle-shaped leaves with reduced surface areas such as in Hakea sericea
(needlebush) and costal tea trees

Use of phyllodes for photosynthesis rather than leaves that would lose water by
transpiration, as in many acacias

Some salt bushes e.g. Atriplex, change the reflectiveness of their leaves during leaf
development so that they have highly reflective leaves during summer

Eucalypts avoid high radiation in the middle of the day by hanging their leaves vertically to
present less surface area to sun

Heat loss is greater for small leaves or highly dissected leaves than it is for larger leaves and
many Acacias have fronds of bipinnate leaves

Waxy cuticle prevents evaporation in many Eucalypts
Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about structures in plants that assist in
the conservation of water
Aim: to gather information from plant specimens about structures that assist in the conservation of
water
Method
1.
Gather different species of australian terrestrial plants
2.
Using a disecting microscope or hand lense, observe the presence of scale leaves
3.
Using a compound microscope, observe the positin of stomata in the cross section of a leaf
Results:
Characteristic
How it reduces water loss
Plant
example
Waxy cuticle
Acts as a waterproof seal over the surface of the leaf to prevent

evaporation from the epidermal cells
Banksia
Reduced leaves
(scales)
Tiny leaves have a smaller surface area: volume ratio and fewer
stomata exposed to the sun; therefore less water is lost by
evaporation
casuarina
Leaves hanging
vertically
Less surface area exposed to sun in the hottest part of the day, so
stomata only open during early morning and evening when it is
cooler, leading to less transpiration
Eucalyptus
(In bio prac)
Page 51 of 51

Biology Maintaining A Balance 10

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9.

Another example (Maltase)

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Enzymes are very specific

Chemical composition of enzymes:

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The Induced Fit Model

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Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance:

Factors affecting enzymes

(IN BIO PRAC BOOK)

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3. Changing substrate concentration

However, enzyme efficiency is affected greatly by certain factors

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Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable

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Stage 1) Detecting Changes:

Brain responds to message by sending a nervous message to an effector to counteract the

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Figure 2: Homeostatic control of

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_ Central Nervous System:

controlling many variables (major role in maintaining homeostasis).

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Includes sensory and motor neurons

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Compare responses of named Australian ectothermic and endothermic organisms to

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the functioning of the organism body

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Example of an Australian endotherm and ectotherm

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Identify some responses of plants to temperature change:

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Some Australian natives require extremely high temperatures, such as those

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Australian plant- Kosciuszko area of NSW and victoria

Australian tree that lives in dry areas of most states

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(In BIO PRAC BOOK)

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2. Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid

The mammalian circulatory system has four main functions:

Composition Of The Blood:

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_ White Blood Cells:

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3) It makes up 60% of the volume of blood

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Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin:

energy through respiration

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_ This ability of blood to carry large quantities of oxygen gives mammals a

Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their

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As a result of respiration, carbon dioxide is produced

Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of