Chap 07

Chapter 7
Design Standards for Licensed Aerodromes
CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LICENSED

AERODROMES
Page
1 GENERAL
71
2 AERODROME SITING AND PLANNING
71
3 MOVEMENT AREA
72
4 THE CRITICAL AEROPLANE
72
5 THE FUTURE AEROPLANE
72
6 AERODROME FACILITY REFERENCE CODE
73
7 RUNWAYS
Instrument Runways
Runway Threshold
Number and Orientation of Runways
Runway Usability
Multiple Runways
Parallel Runways
Runway Length
Runway Width
Turning Nodes
Longitudinal Slopes on Runways
Runway Sight Distance
Transverse Slopes on Runways
Strength of Runways
Runway Surfaces
Runway Shoulders
Runway Strips
Runway End Safety Area
Clearways
Stopways
7 10
7 10
7 12
7 13
7 14
7 16
7 17
7 18
7 19
7 20
7 21
7 23
7 23
7 24
7 25
7 26
7 28
7 33
7 35
7 36
8 TAXIWAYS
Taxiway Edge Clearance
Taxiway Width
Taxiway Curves
Taxiway Longitudinal Slope
Taxiway Sight Distance
Taxiway Transverse Slope
Taxiway Strength
Taxiway Shoulders
Taxiway Strips
7 38
7 38
7 38
7 39
7 39
7 40
7 40
7 41
7 41
7 41
August 1999
Chapter 7
Taxiway Minimum Separation Distances

Rapid Exit Taxiways
Taxiways on Bridges
Holding Bays
7 43
7 44
7 45
7 45
9 APRONS
Location of Aprons
Apron Separation Distances
Size of Aprons
Slopes on Aprons
Aircraft Fuelling Clearances
Strength of Aprons
Apron Shoulders
Light Aircraft Tie-down Facilities
7 47
7 47
7 47
7 50
7 51
7 51
7 51
7 52
7 54
10 JET BLAST
7 55
11 LICENSED HELIPORTS
7 56
12 GLIDER FACILITIES
7 59
13 CONTROL TOWERS
7 63
August 1999
Chapter 7
CHAPTER 7 DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LICENSED

AERODROMES
1.
GENERAL
1.1 Aerodrome design standards are those statutory requirements applying to the
planning, design and construction of aerodromes and individual movement area facilities at
licensed aerodromes. They contrast with the aerodrome operating standards set out in
Chapter 9 which apply to the ongoing day to day operation and maintenance of these
aerodromes and individual movement area facilities thereon. Advisory information on
other aerodrome facilities appears in Chapter 16. Individual design standards also serve, in
some cases, as a datum for the corresponding aerodrome operating standards.
1.2 The standards set out in this Chapter govern characteristics such as the dimensions
and shape of runways, taxiways, aprons and related facilities provided for the movement of
aeroplanes. The uniform application of these design standards is a critical factor in
ensuring the safe operation of aeroplanes as this should ensure that flying skills learned at
a particular aerodrome will be universally applicable at all Australian aerodromes.
1.3 An aerodrome can represent a large capital investment, its operation can be
significantly affected by the location, layout and nature of its facilities. Consequently, it is
important to carry out detailed preliminary studies on the type of aerodrome, its siting and
facilities.
2.
AERODROME SITING AND PLANNING
2.1 The airspace used for the holding, taking-off and landing of aeroplanes is an integral
part of the aerodrome. Depending on the nature of operations, aerodrome airspace may
extend as far as 42 km from an aerodrome (refer to Chapter 10). To ensure that conflict
between the airspace of adjacent aerodromes is avoided or at least minimised, the
prospective aerodrome owner is advised to consult with CASA and Airservices early in the
planning stage for the siting of the new aerodrome. To minimise extra cost and delay, the
aerodrome operator should liaise with CASA and Airservices in respect of the siting of a
new aerodrome early in the planning stage.
2.2 It should be noted that an aircraft landing area should not be located within a control
zone, nor within 10 nm (18.5 km) of an aerodrome for which an instrument approach
procedure is prescribed, nor within 5 nm (9.3 km) of a licensed aerodrome. Accordingly a
prospective aerodrome owner should liaise and negotiate with owners of existing aircraft
landing areas in the vicinity of the proposed site in order to achieve an optimum solution in
meeting the respective aerodrome requirements before approaching CASA and
Airservices.
2.3 It should be noted that siting considerations may also be affected by the provisions of
the Commonwealth Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals) Act 1974 and similar
State or local legislation.
November 2000
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Chapter 7
3.
MOVEMENT AREA
3.1 The movement area is that part of an aerodrome used for the take-off, landing,
taxying and parking of aeroplanes. It consists of the runway and taxiway systems (also
known as the manoeuvring area) and the aprons. These facilities are often the most costly
and least adaptable part of an aerodrome and relate directly to the safety of aeroplane
operations. There are also equipment and installations with specific requirements, which
have to be sited within the movement area. The movement area should therefore be
planned carefully using the rules herein.
3.2 Movement area planning and design should consider not only present services and
aeroplanes but also future growth of the community that the aerodrome is intended to serve
and the consequent aviation activity. The Department of Transport and Regional Services
compiles aviation activity statistics for both domestic and international market sectors.
Such information may be available to aerodrome operators on a fee-for-service basis.
4.
THE CRITICAL AEROPLANE
4.1 The critical aeroplane is a conceptual aeroplane whose characteristics are a

composite of the most critical elements of all the aeroplanes that each aerodrome facility is
intended to services. For example, in the design of a runway the critical characteristic
determining runway width may derive from a different actual aeroplane than the critical
characteristic determining clearance to the parallel taxiway.
4.2 As movement area design is directly related to the operating characteristics of the
aeroplanes for which the facilities cater, it is important that the critical aeroplane be
separately determined for each facility. It is the aerodrome operators responsibility to
determine the critical aeroplane for each aerodrome facility. This should be done in close
consultation with the users (airlines, etc), Airservices and CASA.
5.
THE FUTURE AEROPLANE
5.1 With the introduction of larger aeroplanes, an aerodrome operator has the prerogative
to choose an aeroplane for development or master planning purposes which may be larger
than the present largest critical aeroplane (code 4E aeroplane). An aerodrome operator is
advised to consult with relevant airline operators and aeroplane manufacturers to select the
future aeroplane.
5.2 An ICAO study, based on updated information on new larger aeroplanes, has resulted
in a number of recommended aerodrome physical characteristics to accommodate a code
letter F future aeroplane. The standard for most aerodrome facilities to be used by a code
letter F aeroplane are the same as those required for a code letter E aeroplane. Those
which are more demanding include:
(a) wing span from 65m up to but not including 80m;
(b) outer main gear wheel span from 14m up to but not including 16m;
(c) runway width not less than 60m;
(d) runway shoulders overall width of runway and shoulders not less than 75m;
(e) width of straight portion of taxiway not less than 25m;
(f) taxiway strip overall width not less than 115m;
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November 2000
Chapter 7
(g) graded taxiway strip overall width not less than 60m;
(h) taxiway shoulders overall width of taxiway and taxiway shoulders not less
than 60m;
(i) parallel runway centre line to taxiway centre line separation distance for
instrument runway 190m;
(j) parallel runway centre line to taxiway centre line separation distance for noninstrument runway 115m;
(k) parallel taxiway centre line to taxiway centre line separation distance
97.5m;
(l) taxiway centre line to object separation distance 57.5m;
(m) taxilane centre line to object separation distance 50.5m;
(n) minimum distance from runway centreline to a taxi-holding position
107.5m;
(o) width of inner approach of OLS 155m.
6.
AERODROME FACILITY REFERENCE CODE
6.1 The aerodrome facility reference code, also to be known as the aerodrome reference
code, is a two-element, alpha-numeric notation (for example 1B, 3C) derived from the
critical aeroplane for that aerodrome facility. The code number is based on the aeroplane
reference field length and the code letter is based on the aeroplane wing span and the outer
main gear wheel span. As detailed below, a single element may sometimes suffice.
6.2 The aerodrome reference code provides a method of grouping aeroplanes with
different characteristics (eg. wing span, outer main gear wheel span, approach speed and
all-up mass) which behave similarly when landing, taking-off or taxying. This, in turn,
enables standards for aerodrome facilities such as runways to be set in terms of a small
number of aeroplane groups, rather than individually for a large number of separate
aeroplanes. The task of the standard setting authority and of the aerodrome operator is
thus simplified.
6.3 As the aerodrome reference code notation is derived from aeroplane and not
aerodrome characteristics, it applies to the individual aerodrome facilities (eg, runways and
taxiways) and indicate their suitability for use by specific groups of aeroplanes. Thus at
the same aerodrome there may exist, for example, a code 4E runway, a code 1A runway, a
code C taxiway and a code 2 runway strip ( a single element sufficing in the latter case).
6.4 In many cases to determine the appropriate design standard for an aerodrome facility,
it is necessary first to identify the aeroplanes for which the facility is intended, and then to
determine the aerodrome reference code notation for the most critical of these aeroplanes.
The particular standard for the facility is then related to the more demanding of the two
criteria (the number or the letter) or to an appropriate combination of both.
6.5 The code number for the critical aeroplane is to be determined from Table 71 by
entering the aeroplane reference field length and reading off the corresponding code
number.
November 2000
73
Chapter 7
Table 71
Aerodrome Facility Reference Code Number
Aeroplane reference field length a
Code Number
Less than 800 m
800 m up to but not including 1200 m
1200 m up to but not including 1800 m
1800 m and over
Note: a The aeroplane reference field length is the minimum field length required for
take-off at maximum take-off mass, at sea level, in standard atmospheric
conditions, in still air and with zero runway slope. It is set out in the
aeroplane flight manual.
6.6 The code letter for an aeroplane is to be obtained from Table 72 by deriving the
code letter applicable to the wing span, and separately deriving the code letter applicable to
the outer main gear wheel span. The code letter to be used is the more senior of these
letters where A is the junior.
Table 72
Aerodrome Facility Reference Code Letter
Wing span
Outer main gear wheel span *
Code letter
Up to but not
including 15m
Up to but not
including 4.5m
15m up to but not

including 24m
4.5m up to but not

including 6m
24m up to but not

including 36m
6m up to but not
including 9m
36m up to but not

including 52m
9m up to but not
including 14m
52m up to but not

including 65m
9m up to but not
including 14m
* Outer main gear wheel span (OMGWS) is the distance between the outer edges of the
main gear wheels. This value can be found in the aeroplanes operations manual.
74
November 2000
Chapter 7
6.7 The general dimensions, of a typical aeroplane, are shown in the diagrams below.
6.8 A list of representative aeroplanes operating in Australia and others, chosen to

provide an example of each possible aerodrome reference code number and letter
combination, is shown in the table below. For a particular aeroplane the table also
provides data on the aeroplane reference field length (ARFL), wing span and outer main
gear wheel span used in determining the aerodrome reference code. For aerodrome
planning purposes, data is also provided on the overall aeroplane length, maximum takeoff weight and tyre pressure of main wheel tyres. It should be noted that the data provided
is indicative only, for instance, factors such as engine type or flap settings can result in a
different aeroplane reference field length. Exact values of a particular aeroplanes
performance characteristics should be obtained from information published by the
aeroplane manufacturer.
August 2002
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Chapter 7
Table 73. Aerodrome Facility Reference Codes and Aeroplane Characteristics

AEROPLANE
TYPE
REF
CODE
AEROPLANE CHARACTERISTICS
ARFL
(m)
Wing
span
(m)
OMGWS
(m)
Length
(m)
MTOW
(kg)
TP
(kPa)
DHC2 Beaver
1A
381
14.6
3.3
10.3
2490
240
Beechcraft
58 (Baron)
100
1A
1A
401
628
11.5
14.0
3.1
4.0
9.1
12.2
2449
5352
392
-
1A
353
14.9
4.0
10.9
2850
228
Cessna
172
206
310
404
1A
1A
1A
1A
272
274
518
721
10.9
10.9
11.3
14.1
2.7
2.6
3.7
4.3
8.2
8.6
9.7
12.1
1066
1639
2359
3810
414
490
Partenavia P68
1A
230
12.0
2.6
9.4
1960
Piper
PA 31 (Navajo)
PA 34
1A
1A
639
378
12.4
11.8
4.3
3.4
9.9
8.7
2950
1814
414
Beechcraft 200
1B
592
16.6
5.6
13.3
5670
735
Cessna
208A (Caravan)
402C
441
1B
1B
1B
296
669
544
15.9
13.45
15.1
3.7
5.6
4.6
11.5
11.1
11.9
3310
3107
4468
490
665
DHC 6 Twin Otter
1B
695
19.8
4.1
15.8
5670
220
Dornier 228-200
1B
525
17.0
3.6
16.6
5700
DHC-7
1C
689
28.4
7.8
24.6
19505
620
DHC-5E
1D
290
29.3
10.2
24.1
22316
Lear Jet 28/29
2A
912
13.4
2.5
14.5
6804
793
Britten Norman
Islander
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August 2002
Chapter 7
AEROPLANE
TYPE
REF
CODE
ARFL
(m)
Wing
span
(m)
OMGWS
(m)
Length
(m)
MTOW
(kg)
TP
(kPa)
Beechcraft 1900
2B
811
16.6
5.8
17/6
7530
CASA C-212
2B
866
20.3
3.5
16.2
7700
392
Embraer EMB110
2B
1199
15.3
4.9
15.1
5670
586
ATR 42-200
2C
1010
24.6
4.9
22.7
16150
728
Cessna 550
2C
912
15.8
6.0
14.4
6033
700
DHC-8
100
300
2C
2C
948
1122
25.9
27.4
8.5
8.5
22.3
25.7
15650
18642
805
805
Lear Jet 55
3A
1292
13.4
2.5
16.8
9298
3A
1341
14.1
5.4
18.1
5670
740
3A
1495
13.7
3.7
15.9
10660
1000
BAe 125-400
3B
1713
15.7
3.3
15.5
12480
1007
Canadair
CL600
CRJ-200
3B
3B
1737
1527
18.9
21.21
4.0
4.0
20.9
26.77
18642
21523
1140
1117
Cessna 650
3B
1581
16.3
3.6
16.9
9979
1036
Dassault-Breguet
Falcon 900
3B
1515
19.3
5.3
20.2
20640
1300
Embraer EMB 145
3B
1500
20
4.8
29.9
19200
Fokker F28-2000
3B
1646
23.6
5.8
29.6
29480
689
Metro 23/III
3B
1341
17.4
5.4
18.1
7484
742
Shorts SD3-60
3B
1320
22.8
4.6
21.6
11793
758
Metro II
IAI Westwind 2
August 2002
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Chapter 7
AEROPLANE
TYPE
REF
CODE
ARFL
(m)
Wing
span
(m)
OMGWS
(m)
Length
(m)
MTOW
(kg)
TP
(kPa)
3C
3C
3C
3C
1440
1500
1615
1615
15.9
18.3
26.3
26.3
6.2
5.5
5.5
14.4
19.3
26.2
31.0
6950
10433
42185
44225
448
1138
945
Bombadier Global
Express
3C
1774
28.7
4.9
30.3
42410
Embraer EMB 120
3C
1420
19.8
7.3
20.0
11500
828
McDonnell
Douglas
DC-3
DC9-20
3C
3C
1204
1551
28.8
28.5
5.8
6.0
19.6
31.8
14100
45360
358
972
Fokker
F27-500
F28-4000
F50
F100
3C
3C
3C
3C
1670
1640
1760
1695
29.0
25.1
29.0
28.1
7.9
5.8
8.0
5.0
25.1
29.6
25.2
35.5
20412
32205
20820
44450
540
779
552
920
SAAB SF-340
3C
1220
21.4
7.5
19.7
12371
655
Airbus A300 B2
3D
1676
44.8
10.9
53.6
142000
1241
Airbus A320-200
4C
2058
33.9
8.7
37.6
72000
1360
Boeing
B717-200
B737-200
B737-300
B737-400
B737-800
4C
4C
4C
4C
4C
2130
2295
2749
2499
2256
28.4
28.4
28.9
28.9
34.3
6.0
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.4
37.8
30.6
30.5
36.5
39.5
51710
52390
61230
63083
70535
1145
1344
1400
-
McDonnell
Douglas
DC9-30
DC9-80/MD80
4C
4C
2134
2553
28.5
32.9
6.0
6.2
37.8
45.1
48988
72575
1390
BAe
Jetstream 31
Jetstream 41
146-200
146-300
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August 2002
Chapter 7
AEROPLANE
TYPE
REF
CODE
ARFL
(m)
Wing
span
(m)
OMGWS
(m)
Length
(m)
MTOW
(kg)
TP
(kPa)
Airbus
A300-600
A310-200
4D
4D
2332
1845
44.8
43.9
10.9
10.9
54.1
46.7
165000
132000
1260
1080
Boeing
B707-300
B757-200
B767-200ER
B767-300ER
4D
4D
4D
4D
3088
2057
2499
2743
44.4
38.0
47.6
47.6
7.9
8.7
10.8
10.8
46.6
47.3
48.5
54.9
151315
108860
156500
172365
1240
1172
1310
1310
McDonnell
Douglas
DC8-63
DC10-30
4D
4D
3179
3170
45.2
50.4
7.6
12.6
57.1
55.4
158757
251744
1365
1276
Lockheed
L1011-100/200
4D
2469
47.3
12.8
54.2
211378
1207
McDonnell
Douglas MD11
4D
2207
51.7
12.0
61.2
273289
1400
Tupolev TU154
4D
2160
37.6
12.4
48.0
90300
Airbus
A 330-200
A 330-300
A 340-300
4E
4E
4E
2713
2560
2200
60.3
60.3
60.3
12
12
12.0
59.0
63.6
63.7
230000
230000
253500
1400
1400
1400
Boeing
B747-SP.
B747-300
B747-400
B777-200
4E
4E
4E
4E
2710
3292
3383
2500
59.6
59.6
64.9
60.9
12.4
12.4
12.4
12.8
56.3
70.4
70.4
63.73
318420
377800
394625
287800
1413
1323
1410
1400
August 2002
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Chapter 7
7.
RUNWAYS
7.1
GENERAL
7.1.1 A runway is a defined area provided for the take-off and landing of aeroplanes.
Many aerodromes serving small rural communities, cattle stations or mining centres have
only one runway. Aerodromes serving larger communities, and those with a significant
level of light aeroplanes or ab initio flying training activity, often have two or more
runways.
7.1.2 At aerodromes with more than one runway, the runways are classified as either
primary or secondary runways. The primary runway of an aerodrome is the runway used
in preference to others whenever conditions permit. It is generally the longest runway and
aligned closest to the direction of the prevailing wind. The other runways are classified as
secondary runways.
7.1.3 A runway is identified by a two part designator each part of which is derived from
the magnetic direction in which an aircraft is flying during landing or take-off from each
end of the runway; thus a runway aligned at 30 degrees magnetic is designated runway
03/21. The letters L, R or C (representing left, right or centre) are combined
with each of the two parts to distinguish between parallel runways: eg. one runway is
designated as 03L/21R and the other is 03R/21L. (Chapter 11: Visual Ground Aids
provides details on runway designators)
7.1.4 A runway may be either an instrument runway or a non-instrument runway. A noninstrument runway is a runway intended only for the operation of aeroplanes using VFR
procedures, and requires a circling approach to landing.
7.2
INSTRUMENT RUNWAYS
7.2.1 The availability of a runway will depend not only on the usability arising from
wind conditions (discussed at a later section), but also the effect of visibility from the air.
When weather conditions worsen sufficiently below VMC, the pilot will not be able to use
the runway without additional aids.
7.2.2 The availability of the runway during poor visibility can be improved by the
provision of ground radio navigation and landing aids or by aircraft using the satellite
navigation system (GPS). These enable the pilot to descend lower in cloud before sighting
the runway, and also allow straight-in approach and landing operations to be designed for
the runway. Different types of equipment can provide greater increase in availability: the
most sophisticated equipment can allow landings to be made without visibility at all.
7.2.3 The efficiency and safety of a non-instrument runway is enhanced if it is upgraded
to a instrument runway, and this is recommended. This means providing a runway with
instrument approach procedures. The design of instrument approach procedures requires
the utilisation of radio aid (which includes GPS), and the provision of relevant aerodrome
facilities in accordance with applicable standards. The decision would normally be made
by the aerodrome operator, in close consultation with the airlines concerned. Airservices
and CASA would also need to be closely consulted to achieve the most cost-effective
result.
7.2.4 Instrument runways are further classified into two types: non-precision approach
runways and precision approach runways.
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August 2002
Chapter 7
Non-precision approach runways

7.2.5 A non-precision approach (NPA) runway is an instrument runway served by visual
aids and a non-visual aid providing at least directional guidance adequate for a straight-in
approach. Visual aids may consist of T-VASIS or PAPI, runway markings and runway
lights. Non-visual aids may consist of NDB, VOR and DME, or GPS. In Australian
practice, an NPA runway is a runway with a published minimum descent altitude, also
known as the landing minima for a particular non-visual aid or a combination of non-visual
aids. Non-precision approach procedures are currently designed by CASA delegates
(Airservices Australia and IAC GPS P/L) and are published by Airservices Australia in the
AIP section titled Departure and Approach Procedures, commonly known as DAP charts.
7.2.5A To make recognition easier, new straight-in or runway aligned procedure will be
further identified by the runway number in the title of the approach chart, e.g. RWY 18
GPS or RWY 08 VOR/DME. Non-runway aligned approach procedures will not have the
runway number in the title, e.g. GPS-S, GPS-N or NDB. (Note: There is a program to
bring all existing charts to this convention. This will be introduced to existing charts on an
opportunity basis).
7.2.6 Result of accident enquiries demonstrated that straight-in approaches are much
safer than circling approaches, especially at night. With the advent of GPS, NPA runways
can now be provided without any ground based navigation aid. Aerodrome operators of
non-instrument runways are strongly urged to liaise with aerodrome users and upgrade
their runways to NPA runways wherever it is practicable to do so. However, the benefit of
having an NPA runway can only be realised if the runway meets the applicable NPA
standards. These include:
(a) increased runway strip width (can be compensated by increase in MDA);
(b) increased inner horizontal, conical and approach obstacle limitation surfaces
to be surveyed for obstacles;
(c) spacing of runway edge lights; and
(d) the availability of the wind direction indicator, near the threshold, if possible,
or an alternate method for obtaining wind information such as an automatic
weather information service.
See the relevant Chapters for the applicable standards. It should be noted that some of the
ICAO standards have been relaxed for Australian GPS NPA operations.
7.2.7 Before an NPA procedure is published the procedure designer has to arrange for the
design to be flight validated. Besides checking the operational aspect of the design, the
flight validation also checks the adequacy of the runway, visibility of the wind direction
indicator and clearances from all existing obstacles. An NPA procedure is only approved
for publication when all requirements are met. Otherwise direction on the use of the
procedure may be annotated on the chart, including in the worst case a direction that
straight-in landing is not permitted.
Precision approach runways
7.2.8 A precision approach runway is an instrument runway equipped with visual aids
and an instrument landing system intended for operations down to specified levels above
the ground as follows:
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Chapter 7
(a) Precision approach Category I runways provide for aeroplane operations

down to 200 feet (60m) decision height and runway visual range of the order
of 800m;
(b) Precision approach Category II runways provide for operations down to 100
feet (30m) decision height and runway visual range of the order of 400m; and
(c) Precision approach Category III runways allow operations to even lower
decision heights and runway visual ranges and are further categorised into
category IIIA, IIIB and IIIC; the latter providing for operations with no
reliance at all on visual reference for landing; ie. landing in zero visibility. (In
Australia it has been found that weather conditions are such that there is little
or no need for precision approach Category III runways, and none have been
provided to date.)
7.2.9 Precision approach runways are served by an instrument landing system (ILS or
MLS), and visual aids such as T-VASIS or PAPI and approach lights). Approach
procedures, for precision approach runways, based on ILS and published in DAP charts,
allow such operations to be conducted at the runway.
7.2.10 With the development of the global navigation satellite system (GNSS)
augmentation system, it is likely that the GNSS system will one day permit Category I
precision approach operations to be conducted at runways without an instrument landing
system.
7.3
RUNWAY THRESHOLD
7.3.1 The runway threshold is the point on the ground from which the landing distance
available to an aeroplane is measured. Normally this is at the extremity of a runway.
However, the threshold location may be affected by the presence of obstacles within the
approach area. Ideally, the threshold is to be located 60m (30m for code 1 runways) from
the intersection of the approach surface which is obstacle free, with the extended runway
centre line as shown in the diagram below. The gradients of approach surfaces are
specified in Chapter 10.
7.3.2 However, if the approach surface is infringed by obstacles, the matter is to be
referred to CASA for an operational assessment. The operational assessment may require
the threshold to be displaced, ie. moved further down the runway to maintain the obstacle
free approach surface, or allow the threshold to be established based on a steeper gradient
because it is more desirable to maintain the usable length of the runway. But in any case,
the obstacle free approach surface to the threshold is not to be steeper than 3.3 per cent
where the runway code number is 4 or steeper than 5 per cent where the code number is 3.
In the latter case, obstacles in the approach area may need to be marked and lit, and the
actual gradient of the approach surface is to be notified in AIP-ERSA.
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Chapter 7
7.3.3 For a new runway, the beginning of the runway is normally made to coincide with
the threshold. However in exceptional cases where this would result in an inadequate
runway length for take-off (in the same direction), the beginning of the runway may need
to be located prior to the threshold, as shown in the following diagram.
7.3.4 More commonly, in the decades following the establishment of the runway,
changes in aeroplane types and performance, or standards, or the erection of new structures
may necessitate the displacement of the threshold from a previously acceptable location at
the beginning of the runway, as shown in the following diagram.
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Chapter 7
7.3.5 A runway threshold may also be displaced temporarily owing to aerodrome work
or the presence of obstacles such as cranes in the vicinity of that end of the runway.
7.4
NUMBER AND ORIENTATION OF RUNWAYS
7.4.1 The number and orientation of runways should be decided by the aerodrome
operator in consultation with airlines and other users of the aerodrome on the basis of
achieving the maximum availability of the runway system under all weather conditions, for
the least capital investment. Factors to be considered when planning the number and
orientation of runways at an aerodrome include:
(a) weather, in particular the effect of prevailing wind, fog and rain on runway
usability;
(b) frequency of aeroplane movements and mix of aeroplane types;
(c) aeroplane characteristics, especially the maximum;
(d) permissible crosswind velocity;
(e) airspace conflicts;
(f) site and site environs constraints aircraft noise effects type of aircraft
operations construction costs
7.4.2 When the aerodrome is to be used by significant numbers of both light and heavy
aeroplanes, with different characteristics and requirements, it may be necessary to provide
separate runways for different aeroplane groups.
7.4.3 An aerodrome site, being an exposed location, is subject to surface wind and other
meteorological conditions which vary continuously. The predominant wind direction at a
site is referred to as the direction of the prevailing wind for that location. The
controllability of aeroplanes during landing and take-off is affected by, among other
things, the component of the wind velocity at right angles to the runway centre line that is,
the cross-wind component) and the component in line with the runway centre line (that is,
the headwind or tail-wind component). Different types of aeroplanes have different wind
component limits, beyond which pilots are not permitted to land or take-off.
7.5
RUNWAY USABILITY
7.5.1 Runway usability is the proportion of the time the winds at an aerodrome allow it to
be used by aeroplanes with specified limiting cross-wind landing capability. It is
expressed as a percentage. For the particular spatial and temporal distribution of winds
associated with an aerodrome, the orientation of the primary runway and any secondary
runway(s) will determine the time during which this runway system is usable. The
percentage of time during which the use of the system of runways at an aerodrome is not
restricted because of wind is referred to as the usability of the aerodrome and is always
related to a particular value of limiting cross wind.
7.5.2 The selection of an appropriate usability for an aerodrome is an economic matter
which should be decided by the aerodrome operator, in light of the balance between costs
such as those associated with the provision of an extra runway and losses in landing
charges through adverse wind preventing aeroplane from operating. It has been the
practice in Australia to aim for a usability factor of 99.8% for capital city aerodromes and
99.5% for other aerodromes. International practice recommends that .the usability of an
aerodrome should not be less than 95%.
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Chapter 7
7.5.3 Where the critical aeroplane is a known type for which the performance
characteristics are available, the aerodrome usability should be determined using the
limiting cross-wind component determined during type certification. This will usually be
the case for aerodromes handling RPT traffic. At GA aerodromes handling a wide range of
light aeroplanes it may not be possible to identify a critical aeroplane. In such cases the
following limiting cross-wind component values for aeroplanes, grouped by reference field
length, may be used:
(a) 20 knots in the case of aeroplanes whose reference field length is 1500m or
over;
(b) 13 knots in the case of aeroplanes whose reference field length is 1200m or
up to, but not including, 1500m;
(c) 10 knots in the case of aeroplanes whose reference field length is less than
1200m.
7.5.4 Where runways are provided essentially for light aeroplane operation, the
maximum permissible cross-wind component to be used for determining runway usability
is to be 10 knots where ab initio flying training is carried out. fifteen knots is to be used
if it can be guaranteed that ab initio flying training will not take place.
7.5.5 The Bureau of Meteorology is a reliable source of processed wind data for
calculating aerodrome usability. In order to avoid short term anomalies it is recommended
that wind data cover a period of five years on a continuous basis. In locations where
processed wind data is not available, observations over a period as short as one year can be
used, but the records of nearby measuring stations should also be consulted and the results
should be treated with reserve. In hilly terrain, the wind pattern is often dictated by the
topography and it may be of doubtful value to utilise the records of stations some distance
from the aerodrome site.
7.5.6 Wind data is collected using anemometers. Depending on the proposed manner of
aerodrome operation, wind data may be collected for all hours (that it, over 24 hours each
day) or only for daylight hours. Where daylight hours is used the hours are to be 07001700hrs each day. The direction and intensity of wind are typically observed at threehourly intervals. Wind data is usually presented graphically in the form of polar diagrams
known as wind roses which may then be used to prepare runway usability diagrams.
7.5.7 It may also be necessary to collect corresponding rainfall data to assess usability
under wet and dry conditions. The actual runway surface wetness at any given time would
depend on the rainfall run-off at that time. However for usability considerations, the
surface condition of the runway is normally assessed as dry if rainfall is less than 1.5mm
in the preceding 3 hours and assessed as wet if rainfall is equal to or more than 1.5mm in
the preceding 3 hours.
August 2002
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Chapter 7
7.5.8 A typical wind graph (wind rose) and a typical usability chart are shown below.
7.6
MULTIPLE RUNWAYS
7.6.1 Decisions on the number of runways to be provided, or retained, at an aerodrome

should be made by the aerodrome operator on the basis of financial and economic (costbenefit) studies. The advantages to the aerodrome operator of an ideal runway system,
oriented to maximise usability, have to be weighed against the costs, such as those of
providing them. Factors such as site restrictions, obstacles or population centres in the
approach and take-off areas or development costs may be relevant.
7.6.2 If the usability of a single runway is below the required usability of the aerodrome,
a secondary runway may be provided. Because at most locations there is a significant
prevailing wind pattern, it will usually be the case that the primary runway is best aligned
with the stronger prevailing wind direction and the secondary runway with the lesser.
Where the wind rose for a location is generally circular (that is, there are no significant
prevailing winds), there would be more flexibility in orienting the runways.
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Chapter 7
7.6.3 If the usability of the combined primary and secondary runways is still below the
required usability of the aerodrome a further runway may be provided. Other factors being
equal, this third runway should be aligned so as to give the greatest possible increase in
aerodrome usability.
7.6.4 In addition to increasing aerodrome usability and traffic capacity, multiple runways
have the advantage of permitting the segregation of traffic by concentrating certain types
of aeroplanes on different runways, eg large jet aeroplanes on primary runways and light
aircraft on secondary runways.
7.6.5 The aerodrome operator is to consult with CASA and Airservices on airspace
aspects and the air traffic control procedures associated with the operation of multiple
runways. Such matters could significantly affect decisions on the number of runways to be
provided or retained at an aerodrome.
7.7
PARALLEL RUNWAYS
7.7.1 A parallel runway system consists of two or more runways aligned in a single
direction, parallel to one another. Every runway has a practical maximum annual capacity
and a maximum peak hourly, capacity which, if exceeded by demand, results in aircraft
delays being incurred. Unacceptable aircraft delays may be overcome by providing a
parallel runway. A parallel configuration can provide an efficient means of increasing the
capacity at an aerodrome because where a second runway is added parallel to an existing
runway, it can enable additional capacity on the second runway, without adversely
affecting the capacity of the existing runway.
7.7.2 The decision as to whether or not to provide a parallel runway is therefore an
economic one. The capacity of a parallel runway system depends on the number of
runways provided and on the spacing between these runways. Parallel runways may be
either closely or widely spaced. Close-spaced parallel runways are runways spaced such
that, for IFR operations, an aeroplane operation on one runway is dependent on aircraft
operations on the other runway(s). Wide-spaced parallel runways are runways spaced such
that, for IFR operations, both runways can be operated independently.
7.7.3 At aerodromes with a high number of aircraft movements and depending on the
aircraft mix, more efficient utilisation of parallel runways may be achieved by segregating
aircraft activities. For example, landing aircraft may be directed to use one particular
runway, take-off aircraft to use another and flying training aircraft to use a third.
7.7.4 At light aircraft aerodromes, the increase in capacity available through the
provision of parallel runways can be further enhanced by the introduction of General
Aviation Approach Procedures (GAAP). These are applicable to aircraft not above 5700
kg MTOM in VMC.
7.7.5 The essential difference between operations under non-GAAP and GAAP is that
under the former all aircraft circuit the aerodrome in the same direction (ie. either
clockwise or anti-clockwise). Under the latter, circuits in both directions are permitted
simultaneously (ie. contra-rotating circuits), one direction for the one runway, and the
other direction for the other parallel runway.
7.7.6 Where parallel runways are provided for simultaneous use under VMC only,
typical values of the minimum separation between the runway centre lines are:
(a) 213m where General Aviation Approach Procedures (GAAP) are in force;
August 1999
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Chapter 7
(b) 210m where the higher code number of the two runways concerned is 3 or 4;
(c) 150m where the higher code number of the two runways concerned is 2;
(d) 120m where the code number of each of the two runways concerned is 1.
7.7.7 There are currently no instances in Australia of simultaneous VFR operations on
code 3 or 4 parallel runways. International practice recommends a minimum separation of
210m for VFR operations between parallel runway centre lines. Where parallel runways
are to be provided for simultaneous use by VFR operations on code 3 and 4 runways in
Australia, the minimum separation between runway centre lines is to be subject to case by
case approval by CASA.
7.7.8 Much greater separation is necessary when parallel runways are provided for
simultaneous use by IFR operations. The separation required is dependent on many factors
including the type of navigational aids and radar equipment provided, the particular
approach, take-off, ATC procedures, and local conditions.
7.7.9 International standards appropriate to the separation of parallel runways with
simultaneous IFR operations have not yet been developed. As a guide, the United States of
America practices in this regard are given below.
7.7.10 The United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) sets a minimum
standard, for simultaneous approaches, of 1300m between the centre lines of parallel
runways. The FAA minimum standard for simultaneous non-radar departures, and for
simultaneous radar arrival/departure on non-staggered thresholds, is 1050m between the
centre lines of parallel runways. Where thresholds are staggered and the approach is to the
nearest runway, the FAA allows the 1050m spacing to be reduced by 30m for every 150m
the thresholds are staggered, but to not less than 300m. Where thresholds are staggered
and the approach is to the farthest runway, the FAA requires the 1050m spacing to be
increased by 30m for every 150m the thresholds are staggered.
7.7.11 Because of the differences in ATC procedures and equipment existing between
Australia and the USA, the foregoing FAA minimum separation standards should only be
considered as, guidelines. Where parallel runways are to be provided for simultaneous use
by IFR operations, the minimum separation between runway centre lines is to be subject to
individual approval by CASA.
7.9.12 To minimise taxying across active runways and to utilise the area between parallel
runways more efficiently, the terminal complex and other operational facilities are
normally placed between the parallel runways. To accommodate these facilities, the
distance separating the parallel runways is often greater than the separation required purely
for aircraft flying operations. For example, separations between parallel runways around
the world range from 1300m to over 2500m.
7.8
RUNWAY LENGTH
7.8.1 The length of a runway to be provided at an aerodrome is to be determined by the

aerodrome operator. It should be adequate to meet the operational requirements of the
critical aeroplane, at the desired MTOM, for which the runway is intended. The
operational requirements of aeroplanes are normally determined by airlines or aeroplane
operators, within the aeroplane mass and performance limitations set by CASA.
7.8.2 Accordingly, the runway length should be determined in close consultation with the
airlines, other aeroplane operators that the aerodrome operator wishes the aerodrome to
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August 1999
Chapter 7
accommodate and CASA, so that the desired maximum capacity may be obtained at the
lowest cost. The cost of providing a runway will normally be recouped, by the aerodrome
operator, through aircraft landing charges. However, in particular cases, for instance
where additional length of a runway is required by a specific airline, funding of the
additional length may be subject to negotiation.
7.8.3 When arriving at the length of runway required, the aeroplane operator will utilise
data provided by the aeroplane manufacturer, and certified by CASA. These data which
are contained in the aeroplane operation manual, cover the following considerations:
(a) the maximum take-off mass of the critical aeroplane;
(b) the maximum permissible landing mass of the critical aeroplane;
(c) the climb performance, and braking performance of the critical aeroplane;
(d) the longitudinal slope of the runway;
(e) the air temperature and density based on the location and elevation of the
aerodrome;
(f) the wind velocity; and
(g) the runway surface condition, wet or dry.
7.9
RUNWAY WIDTH
7.9.1 The appropriate runway width requirement may be determined by cross-reference

to Table 74 using the critical aeroplane reference code. The runway width standards
specified in the table are to be used for the construction of a new runway or the upgrading
of an existing runway.
Table 74 Width of Runways
Code Letter
Code Number
18m
18m
23m
23m
23m
30m
45m
30m
30m
30m
45m
45m
45m
45m
7.9.2 Aerodrome operators are advised that some aeroplanes may be permitted to operate
from runways with width not in accordance with Table 74 under one of the following
circumstances:
(1) An aeroplane may be operated from a runway one width less than that specified in
the Table of Width of Runways above provided:
(a) the United States of America Federal Aviation Administration aircraft design
group permits a runway width narrower than provided by Table 74; or
(b) it has an aeroplane reference field length (AFRL) less than 1500 m and all
flight manual crosswind limits are reduced by 50%.
November 2000
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Chapter 7
(2) The runway may be narrower than that specified in Table 74 if the runway is only
used by aeroplanes that have a maximum take-off weight of not more than 5700 kg.
(3) CASA has conducted runway width testing of an aeroplane and approved its
operations at narrower runways.
(4) CASA may require an aeroplane to operate from a width wider than that
determined from Table 74 when CASA is satisfied that the displayed handling
performance during take-off and/or landing warrants such a restriction- being
imposed.
7.10
TURNING NODES
7.10.1 It may be desirable to widen runway ends to assist aeroplanes during turning
manoeuvres and to reduce scuffing of the runway surface. Where a parallel taxiway and
taxiway exits are not provided, it may be desirable to provide intermediate turning nodes to
allow aeroplanes to turn at the end of the landing run without having to taxi to the end of
the runway. The provision of intermediate turning nodes is a financial matter which
should be negotiated between aerodrome operators and aircraft operators.
7.10.2 Where an entrance taxiway is not provided at a runway end and the normal
turning radius (r) of the critical aeroplane is such that the turning circle is greater than the
runway width, a turning node is to be provided. The width of the turning node is to be
such that the clearance distance (y) between the outer main wheel and the edge of the
pavement is not less than the dimensions set out in Table 7 5, and the nose wheel is to
remain on the pavement.
Table 75. Pavement Edge Clearance
Aeroplane Reference Code
Minimum distance between aeroplane outer

main gear wheel and pavement (y)
1.5m
2.25m
C (where the aeroplane wheel base is

less than 18m)
3.0 m
C (where the aeroplane wheel base is

18m or more)
4.5m
4. 5m
4. 5m
7.10.3 Although runway widening on the pilot's left as he taxies towards the runway end
is preferred (because the pilot normally occupies the left hand seat and can see the edge of
the pavement more readily) where circumstances warrant, an asymmetric or right hand
turning nodes are acceptable.
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November 2000
Chapter 7
7.10.4 The value chosen for the turning radius r is to be based on the critical aeroplane
and is to be determined in consultation with the relevant aeroplane operators, taking into
account any physical constraints within the manoeuvring area, such as adverse grades,
limited area, or high risk of jet blast damage.
7.11
LONGITUDINAL SLOPES ON RUNWAYS
7.11.1 Uphill take-offs and downhill landings both require greater runway length than if
a runway is level. Runway design should aim at minimising the overall runway slope to
minimise runway length. Accordingly, the ratio computed by dividing the difference
between the maximum and minimum elevation along the runway centre line by the runway
length, should not exceed:
(a) 1% where the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 3
or 4;
(b) 2% where the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 1
or 2.
7.11.2 Along any portion of a runway, the longitudinal slope is not to exceed:
(a) 1.25% where the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 4,
except that for the first and last quarter of the length of the runway, the
longitudinal slope is not to exceed 0.8%;
(b) 1.5% where the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 3,
except that for the first and last quarter of the length of a precision approach
runway Category II or III, the longitudinal slope is not to exceed 0.8%;
(c) 2.0% where the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 1
or 2.
7.11.3 A uniform slope for at least 300m should be provided at each end of the runway.
At major airports where large jet aeroplanes operate, this distance should be increased to
600m.
Longitudinal slope changes on runways
7.11.4 Sudden changes in the longitudinal slope of a runway should be avoided as they
can cause high acceleration forces which affect passenger comfort and, depending on the
aeroplane operating velocity and the severity of the slope change, may reduce the
controllability of the aeroplane on the runway. Where slope changes cannot be avoided,
the change in slope between two contiguous sections of the runway is not to exceed:
April 2001
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Chapter 7
(a) 1.5% where the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 3
or 4; and
(b) 2.0% where the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 1
or 2.
7.11.5 The transition from one slope to the next is to be a vertical curve, with a rate of
change not exceeding:
(a) 0.1% per 30m (that is, a minimum radius of curvature of 30000m) where the
runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 4;
(b) 0.2% per 30m (that is, a minimum radius of curvature of 15000m) where the
runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 3; and
(c) 0.4% per 30m (that is, a minimum radius of curvature of 7500m) where the
runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code number of 1 or 2.
Longitudinal slope changes at runway intersections
7.11.6 The preceding rates of change of longitudinal slope may be relaxed outside the
central third of the runway at intersections either to facilitate drainage or to accommodate
ally conflicting slope requirements.
Distance between longitudinal slope changes on runways
7.11.7 Because riding quality is adversely affected by close spacing between,
longitudinal slope changes on a runway, undulations or appreciable changes in slopes
located close together along a runway should be avoided. To prevent possible loss of
control through premature lift off or bouncing of aircraft, the distance (D) between the
points of intersection of two successive curves is to be not less than (a) or (b) below,
whichever is the greater:
(a) the sum of the absolute values of the corresponding slope changes,(x, y, z)
multiplied by the appropriate value of the radius of curvature (k) as follows:
D = k(|x-y|+|y-z|)/100 metres, where
x, y and z are in percentages
k = 30 000m where the runway can accommodate aircraft with a code number
of 4
k = 15 000m:where the runway can accommodate aircraft with a code number
of 3
k = 5 000m where the runway can accommodate aircraft with a code number
of 1 or 2
(b) D = 45m
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April 2001
Chapter 7
7.11.8 The following diagram illustrates the distance (D) and the slope changes (x, y, z)
between the points of intersection of two successive curves on a runway as defined above.
7.12
RUNWAY SIGHT DISTANCE
7.12.1 Runway sight distance is the distance along a runway, ahead of an observer in an
aircraft cockpit, along which there is an unobstructed line of sight to an object on the
runway. The observer's eye level is defined as 1.5m, 2.0m and 3.0m above the runway,
depending on the runway code letter.
7.12.2 The purpose of providing adequate runway sight distance is to provide sufficient
runway length to allow for the pilot of an aircraft after sighting an object, to react and take
appropriate evasive action, for example, braking, exiting the runway or taking-off over the
object.
7.12.3 Every runway is to have a longitudinal profile along its centre line such that there
will be an unobstructed line of sight from:
(a) any point 3m above the runway centre line to all other points 3m above the
centre line, within a distance of at least half the length of the runway, where
the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code letter of C, D or E;
(b) any point 2m above the runway, centre line to all other points 2m above the
centre line, within a distance of at least half the length of the runway, where
the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code letter of B; or
(c) any point 1.5m above the runway centre line to all other points 1.5m above
the centre line within a distance of at least half the length of the runway ,
where the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code letter of A.
7.12.4 Where runway lighting is provided slope changes are to be such that from any
point on the runway, there is an unobstructed line of sight from 3 metres above the runway
surface at that point to any other point on the runway surface within 600 metres.
7.13
TRANSVERSE SLOPES ON RUNWAYS
7.13.1 The determination of transverse slopes results from balancing two opposing
requirements. on one hand there is an advantage in providing relatively steep runway cross
slopes for runway pavement drainage. This minimises the risks associated with aircraft
aquaplaning and reduced pavement friction due to water build-up on the runway. On the
other hand, the provision of relatively flat cross slopes on a runway is desirable from the
August 1999
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Chapter 7
standpoint of aircraft controllability, since the greater the cross slope the greater the
tendency for aircraft to run off the pavement. To meet these requirements the runway
should be built with a central crown.
7.13.2 The runway transverse slope measured from the crown to the runway edge, is to
be consistent with Table 76.
Table 76. Runway Transverse Slope
Aeroplane Reference Code Letter
A or B
C, D or E
Maximum slope
2.5%
2.0%
Ideal slope
2.0%
1.5%
Minimum slope
1.5%
1.0%
7.13.3 To achieve aeroplane controllability, the transverse slope should be substantially

the same throughout the length of the runway. The exception is that at the intersection
with another runway or taxiway an even, gradual transition should be provided, taking
account of the need for adequate drainage.
7.13.4 Similarly, for a runway with a central crown, the transverse slope on each side of
the centre line should be the same. Where a single crossfall is used, the effect of the
prevailing wind should be taken into account as surface drainage may be impeded by wind
blowing up the transverse slope. Particular attention should be paid to the need for good
drainage in the touch down zone, since aquaplaning induced at this early stage of the
landing, once started, can be sustained by shallower water deposits further along the
runway.
7.13.5 Where the position of the crown is to be varied from the centre line to improve
changes of grade at intersections or to save substantial earthworks, the transverse position
of the crown is not to be:
(a) moved laterally at a rate of more than lm per 10m longitudinally; or
(b) any closer to the runway edge than 3m.
7.13.6 Use of maximum longitudinal and transverse slopes together over any section of
unsealed runway should be avoided as scouring of the pavement may result.
7.14
STRENGTH OF RUNWAYS
7.14.1 A runway should be capable of withstanding the aeroplane traffic the runway is
intended to serve. Although standards governing runway strength are not specified, the
runway including any widened ends and turning nodes should be able to carry the wheel
loads and frequency of movements of the critical aeroplane.
7.14.2 Apart from extreme and therefore rare cases, aircraft safety is not an issue in the
matter of runway pavement strength. By their nature, pavements deform rather than break,
and even gross overload normally results in nothing more than rutting or deformation of
the pavement. If left untreated this may lead to distress such as break-up of the surface
with potential for ingestion of loose material in an engine, aeroplane controllability,
aquaplaning
7 24
August 1999
Chapter 7
and jet engine flame-out problems. These types of distress constitute an unserviceability
problem and are subject to standards specified in Chapter 9 - Operating Standards.
7.14.3 When deciding on the appropriate pavement strength for a particular runway, the
aerodrome operator should weigh the economic costs and benefits accruing over the life of
the pavement. Economic benefits may be derived from the provision of a less costly,
lower strength pavement which will meet the loading requirements of the majority, but not
all of the aeroplanes likely to use the runway. The economic, social and political penalties
involved are associated with the repair of pavement damage and the certain bringing
forward of major pavement maintenance as a result of pavement overloads caused by
certain aeroplanes using the runway.
7.14.4 The load on those sections of a runway pavement where there is no parallel
taxiway and where an aircraft rolls at high speed (such as the middle part of a runway
during take-off and the first 1000m beyond the threshold during landing) is transient and is
thus less severe than on those sections where aircraft speeds are slower. In such cases, the
transient load on the pavement is further reduced by the lift of the aircraft wings. In
addition, certain sections of a runway pavement (such as the two outer thirds of a runway,
the runway shoulders and the stopways), although subjected to the same aircraft loads, will
experience markedly lower load frequencies than those occurring on the middle third of a
runway.
7.14.5 There is scope for effecting savings through reductions in runway pavement
thickness in specific areas according to the function of the pavement. This concept is used
overseas, but the aerodrome operator should consider the savings that may be achieved,
compared with the possible difficulties which may arise during construction or at the time
when such pavement areas may be incorporated in runway widening or runway extension
works.
7.15
RUNWAY SURFACES
7.15.1 The condition of the runway surface is a major factor affecting the control of an
aeroplane on the runway and, in particular, the effective braking of an aeroplane during
landing, or stopping after an aborted take-off.
7.15.2 Surface evenness is important for effective surface water drainage, as an uneven
surface can lead to water ponding. It is also important, in terms of the riding quality of
high speed jet aircraft as an uneven surface can lead to passenger discomfort and, in severe
cases, structural damage to aeroplanes.
7.15.3 With modern paving techniques the finish of the surface of a runway should be
such that, when tested with a 3 metre straight-edge placed anywhere on the surface, there
is no deviation greater than 3mm between the bottom of the straight-edge and the surface
of the pavement anywhere along the straight-edge.
7.15.4 The surface of a runway is to have good friction characteristics when the runway
is wet to reduce the probability of a landing aircraft slipping off the side or the end of a
paved runway. This may be achieved by providing an open graded bituminous concrete
course, by grooving bituminous concrete surfaces or by laying a coarse bituminous spray
seal.
7.15.5 Standards for acceptable numerical values of runway surface friction are being
developed. In the interim the following standard is to be used:
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Chapter 7
7.15.6 Paved runways used by RPT aircraft are to have an average surface texture depth
greater than 1.0mm as measured by the grease patch test. The equipment required for this
test consists of a 15 cubic centimetre tube which is used to measure a volume of grease, a
tight fitting plunger which is used to expel the grease from the tube, and a rubber squeegee
which is used to work the grease into the voids in the runway surface. The tube is packed
using a simple tool such as a putty knife, and the ends are squared off. Parallel lines of
masking tape are placed on the pavement surface about 100mm apart. Grease is then
expelled from the tube with a plunger and deposited between these lines. It is then worked
into the voids of the runway pavement surface with the rubber squeegee. The distance
along the lines of masking tape is then measured and the area that is covered by grease
subsequently computed. The average surface texture depth is obtained by dividing the
volume of grease by the area covered by the grease.
7.15.7 Grooving of the runway pavement surface should be considered to counter
problems with aquaplaning in localities which experience frequent heavy rains. In such
cases, grooving should be provided over at least the central two-thirds of the runway
pavement width, and the full length of the runway.
7.15.8 A Runway surface treatment, such as grooving, is usually required at runways
accommodating larger aeroplanes. Accordingly the aerodrome operator should decide the
type of surface treatment in conjunction with the airlines, who may elect to contribute to
the costs.
7.15.9 When a runway pavement surface is grooved or scored, the grooves or scorings
should be either at right angles to the runway centre line or parallel to transverse joints,
where applicable. The groove size should be 6mm by 6mm, spaced at 32mm centres for
grooving at major capital city aerodromes, and 75mm centres for grooving at other
intermediate sized licensed aerodromes. Variations from the above spacing may be
justified by the traffic volume and/or the rainfall intensity at a particular location.
7.16
RUNWAY SHOULDERS
7.16.1 A runway shoulder is the prepared or constructed area adjacent to the edge of a
runway which provides a transition between the runway pavement and the runway strip.
7.16.2 An important purpose of a runway shoulder is to support an aircraft, should it
accidentally run off the runway, without inducing structural damage to the aircraft. A
runway shoulder also protects the runway edge, eliminates soil erosion caused by aircraft
engine blast, assists drainage and thus prevents water from softening the runway subgrade.
Runway shoulder width
7.16.3 Runway shoulders are to be provided for all sealed, asphalt or concrete runway
and stopway pavements where either:
(a) the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code letter of D or E and the
runway width is less than 60m; or
(b) the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code letter of C, and is used by
aeroplanes exceeding 22,700kg or seating 100 passengers or more, which
have been certificated by CASA to operate on 30m wide runways, such as
B737-300.
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7.16.4 Runway shoulders are to extend symmetrically on each side of the runway to a
minimum width of:
(a) 7.5m. for 45m wide runways, or
(b) 3.0m. for 30m wide runways.
7.16.5 Runway shoulders are not required for aircraft operational purposes where the
runway code letter is A, B and C and the runway is used only by aeroplanes not exceeding
22700 kg. However, as previously stated, shoulders are recommended for engineering
purposes to protect runway pavements.
Runway shoulder strength
7.16.6 Runway shoulders are to be constructed so as to be capable, in the event of an
aeroplane running off the runway, of supporting it without causing structural damage to the
aeroplane. However where the runway shoulders are to be used by ground vehicles, they
should be designed for the type of service traffic which will be using them, such as runway
sweepers and maintenance trucks, and then checked to see if that strength meets aeroplane
operational requirements.
7.16.7 The axle load and frequency of emergency or maintenance vehicles likely to
traverse or use the runway shoulders should be considered in the determination of the
appropriate shoulder pavement thickness. Where it is not economical to provide full
strength shoulders for heavy vehicles the use of designated routes for heavy vehicle (such
as fire trucks) on the movement area is recommended, including the marking of specially
designed entry/exit ways on runway shoulders which will support these vehicles without
damaging the runway shoulders.
7.16.8 It is recommended that the minimum pavement thickness required for runway
shoulders and blast pads to accommodate the design aircraft be taken as one half of the
total thickness required for the runway.
Runway shoulder slope
7.16.9 The surface of the shoulder where it abuts the runway should be flush with the
surface of the runway. However, any step down from the runway surface to the abutting
shoulder surface is not to exceed 25 mm.
7.16.10 The transverse slope of a runway shoulder is not to exceed:
(a) 2.5% where the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code letter of D
or E;
(b) 2.5% where the runway is to accommodate aircraft with a code letter of C.
and is used by aeroplanes exceeding 22700 kg or seating 100 passengers or
more, which have been certificated to operate on 30m wide runways; or
(c) 4% in all other cases.
Runway shoulder surface
7.16.11 The full width of a runway shoulder surface is to be resistant to aircraft blast
erosion when used by regular public transport jet aircraft.
7.16.12 Where the surface of a shoulder is not paved, it is to be tightly bound and erosion
resistant to prevent the presence of loose stones and other objects which may be ingested
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Chapter 7
by turbine engines. A good grass cover may suffice in some areas and oiling, chemical
treatment or soil stabilisation may be more suitable in other areas.
7.16.13 The shoulders of runways that are used by large jet aeroplanes are to be paved to
guard against soil erosion from wing tip or wake turbulence which may blow soil particles
onto the runway pavement. Such soil particles may be sucked in by aircraft engines, and
may cause damage to the engines. The Boeing B747 is currently the only Australian
registered aeroplane which requires surface blast protection in excess of that provided by
the runway shoulders. The B747 requires a blast resistant surface width of 74m. For
runways serving B747 aeroplanes, the full 7.5m shoulder width is to be paved and a further
surface width of 7m either side of the shoulders is to be prepared so as to resist aircraft
blast erosion. The extent of preparation would depend on local climatic and soil
conditions, and the maintenance standards of the aerodrome. Grass may be suitable. The
surface near runway ends where B747s make their turns, and in the vicinity of the aircraft
rotation area need particular close attention.
7.16.14 While it is not necessary that the surface of shoulders associated with runways
for other wide-bodied jet aeroplanes (such as the Boeing B767, and the Airbus A300) be
paved, it is mandatory that those surfaces be prepared to be resistant to aircraft blast
erosion.
7.16.15 The aerodrome operator should consider extending this practice to shoulders of
runways that are used by narrow-bodied jets and propeller driven aircraft, both to minimise
foreign object damage to aircraft, and to reduce pavement maintenance cost through break
up of pavement surface caused by weed growth and erosion of the strip surface adjacent to
the runway from water coming off the runway.
7.17
RUNWAY STRIPS
7.17.1 A runway and any associated stopways are to be centrally located within a runway
strip. This is an area provided both to reduce the risk of damage to aircraft running off a
runway and also to provide obstacle-free airspace for aircraft flying over the area during
take-off or landing operations. The runway strip, therefore, comprises a graded and
obstacle free area specially prepared to minimise damage to aircraft should it run off the
runway, and also to allow aircraft to fly over the area safely. The whole width of this
runway strip is a graded area.
7.17.2 In the case of instrument runways, the runway strip is widened by the addition of
obstacle free areas on either side of the graded runway strip. This additional area is termed
fly-over area. The physical standards for the graded area and the fly-over area are set out
below.
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Runway strip length

7.17.3 The runway strip is to extend beyond the end of the runway or stopway, if
provided, for a distance of 30m for code 1 runways and 60m for code 2, 3 and 4 runways.
Runway strip width
7.17.4 A non-instrument runway is to be centrally located within a graded runway strip
the width of which is shown in Table 77:
Table 77. Runway Strip Width (graded) for Non-Instrument Runways
Aerodrome facility
reference code
Overall
runway strip width
60m
80m
3 (where the runway width is 30 m)

3, 4 (where the runway width is 45 m or more)
Note:
90m
150m
Runways used for RPT operations at night by aircraft with maximum take-off
weight not exceeding 5,700 kg are required to meet code 2 standards.
7.17.5 A non-precision approach runway is to be centrally located within a runway strip

consisting of a graded portion and a fly-over area such that the overall strip width is as
shown in Table 78:
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Chapter 7
Table 78. Runway Strip Width for Non-Precision Approach Runways

Aerodrome facility
reference code
Overall runway
strip width
1, 2
90m
3 (where the runway width is 30 m)
150ma
3, 4 (where the runway width is 45 m or more)
300mb
Where it is not practicable to provide the full 150m width of runway strip, a
minimum 90m wide graded only strip may be provided where the runway is used by
up to and including code 3C aircraft, subject to landing minima adjustment.
Where it is not practicable to provide the full runway strip width, a minimum 150m
wide graded only strip may be provided, subject to landing minima adjustments.
7.17.6 A precision approach runway is to be centrally located within a runway strip

consisting of a graded portion and a fly-over area such that the overall strip width is as
shown in Table 79:
Table 79: Runway Strip Width for Precision Approach Runways
Aerodrome facility
reference code
Overall runway
strip width
1, 2
150m
3, 4
300m
7.17.7 Where it is not practicable to provide the full runway strip width, a lesser graded
only strip width not less than 90m for code 1 and 2 and 150m for code 3 and 4 respectively
may be provided subject to landing minima adjustments.
Runway strip grading for precision approach runways
7.17.8 For precision approach runways code 3 and 4, it is recommended that an
additional width of graded runway strip be provided. In this case, the graded width
extends to a distance of 105m from the runway centre line, except that the width is
gradually reduced (over a distance of 150m) to 75m from the runway centre line at both
ends of the strip, for a length of 150m from the runway ends, as shown in the diagram
below:
7.17.9 Because runways are costly, the aerodrome operator should ensure that the
operators of aircraft that the runway is to accommodate, the Air Traffic Service provider,
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November 2000
Chapter 7
and CASA, are fully consulted in the early planning stages to ensure that the runway strip
provided will be able to cater for the desired aircraft.
7.17.10 It should be noted that, when CASA grants a runway width exemption for a
particular aeroplane, it will not necessarily grant a matching corresponding exemption for
the runway strip width standard. For example, the B737 is a code 4C aeroplane which in
accordance with the standards, requires 45m wide runways with 150m graded runway strip
width. This aeroplane type has been exempted to operate from 30m wide runways, but
150m wide graded runway strip width is still required.
Runway strip graded area
7.17.11 The term graded area in this context means either virgin ground which
automatically meets specified grading requirements by virtue of being relatively smooth,
and free of stumps, ditches, potentially hazardous ruts, depressions, humps and other
pronounced discontinuities; or ground which has been cut and shaped with a mechanical
grader or otherwise prepared using an alternative grading device to achieve the required
grades.
7.17.12 The surface of that portion of a runway strip which abuts a runway, shoulder or
stopway should be flush with the surface of the runway, shoulder or stopway. However,
any step down from the surface of the runway, shoulder or stopway onto the runway strip
is not to exceed 25 mm.
7.17.13 The portion of a strip at the end of a runway is normally subjected to the greatest
jet or propeller blast velocity. It is therefore to be prepared to resist blast erosion in order
to protect a landing aeroplane from the danger of an exposed edge.
7.17.14 Apart from a graded and obstacle free surface, the protection of the runway strip
graded area affords an aircraft running off the runway is limited to the strength of the
natural surface as this area is not normally strengthened to support the loading of an
aircraft. However, there should be no abrupt changes or differences in the load bearing
capacity of the soil. In essence this means that the graded runway strip should be a
homogenous, drained surface. The surface should be grassed where practicable, to prevent
erosion and to improve stability.
7.17.15 It should be noted that, under normal circumstances, pilots are not permitted to
land, take-off or taxi an aeroplane on a runway strip, whether or not a paved runway has
been provided. However, there may be occasions, due to weather, that the runway strip is
unusable even in emergency conditions. Because of the wide diversity of soil conditions
and air transport demand across Australia, there will be cases where, for extended periods
(during wet seasons), it is not practicable to have a runway strip which meets even the
normal dry weather strength of the natural surface. In exceptional wet circumstances the
whole runway or part of the runway may be regarded as unserviceable. When this
happens, aerodrome operators are to arrange for issue of NOTAM advice, in accordance
with procedures set out in CAAP 89O-1(1).
Fly-over area
7.17.16 The fly-over area is the extra area provided for an instrument runway on either
side of the runway over and above the area provided for a non-instrument runway. This
area is provided to allow an aircraft to be able to fly over it at very low level, in the event
of a missed approach. No portion of a runway strip beyond the graded area, nor objects
thereon, are to project upwards through a plane surface, originating from the outer edge of
November 2000
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Chapter 7
the graded runway strip, sloping upwards and outwards at a slope of 5% measured with
reference to the horizontal.
7.17.17 Although, in general, grading, levelling or other special preparation with a
mechanical grading device is not required within this portion of the runway strip, it is
recommended that upstanding objects be cleared to natural surface level along the full
length of the fly-over area. For this purpose upstanding objects include tree stumps, knolls
and rock outcrops.
7.17.18 Transient objects such as vehicles and equipment may operate in this area
provided they do not infringe the inner transitional surfaces.
7.17.19 Ditches and depressions are acceptable in this portion of the runway strip, as it is
provided as an aircraft fly-over area and is not intended to cater for the ground running of
an aircraft.
Objects on runway strip
7.17.20 Standards for objects which are required to be located within the runway strip
are given in Chapter 10.
Longitudinal slopes on graded area
7.17.21 The longitudinal slope of a runway strip should follow the longitudinal slope of
the associated runway. The longitudinal slope of the runway strip at any point is
determined by the combination of the longitudinal slope of the runway and the transverse
slope of the runway, and runway strip, at that point. The longitudinal slope along the
graded area of the runway strip should not exceed:
(a) 1.5% where the runway code number is 4;
(b) 1.75% where the runway code number is 3; and
(c) 2.0% where the runway code number is 1 or 2.
Longitudinal slope changes on graded area
7.17.22 There are no mandatory requirements associated with the longitudinal slope
changes on the graded runway strip. To minimise hazards to an aeroplane running off the
runway or stopway, slope changes should be as gradual as practicable and abrupt changes
or sudden reversals of slopes avoided, and should not exceed 2%.
7.17.23 For precision approach runways Category II and III, slope changes within an
area 60m wide and 300m long, symmetrical about the centre line, before the threshold, are
to be avoided. This is because aeroplanes making Cat II and III approaches are equipped
with radio altimeters for final height guidance in accordance with the terrain immediately
prior to the threshold. Excessive slope changes can cause errors in data. Where slope
changes cannot be avoided, the rate of change between two consecutive slopes should not
exceed 2% per 30m.
Transverse slopes on runway strips
7.17.24 The runway strip should have a transverse slope downwards from the runway to
facilitate removal of surface water and to avoid problems with ponding resulting in
differential bearing capacity, and bird attraction. For the graded area of the runway strip,
the transverse slope should not exceed:
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November 2000
Chapter 7
(a) 2.5% where the code number is 3 or 4; and

(b) 3% where the code number is 1 or 2.
7.17.25 Where the runway strip surface is susceptible to scouring, a balance should be
achieved between avoiding scouring and avoiding ponding.
7.17.26 The transverse slope of the fly-over area is not to exceed an upward slope of 5%
as measured in the direction from the runway.
7.17.27 To facilitate rapid drainage of water from the runway and to minimise water
seeping under the runway, the transverse slope of the graded strip adjacent to the runway
shoulder, for the first 3m outwards, should be negative and may be as great as 5%.
7.17.28 A typical cross-section of a runway strip including graded and fly-over areas is
shown below:
Typical cross-section of runway strip
Drainage of graded area

7.17.29 The runway strip graded area is to provide for the collection and removal of
surface runoff from the runway and runway strip, the removal of excess underground
water, and the lowering of the water table to provide a firm, stable and reasonably dry
surface.
7.17.30 The general concept of the runway strip design is to have a down-grade from the
edge of the runway to side drains which are to be located beyond the graded area.
7.17.31 Large areas of runway strip with minimal longitudinal and transverse slopes are
to be avoided as water tends to pond in such areas thus attracting birds. Open unlined
drains are not to be constructed in the graded portion of the runway strip. If the graded
area is so flat that there is a need for some form of drainage, then formed invert drains with
sides at least the width of a tractor drawn slasher, and meeting the graded strip transverse
slopes specified above may be used. These are to be located at least 45m from the centre
line of the runway for graded runway strip widths in excess of 90m and at least 30m from
the centre line of the runway for graded runway strip widths of 90m or less. Alternatively,
agricultural pipe drains or drains with grate inlet may be used. Where gratings are used,
they must be strong enough to support the critical aeroplane.
7.18
RUNWAY END SAFETY AREA (RESA)
7.18.1 Runway end safety areas (RESAs) are areas of ground at each end of a runway,
symmetrical about the extended runway centre line and abutting the end of the runway, or
stopway if provided. RESAs are provided to reduce the risk of damage to a landing
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Chapter 7
aeroplane which touches down before the threshold, or to an aeroplane overrunning the
end of a runway either during landing or in an aborted take-off.
RESA dimensions
7.18.2 The whole part of a RESA may be included in the runway strip. In Australia, a
RESA originates from the end of a runway, or stopway, if provided. It should be noted
that this is different from international practice which defines the origin of RESA as from
the end of a runway strip.
7.18.3 A RESA should be provided at each end of a runway, or stopway if provided, for
as great a distance as is practicable.
7.18.4 The minimum length of the RESA is to be 90m where the associated runway is
suitable for aircraft with a code number of 3 or 4 and is used by regular public transport jet
aeroplanes. In other cases, the minimum RESA length is automatically provided for by the
requirement for the runway strip to extend beyond the end of a runway.
7.18.5 The width of a RESA should be at least twice the width of the associated runway.
7.18.6 Where provision for a RESA is not feasible due to terrain constraints or obstacles,
consideration could be given to reducing some of the declared distances in order to meet
the RESA requirements.
RESA obstacles
7.18.7 Standards in respect of objects on runway strips, specified in Chapter 10, are also
generally applicable to objects on RESAs.
RESA slopes
7.18.8 The slopes of the RESA are to be such that no part of the RESA (frangibly
mounted objects excepted) penetrates the approach or take-off climb surfaces.
7.18.9 The longitudinal slope of a RESA is not to exceed a downward slope of 5%.
Slope changes are to be as gradual as practicable and abrupt changes or sudden reversal of
slopes are to be avoided.
7.18.10 The transverse slope of a RESA is not to exceed an upward or downward slope
of 5% beyond the graded runway strip.
7.18.11 Transition between different slopes is to be as gradual as practicable.
Strength and surface of RESA
7.18.12 The bearing strength of a RESA should be such that there is no abrupt change
between it and the runway or stopway. As a guide a compacted gravel pavement should be
provided with a depth at the runway end equal to half the depth of the runway pavement,
tapering to natural surface, the length of taper being adjusted according to the bearing
capacity of the natural surface. The surface and strength of the RESA should also be
adequate for the movement of rescue and firefighting vehicles as well as being resistant to
blast erosion.
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Chapter 7
7.19
CLEARWAYS
7.19.1 A clearway is an obstruction-free rectangular plane, extending from the end of a

runway, over which an aeroplane taking off may make a portion of its initial climb to
35feet (10.7m) above the ground at the end of the clearway. It is used to increase the takeoff distance available (TODA) without increasing the length of the runway proper. Thus a
clearway is not prepared for the surface movement of aircraft, but only to be cleared of
upstanding obstacles to permit safe over-flying.
Clearway location
7.19.2 The clearway commences at the end of the take-off run available (TORA). Its
length is added to TORA to give TODA, ie TODA = TORA + length of clearway.
Accordingly, a clearway overlies part of the runway strip, including any stopway, if
provided, and may overlap part, or all, of the runway end safety areas.
7.19.3 The decision to provide a clearway of a particular length is to be made by the
aerodrome operator, and should be part of the same financial calculations used to
determine the length of runway to be provided. If the component of the declared distance
provided by the clearway (as distinct from the runway) is significant to the financial
viability of the aerodrome, then the aerodrome operator would clearly be well advised to
ensure its provision or continued availability. Availability is most certain where the
property under the clearway is owned by the aerodrome owner. However, other forms of
control, such as the Civil Aviation (Buildings Control) Regulations, air rights or easements
are also available.
Clearway dimensions
7.19.4 The declared length of a clearway is not to exceed half the length of TORA, ie.
the clearway will be equal to or less than half the runway length.
Clearway width
7.19.5 The width of the clearway is to be at least 150m for code 3 or 4 runways and at
least 80m for code 2 runways.
Clearway slopes
7.19.6 The natural surface within a clearway is not to project above a plane having an
upward slope of 1.25%, the lower limit of this plane being the inner edge of the take-off
surface, ie. a horizontal line which
(a) is perpendicular to the vertical plane containing the runway centre line, and
(b) passes through a point located on the runway centre line at the end of the
TORA.
7.19.7 There is no mandatory requirement for the downward slope. A mean falling slope
not exceeding 2.5% is recommended. Where the runway strip has a one-way transverse
slope, then part of the clearway within the strip may follow the runway strip slope.
Isolated depressions such as narrow ditches across the clearway are permissible.
Clearway obstacles
7.19.8 Standards in respect of obstacles on runway strips, specified in Chapter 10, are
generally applicable to clearways.
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Chapter 7
7.20
STOPWAYS
7.20.1 A stopway is a rectangular area of ground, originating at the end of a runway, on

which an aeroplane may be stopped in the case of an aborted take-off.
7.20.2 The length of the stopway is used in the calculation of one of the declared
distances, viz. the accelerated stop distance available (ASDA): ASDA = length of runway
+ length of stopway.
7.20.3 A stopway may be used to achieve the financial savings associated with lower
strength pavement and the absence of runway marking and lighting.
7.20.4 The decision to provide a stopway will depend on factors such as the physical
characteristics of the area beyond the runway, the take-off performance characteristics of
the critical aeroplanes and any planned future extensions of the runway.
Stopway dimensions
7.20.5 A stopway is to commence at the end of the runway and is to finish at least 60m
before the end of the runway strip. The length of a stopway is usually determined by the
aerodrome operator, after studying the factors described above.
7.20.6 The all weather bearing capacity of the stopway is to be such that it can withstand
at least one single passage of the critical aeroplane, without inducing structural damage to
the aeroplane.
7.20.7 In considering the length required for a stopway it should be noted that this length
is used by pilots as part of the calculations to determine the payload that can be uplifted
from the runway. Where the stopway comprises an area meeting the above strength
criteria, the full length of the stopway may be included in the ASDA. Where the stopway
does not meet the strength criteria, then:
(a) for aeroplanes having a maximum take-off mass in excess of 68,000kg,
unpaved stopway will not be included in the ASDA calculations;
(b) for aeroplanes having a maximum take-off mass between 36,300kg and
68,000kg, a maximum length of 60m will be included in ASDA calculations;
and
(c) for aeroplanes having a maximum take-off mass not in excess of 36,300kg, a
length of stopway not exceeding 13% of the runway length may be included
in ASDA calculations.
7.20.8 A stopway is to have the same width as the runway with which it is associated.
Stopway slopes and slope changes
7.20.9 The slopes and slope changes on stopways should be the same as those for the
runway with which the stopway is associated, except that:
(a) the limitation of a 0.8% slope for the first and last quarter of the length of a
runway need not be applied to the stopway; and
(b) at the junction of the stopway and runway and along the stopway the
maximum rate of slope change may be increased to 0.3% per 30m (minimum
radius of curvature of 10 000m).
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April 2001
Chapter 7
Stopway strength
7.20.10 The minimum strength requirement of the stopway is that it can support at least
one pass of the critical aeroplane without inducing structural damage to the aeroplane. In
practice the stopway should be constructed to the full runway pavement depth where it
abuts the runway, tapering to one half of the runway pavement depth over the first 15m
and continued at half the runway pavement depth thereafter, in order to effect a gradual
transition in all weather conditions.
Stopway surfaces
7.20.11 The surface of the stopway associated with a runway suitable for aeroplanes with
a code number of 3 or 4 should be paved. The surface of a paved stopway is to provide a
good coefficient of friction when the stopway is wet. In this regard, the friction
characteristics of a stopway should not be less than that of the runway, set out in section
7.15 above.
Stopway, Clearway and Runway End Safety Areas
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Chapter 7
8.
TAXIWAYS
8.1
GENERAL
8.1.1 A taxiway is a defined path on an aerodrome provided for the safe and expeditious
surface movement of aircraft between aprons and holding bays, and runways. The
provision of taxiways is not a mandatory requirement, rather the decision to provide
taxiways, the timing of the provision and the complexity of the taxiway system to be
provided are financial considerations for the aerodrome operator.
8.1.2 Where taxiways are provided the following mandatory provisions are applicable.
8.2
TAXIWAY EDGE CLEARANCE
8.2.1 A paved taxiway is to be wide enough at any point that, when an aeroplane taxis on
it, the distance (clearance) between the outer edge of the main wheels of the aeroplane and
the edge of the taxiway is to be not less than that specified Table 710. This is to ensure
that none of an aeroplanes tyres leave the pavement during taxying, allowing for normal
deviations of the nose wheel from the nose-wheel guideline.
Table 710. Minimum Distance between Aeroplane Outer Wheel and Taxiway Edge
Aeroplane Reference Code
Edge Clearance Distance
1.5m
2.25m
C (where aircraft wheel base is less than

18m)
3.0m
C (where aircraft wheel base is 18m or

more)
4.5m
4.5m
4.5m
Taxiway widening
8.2.2 Where a curve is provided at a paved taxiway bend, junction or intersection,
additional pavement is to be provided on the inside of the curve, to ensure that the
clearance distance between the outer main wheel of the aeroplane and the edge of the
paved taxiway is not less than that specified in Table 710. This additional taxiway
pavement is often referred to as taxiway fillet.
8.3
TAXIWAY WIDTH
8.3.1 The width of the straight portion of a taxiway is to be not less than that specified in
Table 711.
Table 711. Width of the Straight Portion of a Taxiway

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August 1999
Chapter 7
Reference Code Letter
Taxiway Width
7.5m
10.5m
C (when the aircraft wheel base is less than 18m)
15m
C (when the aircraft wheel base is 18m or more)
18m
D (when the aircraft has an outer main gear
18m
wheel span of less than 9m)
D (when the aircraft has an outer main gear wheel
23m
span of 9m or more)
E
8.4
23m
TAXIWAY CURVES
8.4.1 Any change in the direction of a taxiway is to be accomplished by the use of a

curve whose radius is determined by the taxiway design speed. Typical minimum radii for
various speeds are given in Table 712. Transitional curves are normally not required
except for rapid exit taxiways.
Table 712. Typical Radii for Taxiway Curves
8.5
Taxiway Design Speed
Radius of Curve
20 km/h
24 m
30 km/h
54 m
40 km/h
96 m
50 km/h
150 m
60 km/h
216 m
70 km/h
294 m
80 km/h
384 m
90 km/h
486 m
100 km/h
600 m
TAXIWAY LONGITUDINAL SLOPE
8.5.1 Although not mandatory, it is recommended that the longitudinal slope of a taxiway
does not exceed the following:
(a) 1.5% where the reference code letter is C, D or E; and
(b) 3.0% where the reference code letter is A or B.
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Chapter 7
8.5.2 Excessive longitudinal slope reduces aircraft stability during taxying and also
increases aircraft operating costs (fuel and tyres).
Taxiway longitudinal slope changes
8.5.3 Where slope changes on a taxiway cannot be avoided, the transition from one
longitudinal slope to another is to be accomplished by a curved surface. Although not
mandatory, it is recommended that the rate of change of slope be less than:
(a) 1% per 30m (ie a minimum radius of curvature of 3000m) where the
reference code letter is C, D or E; and
(b) 1% per 25m (ie a minimum radius of curvature of 2500m) where the
reference code letter is A or B.
8.5.4 This is to ensure that the sight distance is not significantly adversely affected, and
that smooth riding surfaces for aeroplane taxying be provided.
8.5.5 It should be noted that at an intersection of a runway and a taxiway, the runway
gradient takes precedent over the taxiway gradient.
8.6
TAXIWAY SIGHT DISTANCE
8.6.1 Sight distance is the distance at which the pilot of an aeroplane can see an object of
specified height on the taxiway ahead of the aeroplane, assuming adequate light, visual
acuity and clear atmospheric conditions, and is affected by longitudinal slope change.
8.6.2 Minimum sight distances on a taxiway are to be in accordance with Table 713:
Table 713. Taxiway Minimum Sight Distance
Height of Viewing Point

Above Taxiway
Clear Sight Distance of

Whole of Surface of
Taxiway
1.5 m
150 m
2m
200 m
C, D or E
3m
300 m
8.7
TAXIWAY TRANSVERSE SLOPE
8.7.1 There is no mandatory requirement in respect of taxiway transverse slope.

However it should be sufficiently flat to enable a high level of aeroplane controllability to
be achieved. At the same time it should be sufficiently steep to provide for adequate
pavement surface drainage. To meet these requirements, taxiway transverse slopes are
typically not less than 1% nor exceed:
(b) 2.0% where the reference code letter is A or B.
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Chapter 7
8.8
TAXIWAY STRENGTH
8.8.1 There is no mandatory requirement in respect of the strength of a taxiway, except

that it must be adequate to support the expected traffic. The level of initial capital
investment and the subsequent cost of maintenance is a financial decision for the
aerodrome operator.
8.9
TAXIWAY SHOULDERS
8.9.1 A taxiway shoulder is a prepared area adjacent to the edge of a paved taxiway
provided to minimise foreign object damage to aeroplanes, and to buttress the full strength
pavement. It is not mandatory that taxiway shoulders be paved, but the surface treatment
must be adequate for foreign object damage (FOD) prevention purposes in all seasons.
8.9.2 Aerodrome reference code letter C, D and E taxiways used by jet propelled
aeroplanes are to have shoulders with a tightly bound surface, free of debris and erosion
resistant. In the case of taxiways used by Boeing 747 aircraft, the inner 3 m of the taxiway
shoulder is to be sealed or of Portland cement concrete construction, or surfaced with
bituminous concrete.
8.9.3 Where a taxiway is required to have shoulders, the width of the shoulders is to be
not less than the dimensions specified in Table 714:
Table 714. Width of Taxiway Shoulders
Shoulder Width on each side of the

Taxiway
A (not mandatory)
3m
B (not mandatory)
3m
C (mandatory when used by jet propelled
3.5 m
aeroplanes)
8.10
7.5 m
10.5 m
TAXIWAY STRIP
8.10.1 A taxiway strip is the area surrounding a taxiway, kept free of obstacles except for
visual aids which meet the CASA frangibility requirements. It is provided to minimise the
possibility of serious damage to aeroplanes accidentally leaving the taxiway pavement and
to provide room for maintenance, firefighting and rescue equipment under normal (dry)
conditions.
8.10.2 A taxiway strip is to be provided for each taxiway, extending symmetrically on
each side of the centreline of the taxiway throughout the length of the taxiway. The
overall taxiway strip width is to be not less than that specified in Table 715:
Table 715. Taxiway Strip Width
April 2001
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Chapter 7
Taxiway Strip Width
32.5 m
43 m
52 m
81 m
95 m
8.10.3 Visual aids that have to be located within a taxiway strip are to be sited at such a
height that they cannot be struck by propellers, engine pods and wings of aircraft using the
taxiway.
Grading of taxiway strips
8.10.4 The graded portion of the taxiway strip is to have a surface trafficable when dry
by vehicles at speeds of at least 20 km/h. This is to enable these areas to be mowed or
dragged to meet the mandatory groundworthiness requirements pertaining to vegetation
growth and to enable maintenance, firefighting and rescue equipment to use these areas
under normal (dry) conditions.
8.10.5 The total width of a graded taxiway strip is to be not less than given in Table 7
16:
Table 716.
Width of Graded Area of a Taxiway Strip
Taxiway Graded Strip Width
22 m
25 m
25 m
38 m
44 m
Slopes on taxiways strips

8.10.6 The surface of the strip should be flush at the edge of the taxiway, or shoulder, if
provided, and any discontinuity should not exceed 25 mm. The graded portion is not to
have an upward transverse slope exceeding:
(b) 3% where the reference code letter is A or B.
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April 2001
Chapter 7
8.10.7 The upward slope being measured with reference to the transverse slope of the
adjacent taxiway surface and not the horizontal.
8.10.8 The downward transverse slope of the graded portion of the taxiway strip should
not exceed 5% measured with reference to the horizontal.
8.10.9 No portion of the taxiway strip beyond the graded portion, nor objects thereon, are
to project upwards through a plane surface, originating from the outer edge of the graded
taxiway strip, sloping upwards and outwards at a slope of 5% measured with reference to
the horizontal. The presence of drains and ditches in this part of the taxiway strip is
acceptable.
8.11
TAXIWAY MINIMUM SEPARATION DISTANCES
8.11.1 Taxiways, other than at intersections, are to be separated from runways, other
parallel taxiways and objects such as fences and buildings by a safe margin not less than
the distances specified in Table 717.
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Chapter 7
Table 717.
MINIMUM SEPARATION DISTANCE
from Taxiway Centre Line
To precision approach runway
centre line a
Runway code number
1
2
3
4
To non-precision approach
runway centre line a
Runway code number
1
2
3
4
To non-instrument runway
centre line a
Runway code number
1
2
3
4
To another taxiway centre line
Code letter
A
82.5 m
82.5 m
157.5 m
-
B
87 m
87 m
162 m
-
C
93 m
93 m
168 m
168 m
Code letter
D
176 m
176 m
E
182.5 m
A
52.5 m
52.5 m
82.5 m
-
B
57 m
57 m
87 m
-
C
63 m
63 m
93 m
168 m
D
176 m
176 m
E
182.5 m
C
D
48 m
58 m
63 m
101 m
93 m
101 m
Code letter
B
C
D
33.5 m
44 m
66.5 m
Code letter
B
C
D
21.5 m
26 m
40.5 m
E
107.5 m
Code letter
A
37.5 m
47.5 m
52.5 m
A
23.75 m
To object
A
16.25 m
Note:
8.12
B
42 m
52 m
57 m
-
E
80 m
E
47.5 m
The separation distances are based on the concept of the wing of the
aeroplane, centred on the parallel taxiway, remaining clear of the runway strip
of standard width. If the width of the runway strip is varied, separation
distances may be varied accordingly.
RAPID EXIT TAXIWAYS
8.12.1 A rapid exit taxiway is a taxiway connected to a runway at an acute angle and
designed to allow landing aircraft to turn off and exit the runway at higher speeds than are
achievable by exit taxiways at right angles to the runway, thereby minimising runway
occupancy time.
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Chapter 7
8.12.2 There is no mandatory requirement to provide rapid exit taxiways; it is basically a

financial decision for the aerodrome operator. Aerodrome operators should seek specialist
advice for the geometric design of rapid exit taxiways.
8.13
Taxiways on bridges
8.13.1 Where a bridge has to be provide as part of a taxiway, the width of the bridge,
measured perpendicular to the taxiway centre line, is to be not less than the width of the
graded area of the associated taxiway strip.
8.13.2 The design of a taxiway bridge structure is a complex engineering task which
should be undertaken only by qualified personnel.
8.14
HOLDING BAYS
8.14.1 A holding bay is a defined area alongside a taxiway where aeroplanes can be held
or by-passed.
8.14.2 There is no mandatory requirement to provide holding bays. However if a
holding bay is provided, it is to be located such that any aeroplane thereon will not infringe
the inner transitional surface. Where a holding bay is proposed in the vicinity of an ILS,
prior approval is to be obtained from CASA.
8.14.3 The provision of holding bays is a financial decision for the aerodrome operator,
to be weighted against minimising aeroplane delay costs.
Taxi-holding positions
8.14.4 A taxi-holding position is a marked (and, as appropriate, lit) position on a taxiway
at its intersection with a runway or another taxiway, at which a taxying aeroplane or a
vehicle may be required to hold (ie stop temporarily), in order to be sufficiently clear of
the runway or other taxiway so that aeroplanes may operate safely in the latter.
Accordingly taxi-holding positions are to be marked, and, as appropriate, lit, at each such
intersection.
8.14.5 In the case of a precision approach runway, the taxi-holding position is to be
located such that a holding aeroplane will not interfere with the operation of the radio
landing aids. Prior approval from CASA is to be obtained before establishing such a
holding position.
8.14.6 The distance between a taxi-holding position and the centre line of the runway is
not to be less than the dimensions specified in Table 718.
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Chapter 7
Table 718. Minimum Distance from the Runway Centre Line to a Taxi-Holding
Position
Type of
Operation
Runway Reference Code Number

1
Non-instrument
30m
45m
75m*
75m
Instrument Nonprecision
Approach
45m
45m
75m*
75m
Precision
approach
Category I
60m
60m
90m
105m**
Precision
approach
Category II
90m
105m**
45m if the runway strip width is 90m.
** may be reduced to 90m up to 300m from the runway end.
8.14.7 If a taxi-holding position is at a lower elevation than the threshold, the distance in
the above Table may be decreased by 5m for every metre the holding position is lower
than the threshold, contingent upon not infringing the inner transitional surface.
8.14.8 At taxiway to taxiway intersections, the maximum separation distance between a
taxi-holding position and the centre line of the intersecting taxiway is to be that specified
for taxiway centre line to object in Table 7 17.
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April 2001
Chapter 7
9.
APRONS
9.1
GENERAL
9.1.1 An apron is a defined area on an aerodrome provided for the safe parking of
aeroplanes. Aprons are provided as necessary to permit the transfer of passengers and
freight between aircraft and terminal facilities, and to enable the servicing and
maintenance of aircraft, without interference to the flow of taxying aircraft, or to aircraft
taking-off or landing.
9.1.2 In the absence of an apron, aircraft can park on a runway. However, while so
parked, that runway is closed to all operations by all other aircraft. Thus, an apron will
normally be provided when the costs incurred by its absence become greater than the costs
involved in its provision.
9.1.3 Aprons with paved surfaces must contain appropriate marked-out aircraft parking
positions, sometimes referred to as ramps, stands or turnarounds (see Apron Markings,
Chapter 11).
9.1.4 There is no mandatory requirement to provide aprons on aerodromes, however,
where aprons are provided, they must meet the following mandatory provisions.
9.2
LOCATION OF APRONS
9.2.1 Two major factors should be taken into account when determining the location of
an apron. one is the lateral position of the apron relative to the runway and taxiway system
on the one hand, and to the building line (the interface between airside and landside), on
the other. The other is the longitudinal position of the apron relative to the runway.
9.2.2 There is no mandatory requirement in respect of the longitudinal location of an
apron relative to the runway. However, it is good practice that aprons be located
longitudinally in such a location that aircraft taxying distances (and hence costs) are
minimised. This is typically in the center third of the runway.
9.2.3 It is mandatory that the apron be located laterally with respect to the runway and
taxiway system so that aircraft parked on the apron do not infringe the obstacle limitation
surfaces, and in particular, the transitional surface.
9.2.4 Taxiways located on aprons may be classified into two types apron taxiways and
aircraft parking position taxilanes. Apron taxiways provide a through taxi route across the
apron, or provide access to aircraft parking position taxilanes. If located on the edge of an
apron, as is common practice, they are often termed apron edge taxiways. Aircraft parking
position taxilanes are portions of an apron designated as taxiways which only provide
access to aircraft parking positions.
9.2.5 It is mandatory that separation distances between an apron edge taxiway, and a
parallel runway or parallel taxiway comply with those set out in the table under "taxiway
minimum separation distances".
9.3
APRON SEPARATION DISTANCES
9.3.1 It is mandatory that an apron shall be large enough to provide adequate clearances
for aircraft to move within, and depart from the apron area. In particular, the separation
distances between an apron taxiway and an object shall comply with Table 717.
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Chapter 7
9.3.2 It is mandatory that the clearance distance provided between an aircraft using an
aircraft parking position and an adjacent building, aircraft or another aircraft parking
position or other objects, complies with Table 719.
Table 7 19. Minimum Clearance Distances between Aircraft using a Parking
Position and Other Objects
Code Letter
Wing Tip
Clearance
*
3.0 m
3.0 m
4.5 m
7.5 m
7.5*m
10 m where the parking position is defined for free moving parking (AL 1/89)
9.3.3 When special circumstances so warrant, the above clearances may be reduced at a
nose-in aircraft parking position where the code letter is D or E:
(a) between the terminal, including any aerobridge and the nose of the aircraft;
and
(b) over any portion of the apron provided with a visual docking guidance
system.
9.3.4 On aprons, consideration also has to be given to the provision of service roads and
to manoeuvring and equipment storage areas.
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April 2000
Chapter 7
9.3.5 It is mandatory that clearance distances during aircraft fuelling operations shall
comply with those specified in CAO Section 20.9.
August 1999
7 49
Chapter 7
9.3.6 It is mandatory that the separation distances between an aircraft on an aircraft

parking position taxilane and an aircraft using an aircraft parking position and other
objects complies with the Table 720:
Table 720.
Minimum Separation Distances between an Aircraft Parking Position

Taxilane and Object (measured from centre line to object)
Code Letter
Separation
12.0 m
16.5 m
24.5 m
36.0 m
42.5 m
9.3.7 It should be noted that the minimum separation distances specified above may need
to be increased to take account of the need to maintain blast clearances as specified under
CAO section 20.9 subsection 5 starting and ground operation of engines.
9.4
SIZE OF APRONS
9.4.1 Aprons are normally sized to provide the requisite number of aircraft parking
positions so as to permit the expeditious handling of the expected aerodrome traffic.
9.4.2 In addition to facilitating passenger movement, the terminal apron is used for
aircraft fuelling and minor maintenance as well as loading and unloading of freight, mail
and baggage. Traffic volume may dictate the separation of freight and passenger aircraft at
some aerodromes because of the different types of facilities each requires, both on the
apron and at the terminal.
9.4.3 Some aerodromes may also require separate stand-off positions, in addition to the
terminal apron, where aircraft can park for extended periods. These apron positions can be
used during crew layovers or for the light periodic servicing and maintenance of
temporarily grounded aircraft. They should be located as close as practical to the terminal
apron. Major aircraft servicing and maintenance will normally require the provision of a
separate apron area adjacent to and accessing a hangar in which aircraft maintenance can
be performed.
9.4.4 Factors affecting apron size include the number and types of aircraft to be catered
for, the particular apron layout adopted, the choice of critical or design aircraft, the manner
in which aircraft enter or leave aircraft parking positions, the relevant aircraft physical and
blast clearance requirements, the provision made for aircraft ground servicing equipment,
and the provision of apron taxiway and airside service roads.
9.4.5 Aprons should be of sufficient length, ie along the terminal frontage, to permit
aircraft using the aircraft parking positions to be separated longitudinally by a safe distance
such that independent aircraft manoeuvrability is achieved. In particular, adequate space
must be left for the safe and expeditious performance of ground handling operations
(including vehicles, plant and equipment). Standard wing tip clearances must be achieved
bween these operations and aircraft.
9.4.6 The depth of a terminal apron, ie at right angles to the terminal frontage, shall be
sufficient to permit the taxying of aircraft clear of parked aircraft when proceeding to and
from the taxiway system. The width of the apron may be reduced in the case of power-
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August 1999
Chapter 7
in/push-out aircraft operations. However, in such cases, it is mandatory that parked

aircraft obtain air traffic control tower clearance prior to engine start and push-out tug
operations.
9.5
SLOPES ON APRONS
9.5.1 The slope on the aircraft parking position must not be more than 1.0%.
9.5.2 The slope on any other part of an apron must be as level as practicable without
causing water to accumulate on the surface of the apron, but must not be more than 2%.
9.5.3 As far as possible, apron grading is not to slope down towards the terminal
building. Where this cannot be avoided, apron drainage is to be provided to direct spilled
fuel away from buildings and other structures adjoining the apron.
9.5.4 Where stormwater drains could also serve to collect spilt fuel from the apron area,
flame traps or interceptor pits are to be provided to isolate and prevent the spread of fuel
into other areas.
Aircraft Parking Position in relation to Apron Ridges and Valleys
November 2000
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Chapter 7
Suggested Apron and Aircraft Stand Slopes
Suggested Apron Drainage by Drainage Inlets and Connected Piping
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November 2000
Chapter 7
9.6
STRENGTH OF APRONS
9.6.1 There is no mandatory requirement concerning the provision of a particular apron

strength. However, each part of the apron should be capable of withstanding the traffic it
is intended to serve. At some aerodromes, the apron area may comprise an airside service
road and a tug manoeuvring area in addition to provision for aircraft parking, apron
taxiways and taxilanes. In such cases it may prove economical to adopt varying apron
pavement strengths which take advantage of these different loading conditions.
9.7
APRON SHOULDERS
9.7.1 Provision of apron shoulders is recommended as good practice but is left to the
discretion of the individual aerodrome operators. Where apron shoulders are provided,
they should be constructed so as to minimise foreign object ingestion, and dust and erosion
problems caused by jet blast and propeller wash.
9.8
LIGHT AIRCRAFT TIE-DOWN FACILITIES
9.8.1 Light aircraft tie-down facilities comprising lengths of steel cable fixed to the
ground at intervals by embedded anchors, shall be provided to secure aeroplanes against
damage resulting from their being blown off their apron parking position by strong winds,
on all paved aprons.
9.8.2 It is recommended that aerodrome operators obtain certification from a chartered
engineer, an engineering consultant, or manufacturer, of the adequacy of tie-down
facilities, as a safeguard against legal action.
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April 2000
Chapter 7
10.
JET BLAST
10.1
GENERAL
10.1.1 Jet blast is the exhaust emanating from an aircraft jet engine in the form of a
strong gust of wind. The forces of jet exhaust exceed the forces of propwash from the
most powerful propeller aircraft. This high velocity air movement may extend for a
considerable distance behind, and to the side of, the engine, and can have undesirable and
sometimes dangerous effects on people or objects in its path. The effect of jet blast varies
at different stages of aircraft operations according to the thrust being developed by the
aircraft jet engines.
10.2
JET BLAST VELOCITIES AND CLEARANCE DISTANCES
10.2.1 Information on specific jet engine blast velocities, including lateral and vertical
contours, for a given aircraft model is given in the Aircraft Characteristics Airport
Planning document, prepared for most aircraft models by the aircraft manufacturer.
10.3
JET BLAST HAZARDS
10.3.1 High wind velocities can have a dangerous effect on people or objects in their
path. The recommended maximum wind velocities which people and objects in the
vicinity of an aeroplane should be subjected to are shown below.
(a) Passengers and main public areas. In general , the public, including
passengers, should not be exposed to a jet blast velocity in excess of 60 km/h.
The areas referred to here include areas on the apron where passengers have
to walk, and public area where people are expected to congregate.
(b) Minor public areas. A public area where people may be present, but where
they are not expected to congregate, should not be exposed to a jet blast
velocity in excess of 80 km/h.
(c) Public roads. The maximum jet blast velocity to which vehicles on a public
road should be subjected to is as follows:
(i) 50 km/h where the vehicular speed may be of 80 km/h or more; and
(ii) 60 km/h where the vehicular speed is expected to be below 80 km/h.
(d) Personnel working near an aeroplane. Personnel employed to work in the
vicinity of an aeroplane should not be subjected to a jet blast velocity in
excess of 80 km/h.
(e) Apron equipment. The maximum jet blast velocity that apron equipment
can be subjected to varies with the specification of each individual
equipment. However, it is recommended that most equipment on the apron
should not be subjected to a jet blast velocity in excess of 80 km/h.
(f) Light aeroplane parking areas. A light aeroplane parking area should
desirably not be subjected to a jet blast velocity in excess of 60 km/h, with an
absolute maximum of 80 km/h.
(g) Buildings and other structures. Buildings and other structures are normally
designed in accordance with the SAA Wind Loading Code. However, the
November 2000
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Chapter 7
location of aeroplanes should be such, that the buildings and structures would
not be subjected to a jet blast velocity in excess of 100 km/h.
11.
LICENSED HELIPORTS
11.1
GENERAL
11.1.1 The standards for helicopter facilities to enable a place to be licensed as a heliport
are under preparation.
11.1.2 To give an indication of the general requirements the physical characteristics of
Fremantle Heliport in Western Australia and the aerodrome specification for Sikorski
model S-61N helicopters, are provided below.
11.1.3 Aerodrome specification for Sikorski model S-6IN used in licensing Fremantle
Heliport.
Component
Dimension or standard
Runway and runway strip

Runway strip - width
45m
Runway strip - surface
Compacted or stabilised to form a tightly bound

surface (to withstand rotor downwash). Free
from upstanding obstructions and finished to an
even grade.
Runway strip transverse slope
2.5% maximum up or down.
Runway - length
To be determined from the Aircraft Flight

Manual taking into account the category 'A'
performance of the aircraft, temperature, runway
slope and surface, and aircraft all up mass.
Runway - width
15m
Runway - surface
Compacted or stabilised to form a tightly bound

surface (to withstand rotor downwash). The
finished surface shall be a smooth even grade
free from bumps and depressions.
Runway longitudinal slope
1.5% maximum up or down and all changes of

grade shall be gradual with a maximum
difference between consecutive slope of 1.5%
and the transition from one slope to another being
accomplished by a curved surface with a rate of
change not above 0.3% per 30m.
Runway transverse slope
1.5% maximum up or down.
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November 2000
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Taxiway and taxiway

strip
Taxiway strip width
45m
Taxiway strip surface
Compacted or stabilised to form a tightly bound surface (to

withstand rotor downwash erosion). Free from upstanding
obstructions and finished to an even grade.
Taxiway
width
15m
Taxiway
surface
Compacted or stabilised to form a tightly bound surface (to

withstand rotor downwash). The finished surface will be a
smooth even grade free from bumps and depressions.
ground taxi
For ground taxying operations the taxiway will be required to

be:
150mm depth of compacted and bitumen sealed gravel
pavement, or
l00mm of reinforced concrete pavement.
air taxi
Taxiway
slope
As per runway surface
longitudinal 3% maximum up or down
Taxiway transverse slope 1.5% maximum up or down

Apron
Use
The apron is the area used for the servicing, fuelling and
loading of aircraft as distinct from aircraft parking.
Size
The apron shall be of adequate size to accommodate those

aircraft expected to normally use the apron and without undue
congestion, with due allowance being made to provide
adequate clearance between aircraft and between aircraft and
buildings or facilities.
Pavement strength
Apron pavement strength shall be the same strength as taxiway

pavement.
November 2000
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Chapter 7
Obstacle limitation
surfaces (OLS)
Approach and departure
paths:
Length
Sufficient to take the outer edge of the approach and departure

slope to 500 ft above ground level.
Slope
1:8 (7.5 degrees)
Width: outer edge
10 rotor diameters minimum
inner edge
2 rotor diameters minimum
Splays
15 degrees
Buffer zone
Buffer zone shall extend 15m beyond each end of the runway
strip over a width of 51m and along each side of the runway
strip 3m external to the runway strip over its full length. No
upstanding obstacles above lm above ground are permitted
within the buffer zone.
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Chapter 7
12.
GLIDER FACILITIES
12.1
GENERAL
12.1.1 This section sets out the physical requirements that need to be met at a licensed
aerodrome in order that gliding operations may be carried out.
12.2
GENERAL CONDITIONS
12.2.1 Besides getting the consent of the aerodrome operator approval for gliding
operations at a particular aerodrome is to be obtained from the nearest CASA Area Office
prior to any gliding operations.
12.2.2 In assessing an application for approval of gliding operations CASA will take into
account factors including:
(a) expected number of normal powered aircraft movements per annum;
(b) expected number of glider movements per annum;
(c) expected number of powered aircraft movements during the period of
proposed gliding operations;
(d) suitability of the aerodrome location for gliding operations; and
(e) aerodrome layout (as specified below).
12.3
LOCATION OF GLIDER RUNWAY STRIPS
12.3.1 A glider runway strip is a defined rectangular area on an aerodrome prepared for
the landing and take-off of gliders and tug aircraft. It should be noted that unlike a
powered aircraft runway strip, which by definition contains a defined runway, a glider
runway strip does not contain a defined glider runway. The full glider runway strip is to be
prepared for landing and take-off of gliders and tug aircraft.
12.3.2 Glider operations should normally be carried put on a dedicated glider runway
strip located outside and parallel to an existing runway strip, or located independent of an
existing runway strip.
12.3.3 Where the physical characteristics of the site prevent it, and where the expected
number of powered aircraft operations does not exceed 5000 per annum, the glider runway
strip may be located within an existing runway strip.
12.3.4 Where neither of these conditions apply, but the gliding organisation is desirous
of conducting gliding operations at that particular aerodrome, CASA should be consulted.
12.3.5 Glider operations may be carried out from runways normally used by powered
aircraft, subject to CASAs approval.
Physical dimensions of glider runway strips
12.3.6 Where located outside an existing runway strip, a glider runway strip is to have a
width of at least 60 metres, and sufficient length for the glider operations.
12.3.7 If contra-circuit directions are to be approved and fully independent operations
conducted, a spacing of at least 120 metres is to be provided between the two runway strip
centre lines.
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Chapter 7
12.3.8 Where located wholly or partly within an existing runway strip, a glider runway
strip is to have sufficient length for the glider operations, and a width of at least 37.5
metres, measured:
(a) where there is flush-mounted lighting or no runway lighting, from the
existing runway edge, as shown below; and
(b) where there is upstanding runway lighting, or where physical features such as
stone filled rubble drains, steep or rough shoulders exist, from three metres
clear of the runway lights or such physical features, as shown below.
12.4
GLIDER PARKING AREAS
12.4.1 A glider parking area suitable for the particular requirement is to be provided
outside the glider runway strip or the existing runway strip. Depending on the density of
glider traffic it may be necessary to establish a glider holding area, ie. an area where
gliders may be temporarily kept whilst sequencing for operations. If such an area affects
the landing of powered aircraft from one direction, the threshold of the runway for
powered aircraft from that direction may be displaced to accommodate the glider holding
area.
12.5
GLIDER OPERATIONS ON GLIDER RUNWAY STRIPS
12.5.1 It should be noted that although the glider runway is not separately marked, glider
and glider tug pilots are instructed to operate their aircraft within the central portion of the
glider runway strip, and
(a) in the case of the glider runway strip located outside an existing runway strip,
not within 15 m of the edges of the glider runway strip; and
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November 2000
Chapter 7
(b) in the case of the glider runway strip located wholly or partly within an
existing runway strip, not closer than 15 m from the edge of the glider
runway strip furthest from the runway.
12.5.2 Where the glider runway strip is within an existing runway strip the presence of
an aircraft on either strip will preclude the use of the other. Where the glider runway strip
is located outside but parallel to an existing runway strip, operations may occur on both
concurrently, with a common circuit direction, provided the take-off and landing
separation minima are met.
12.6
GLIDER RUNWAY STRIP SERVICEABILITY
Where glider operations are conducted within an existing runway strip of a licensed
aerodrome the aerodrome operator is responsible for monitoring and reporting the glider
runway strip serviceability. Any additional cost involved is a matter between the gliding
organisation and the aerodrome operator.
12.7
GLIDER RUNWAY STRIP STANDARDS
12.7.1 The glider runway strip is to be established in accordance with the following
standards:
(a) where a glider runway strip is located within an existing runway strip for
powered aircraft, it is to conform with the powered aircraft runway strip
existing grades and levels; and
(b) where a glider runway strip is located outside an existing runway strip for
powered aircraft it is to conform with the standards for aeroplane landing
areas.
12.7.2 Glider runway strips are to be maintained to normal licensed aerodrome runway
strip operating standards.
12.8
CONTROL OF GLIDING OPERATIONS
12.8.1 At controlled aerodromes Air Traffic Control has the responsibility for the
integration of glider and other aircraft operations.
12.8.2 The aerodrome operator is responsible for the control and integration of glider and
other traffic on the apron areas.
12.8.3 Responsibility for the overall conduct of gliding operations is to rest with a person
nominated by the gliding organisation, approved by CASA, and acceptable to the
aerodrome operator. The nominee is to:
(a) ensure that gliding operations at a particular site are conducted in accordance
with the procedures and limitations specified by CASA;
(b) liaise with the local aerodrome operator and other users of the aerodrome to
facilitate the integration of glider operations with powered aircraft traffic; and
(c) agree to the conditions specified in paragraphs above, and acknowledge
acceptance of responsibility for the gliding operation concern.
November 2000
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Chapter 7
12.9
NOTIFICATION OF GLIDER FACILITIES AND PROCEDURES
12.9.1 Prior to conducting approved glider operations, details of glider movement area
facilities, including the limit of that part of the aerodrome to be used for gliding and
associated activities, are to be provided by the aerodrome operator to CASA for
promulgation.
12.9.2 The limits of that part of the aerodrome to be used for gliding and associated
activities will be fixed by the aerodrome operator. Normal consultation with the Gliding
Federation of Australia should be established.
12.10 SIGNALS AND MARKINGS
12.10.1 Whenever gliding operations are being conducted at an aerodrome, a signal
consisting of a double cross is to be displayed in the Signal Circle.
12.10.2 Glider runway strip is to be marked in accordance with the standards set out in
Chapter 11 - Visual Ground Aids.
12.10.3 Any vehicle or winch to be employed on, or adjacent to the movement area, is to
be marked in accordance with obstacle marking standards set out in Chapter 11.
12.11 GLIDER COMPETITIONS
12.11.1 Approval for glider competitions needs to be sought from CASA on an
individual basis. This approval may involve additional special conditions.
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November 2000
Chapter 7
13
CONTROL TOWERS
Note: The material set out on control towers is incomplete and the relevant
standards have not yet been identified as such. In the interim it is to be
implemented as a standard.
13.1
GENERAL
13.1.1 A control cab tower should be sited to:

(a) provide adequate visibility to all the movement area and airspace which are
operational and specified herein, within acceptable economic and operational
limits;
(b) provide a view of all runway ends and taxiways, with suitable depth
perception;
(c) provide adequate visual detection and commencement of aircraft take-off run;
(d) obtain adequate site area to provide for immediate and forecast building and
facility requirements; and
(e) achieve proper control cab orientation.
13.2
SITING STANDARDS
13.2.1 Siting and cab height at the tower location should take into consideration factors
such as:
(a) accessibility to site for roads and services;
(b) type of foundation conditions pertaining;
(c) forecast building and car parking requirements; and
(d) selection of the site requiring the minimum cab height consistent with
operational and economic limits.
Siting Requirements
13.2.2 The site should provide maximum visibility of air-borne traffic patterns with
primary consideration being given to the view from the locations in the tower cab occupied
by staff responsible for the aerodrome control function. This should, however, not
preclude the need for all tower staff to have a clear view.
13.2.3 Unobstructed lines-of-sight from the control tower eye-level should be achieved
to:
(a) the manoeuvring area of the aerodrome;
(b) the runway approach lights and/or graded areas at ground level for a distance
of 300m from the threshold along the extended centre line, then upward and
outward within the take-off climb area normally at an angle not less than two
and one half degrees; and
(c) the first 150m of fire routes and/or service roads to the above areas.
13.2.4 A clear unobstructed view (line of sight) should be obtained to sections of aprons
used as a taxiway to a line (at ground level) 15m from the apron edge, toward the building
August 1999
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Chapter 7
line. Primary consideration should be given to the view from the locations in the tower
occupied by staff responsible for ground control function. This should however, not
preclude the need for all tower staff to have a clear view.
13.2.5 Sufficient visual resolution should be achieved of all aerodrome movement areas
for which tower staff have a responsibility. The term visual resolution in this standard
means the ability to visually differentiate between the number and type of aircraft or
ground vehicles and to determine their movement and position relative to each other and
the airport movement areas).
13.2.6 Resolution is enhanced where the air traffic controllers line-of-sight is
perpendicular or oblique, not parallel, to the line established by the aircraft and ground
vehicle movement and where the line-of-sight intersects the aerodrome ground surface at a
vertical angle equal to or greater than 35 minutes arc.
13.2.7 The air traffic controller should be able to detect movement of a departing aircraft
as soon as possible after it has commenced its take-off run.
13.2.8 Sufficient land area to accommodate initial and forecast building and vehicle
parking areas should be supplied.
13.2.9 The tower should be located as close as practicable to the thresholds of all
runways and/or strips. Where certain directions are used more than others and/or where an
ILS system exists, the tower should be located closer to these thresholds.
13.2.10 Every effort should be made to locate the control tower structure north of the
main aerodrome control activity area, so that the majority of observations by air traffic
controllers are to the south. If this is not possible, then the alternatives of siting the
structure to the west, south, and east should be considered in that order. Siting that entails
a view of the runway approach in line with a rising or setting sun should be avoided.
13.2.11 The tower should be sited to minimise the adverse affects on the performance of
existing or forecast navigational aids.
13.2.12 Clear lines-of-sight unimpaired by direct or indirect external light sources such
as apron lights, car parking area lights, surface traffic and street lights and reflective
surfaces, should be achieved.
13.2.13 Unobstructed visibility should be provided of all movements of aircraft and
vehicles not previously specified on aprons, parking areas and test areas at aerodromes
where apron control responsibilities will not be provided as a separate service from air
traffic control.
13.2.14 Due consideration should be given to local weather phenomena which could
restrict visibility due to fog or industrial/ground haze from off-aerodrome sources, and to
the location of existing or future planned heating plants or other such possible sources of
visible contaminants, steam or heat distortion patterns which may cause obstruction to the
air traffic controllers line-of-sight.
13.2.15 Electronic interference to tower equipment and exterior noise should be
minimised.
13.2.16 Easy road access to the site, avoiding areas of aircraft operations, should be
provided.
13.2.17 Consideration should be given to forecast aerodrome development as shown on
the aerodrome master plan, and in particular to forecast buildings, hangars, new or
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August 1999
Chapter 7
extended runways, taxiways and aprons etc., to preclude the necessity for relocation or
raising of the control tower at a future date.
13.2.18 If the tower location under consideration is remote from the main aerodrome
activity regard should be given to the possible increase in construction and operating costs
due to the greater distances involved in providing engineering services, staffing and
management.
13.3
DETERMINATION OF CONTROL TOWER EYE-LEVEL
13.3.1 To meet the minimum requirements for visual resolution the line-of-sight from the
air traffic controllers eye-level in the tower cab should intersect the ground surface at a
minimum angle of 30 minutes of arc in cases where the viewing distance is less than
1650m or at a minimum angle of 35 minutes of arc in all other cases.
13.3.2 This requires the determination of:
(a) those areas where adequate visibility is the most difficult to obtain; and
(b) the grade of the ground surface in those areas.
13.3.3 Care should be taken in determining the grade of these areas. For example, where
the section in question consists of a rising taxiway grade levelling off at a runway end (the
farthest point), the grade of the runway threshold in the direction of the line-of-sight is the
critical grade. The movement of aircraft and ground vehicles on the taxiway will be
discernible only if the 35 minute of arc minimum angle is established relative to the
runway grade. This also enables the relative positions of aircraft and ground vehicles on
the runway to be determined. On the other hand, if the taxiway grade slopes down to the
runway end (the farthest point), the 35 minute of arc minimum angle should be established
relative to the taxiway.
August 1999
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Chapter 7
Minimum eye-level determination and formulae

13.3.4 Assuming the minimum line-of-sight grade intersection angle of 35 minutes of arc
and following determination of the angular slope of the aircraft traffic surface in question,
the minimum eye-level elevation for a particular tower site in relation to the most distant
runway threshold can be determined by the following formula:
Ee = Eas + D Tan (35 min. + Gs)
where
Ee = Eye level elevation (MSL)
Eas = Average elevation for section of airport traffic surface in question.
D = Distance from proposed control tower site to section of airport traffic surface in
question.
Gs = Angular slope of airport traffic surface measured from horizontal and in
direction of proposed control tower site.
(For tangents of angles from 0 to 60 minutes, see table)
7 66
Ee
Eas
D
Gs
Ee
30m + 3000m Tan (35 min - 2 min)
30m MSL
30m + 3000m Tan 33 min
3000m
30m + 3000m x 0.0096
-2 min
30m + 28.8m
58.8 MSL (Mean Sea Level)
August 1999
Chapter 7
13.4
Ee
Eas
D
Gs
Ee
30m + 3000m Tan (35 min +2 min)
30m MSL
30m + 3000m Tan 37 min
3000m
30m + 3000m x 0.01076
+2 min
30m + 28.8m
62.28 MSL
DETECTION OF COMMENCEMENT OF AIRCRAFT TAKE-OFF RUN
13.4.1 Aircraft lined up for take-off at the end of the runway,-commence their take-off
run after having been given a take-off clearance by the air traffic controller in the control
tower.
13.4.2 To permit the speedy and safe control of other aircraft movements it is necessary
for the air traffic controller to detect movement of the departing aircraft as soon as possible
after it has commenced its take-off run. However, in practice there is normally some delay
in the air traffic controller detecting the commencement of aircraft movement and this
delay is referred to as the response time.
13.4.3 In siting the control tower the objective should be to choose a location which
gives the shortest possible response times to the runway ends. Response times should
desirably be kept below 4 seconds with a upper limit of 5 seconds in exceptional
circumstances. The initial step in siting the tower should be to satisfy the response time
criterion and identify suitable alternative locations. Other siting factors such as aspect,
line-of-sight, tower height etc. should then be applied to reach an optimum solution.
Detection criterion and formula
13.4.4 Research has shown that the angular displacement of the aircraft movement with
respect to the air traffic controller is the real criterion for detecting commencement of
aircraft movement.
13.4.5 Based on an analysis of field trials it has been found that an angular displacement
of eleven minutes of arc is required to detect an aircraft movement without the use of
binoculars and with a 99% probability of success.
13.4.6 The above criterion has been used to develop the formula
R = 195 t2 , where:
R = radius of circle in metres,
t = response time in seconds.
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Chapter 7
13.4.7 This formula is used to determine the circular area within which a certain preselected response time can be satisfied. This circular area is located relative to the position
on the runway centre line where the aircraft commences its take-off run, which is normally
the runway end. The formula can be used for all runway ends and where the areas overlap,
more than one runway end meets the predetermined detection requirement.
13.4.8 The formula R=195 t2 expresses R as a function of the response time t and if a
desired response time is adopted, R can be easily calculated. Conversely if R is known,
the associated response time may be determined. The formula may thus be used for two
purposes:
(a) to determine the radius of the circumference of the circular area within which
detection of aircraft movement on take-off is satisfied whilst not exceeding a
certain pre-selected response time-Figure 1 illustrates the use of the formula
for this purpose; and
(b) to determine the response times as they can be expected to apply to take-offs
at various runway ends for existing or proposed tower positions - Figure 2
illustrates the use of the formula for this purpose.
Figure 1.
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November 2000
Chapter 7
Determination of response times relative to runway ends and existing or proposed

tower position
13.4.9 For any tower position the response time for each runway end can be calculated
using the formula R = 195 t2 after having found the value of R graphically as follows:
13.4.10 In Figure 2 using existing or proposed tower position C and runway end B:
(a) draw line CB and a perpendicular bisector at F;
(b) draw a line perpendicular to the runway centre line at B to intersect the
perpendicular from F at D;
(c) D is the centre of the circle of radius DB whose circumference passes through
C;
(d) scale DB (in metres) and substitute this value for R in the formula R = 195 t2;
and
(e) In this example R = 3120 m.
t=
3120
= 4 secs.
195
13.4.11 Similarly for tower position C and runway end A the response time can be found
to be 3 seconds.
Figure 2
August 1999
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Chapter 7
13.5
RESPONSIBILITY FOR SITE PROTECTION
13.5.1 When a site has been chosen for the control tower it is clearly advisable to make
adequate planning provision to protect it against the future construction of buildings or
facilities that will not meet the factors indicated herein, once the control tower has been
constructed.
13.6
SITING PROCEDURES
13.6.1 A suggested procedure for control tower site selection is as follows.

13.6.2 An office study should he carried out in which:
(a) tentative site selections are to be made using the latest aerodrome master plan
and all other available topographical maps, aerial photographs and
obstruction charts;
(b) using the formula at paragraph 13.4.6 draw the circumferences of the areas in
which response times of 1, 2, 3 etc seconds are satisfied for each runway end
on the master plan and then drawn;
(c) identify the areas with common response times to all runway ends and within
the most favourable areas select several most likely tower locations for
further evaluation;
(d) apply the factors identified above to the alternative sites;
(e) discuss the suitability of the tentative sites with Airservices Australia and
CASA; and
(f) continue the process of trial, adjustment and evaluation until the optimum
tower location is found.
13.6.3 Following on the office study, a field review of the proposed sites plus other sites
that might merit consideration should be undertaken. Ground survey of sites with respect
to availability and cost of access roads and services such as electrical, sewer and
communications will be needed as will data on probable soil conditions at each site.
13.6.4 At major airports it may be beneficial to conduct photographic panoramic studies
of operational viability from the required control tower eye-level height, to confirm visual
capability at the final selected site.
13.7
SITE RECOMMENDATIONS
13.7.1 Survey data should include:

(a) site location relative to the airport master plan;
(b) height of structure required;
(c) when available, panoramic pictures from selected site as related to control
tower eye-level, runway thresholds and major compass points if significantly
different from the runway headings, oriented to a horizontal plane and to true
north;
NOTE : True north is used as it is a fixed reference point not subject to change as is
magnetic north.
(d) in those cases where it is not possible to comply with Siting Standards, the
reasons for non-compliance must be given;
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Chapter 7
(e) availability of access road, utilities and communications cable routes;

(f) cost assessment of sites, including site preparation, access road and extension
of essential services, and communications; and
(g) proximity to proposed heating plant and other emission sources.
13.8
SITE APPROVAL
13.8.1 Final siting of the control tower site will be a matter of negotiation between the
aerodrome operator, Airservices Australia and CASA in writing.
August 1999
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Chapter 7

Design Standards for Licensed Aerodromes

CHAPTER SEVEN DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LICENSED

2 AERODROME SITING AND PLANNING

4 THE CRITICAL AEROPLANE

5 THE FUTURE AEROPLANE

6 AERODROME FACILITY REFERENCE CODE

Taxiway Minimum Separation Distances

CHAPTER 7 DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LICENSED

AERODROME SITING AND PLANNING

THE CRITICAL AEROPLANE

4.1 The critical aeroplane is a conceptual aeroplane whose characteristics are a

THE FUTURE AEROPLANE

AERODROME FACILITY REFERENCE CODE

Aerodrome Facility Reference Code Number

Aeroplane reference field length a

Less than 800 m

800 m up to but not including 1200 m

1200 m up to but not including 1800 m

1800 m and over

Aerodrome Facility Reference Code Letter

Outer main gear wheel span *

15m up to but not

4.5m up to but not

24m up to but not

36m up to but not

52m up to but not

6.8 A list of representative aeroplanes operating in Australia and others, chosen to

Table 73. Aerodrome Facility Reference Codes and Aeroplane Characteristics

DHC 6 Twin Otter

Lear Jet 28/29

Embraer EMB 145

Embraer EMB 120

Non-precision approach runways

(a) Precision approach Category I runways provide for aeroplane operations

NUMBER AND ORIENTATION OF RUNWAYS

7.6.1 Decisions on the number of runways to be provided, or retained, at an aerodrome

7.8.1 The length of a runway to be provided at an aerodrome is to be determined by the

7.9.1 The appropriate runway width requirement may be determined by cross-reference

Minimum distance between aeroplane outer

C (where the aeroplane wheel base is

C (where the aeroplane wheel base is

LONGITUDINAL SLOPES ON RUNWAYS

RUNWAY SIGHT DISTANCE

TRANSVERSE SLOPES ON RUNWAYS

7.13.3 To achieve aeroplane controllability, the transverse slope should be substantially

Runway strip length

3 (where the runway width is 30 m)

7.17.5 A non-precision approach runway is to be centrally located within a runway strip

Table 78. Runway Strip Width for Non-Precision Approach Runways

3 (where the runway width is 30 m)

3, 4 (where the runway width is 45 m or more)

7.17.6 A precision approach runway is to be centrally located within a runway strip

(a) 2.5% where the code number is 3 or 4; and

Typical cross-section of runway strip

Drainage of graded area

RUNWAY END SAFETY AREA (RESA)

7.19.1 A clearway is an obstruction-free rectangular plane, extending from the end of a

7.20.1 A stopway is a rectangular area of ground, originating at the end of a runway, on

Stopway, Clearway and Runway End Safety Areas

TAXIWAY EDGE CLEARANCE

Edge Clearance Distance

C (where aircraft wheel base is less than