INTRODUCTION TO ATOMIC PHYSICS

By the end of the nineteenth century, the theories and the laws of classical physics seemed to be
well established and it appeared as if they would hold the field unchallenged. Classical physics
was confined to the understanding of the macroscopic behaviour of matter.
But the periodic commencing from the last few years of 19 th century produced a series of
discoveries that led to the necessity of new and revolutionary ideas. A few of the discoveries are
Electromagnetic theory (1873), Thermionic emission (1883), Electromagnetic waves (1887),
Photoelectric effect (1887), X-rays (1895), Radioactivity (1896), Electron (1897), Quantum
theory (1913), Matter Waves (1924), Positron (1931), Quantum mechanics (1932), Neutron
(1932), Artificial radioactivity (1934), Nuclear fission(1939), Nuclear reactor (1942),
Semiconductor (1947), Transistor (1950).
The physics that developed after 1890 is referred to as Modern physics. It aims at the
understanding of the macroscopic behaviour of matter and energy in terms of its microscopic
constituents.

SPECTRA
A Spectrum consists of a regular arrangement of the components of heterogeneous radiation
according to their wavelengths.

VISIBLE SPECTRA
Spectra produced by radiations of wavelengths from 4000A to 7500A
are visible. Visible spectra can be broadly classified as emission spectra and absorption spectra.

1) Emission spectra:
Light from a luminous source gives emission spectrum. Depending on the appearance,
emission spectra are broadly classified into continuous, line and band spectra.

a) Continuous emission spectrum: It is a spectrum which appears as an unbroken

luminous band containing light of all wavelengths over a wide range. The intensity is maximum
at a certain position in the spectrum and decreases on both sides. The position of maximum
intensity is shifted towards the short wavelength region with increase of temperature.
Sun, incandescent solids and red hot gases at high pressure give continuous emission
spectrum. Continuous spectrum is produced by thermal vibrations of atoms in the microscopic
matter.

b) Line emission spectrum: It consists of bright coloured lines on a dark background.

Light from gases and metallic vapours excited by heavy electric discharge or flame into which a
volatile salt is introduced gives line spectrum. Line spectra are characteristics of the atoms of the
elements. No two elements have the same line spectrum. For eg, sodium gives two sharp yellow
lines very close together and hydrogen gives four distinct lines, one in the red region, one in the
blue region and two in the violet region. Line spectra are due to transition of electrons from
higher energy state to lower energy.

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c) Band spectrum: Band spectrum has coloured bands of light on a dark background. One
end of each band is sharp and bright and the brightness gradually decreases to the other end. The
sharp end of the band is called the band head. When seen through a spectrometer of higher
resolving power, it is found that each band is composed of a large number of lines.
Band spectrum is obtained from the molecules in the gaseous state of matter. Light
emitted due to weak electric discharge through O2 , N2 or CO2 gives band spectrum. Band
spectrum is characteristic of the molecules of an element or a compound.

2) Absorption spectra:
Light from a source of continuous wavelength when passes through a gas, liquid or
transparent solid gives absorption spectrum. Absorption spectra are of three types continuous
absorption spectra, line absorption spectra and band absorption spectra.

a) Continuous absorption spectrum: It is produced by passing light of a

continuous emission spectrum through a matter in solid or liquid state at a comparatively low
temperature. When the emergent light is examined, it is found to consist of a continuous
spectrum with certain portions blotted out. The nature of absorption produced depends on the
temperature of the absorbing medium and in the case of solutions, it depends on the
concentration of the solution.
For example, a piece of ruby glass absorbs all colours except some portion of the red and
a magenta coloured piece of glass absorbs the whole central part of the visible spectrum.

b) Line absorption spectrum: It is produced when light is passed through a gas

or vapour. The spectrum of emergent light consists of a continuous bright background crossed
with dark lines. In the line absorption spectrum the dark lines are seen in the same positions as
the bright lines in the line emission spectrum of the substance. Line absorption spectrum can
explained using kirchhoffs law of radiation(An atom which is an emitter of certain wavelengths
is an absorber of the same wavelengths). For example, when white light is passed through
sodium flame two dark lines appear. Solar spectrum is a familiar example pf line absorption
spectrum.

c) Band absorption spectrum: When light from an incandescent source is

passed through a coloured solid or liquid, some parts of the continuous spectrum are blotted out
from a coloured spectrum. Resulting spectrum is called band absorption spectrum.
For example, absorption spectrum for blue cobaly glass consists of three dark bands in the
region from red to green. A dilute aqueous solution of potassium permanganate gives five
absorption bands in the green region. Vapour of iodine gives a large number of narrow dark
bands.

Fraunhofer lines:
Fraunhofer lines are the dark absorption lines on the continuous solar spectrum
Fraunhofer determined wavelengths of these dark lines and named the important line
alphabetically as A,B,C,D,. Fraunhofer lines are found in the spectra of stars also.
Kirchhoff explained the presence of fraunhofer lines as follows. The sun has a hot core
called Photosphere(20,000k) which emits a continuous spectrum in the infrared visible and
ultraviolet. The outer layer of the sun, called Chromosphere, contains gases and vapours at about
6000k. These gaseous elements absorb the wavelengths of which they are good emitters. Hence
the dark lines appear in the continuous solar spectrum.
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By studying solar spectrum, the elements present in the Suns atmosphere can found.
During total solar eclipse, the photosphere of the sun is completely covered by the moon for a
few seconds. During this time light is received only from the
chromosphere. The Fraunhofer lines then appear as bright emission lines.
Astronomers call this spectrum as flash spectrum.

Gamma rays
Gamma rays were discovered by Willard. The wavelength range is from 0.01A to 0.1A
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and the frequency range is from 3 10 Hz to 3 1020 Hz .Excited radioactive nuclei, cosmic
rays and Betatron are the sources of gamma rays.

Properties:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

-rays travel with speed of light in vacuum.

They exhibit reflection and refraction.
They affect photographic plate.
They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
They have extremely large penetrating power.
They are injurious to living tissues.

Uses:
1)
2)
3)
4)

They are used in nuclear reactions.

They are used in treatment of certain cancer and tumour.
They are used to preserve food.
They provide useful information about structure of atomic nucleus.

X-Rays
X-Rays were discovered by Roentgen. They have wavelength range of 0.1A to 100A and
frequency range of 1016 Hz to 3 1019 Hz . X-rays are produced when high energy electrons are
suddenly stopped by a metal target of high atomic number.

Properties:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)

X-rays travel with speed of light in vacuum.

They exhibits reflection and refraction.
They exhibit interference, diffraction and polarization.
They affect photographic plate.
They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
They have appreciable penetrating power and can pass through flesh.
They produce photoelectric effect.
They are highly energetic electromagnetic radiations.

Uses:
1)
2)
3)
4)

X-rays are used in surgery for the detection of fractures and foreign bodies in the human body.
They are used in radiotherapy to cure skin diseases and malignant growth.
They are used in industry for the detection of defects in rubber tyres, gold and tennis balls.
They are used in forensic departments for detection of explosives, opium, gold and silver in
the bodies of smugglers.
5) They are used in scientific research for the study of crystal structure.

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Ultraviolet Radiations
Electromagnetic radiations in the wavelength range from 4000A to 100A and lying
immediately behind the violet end of the visible spectrum are called ultraviolet radiations. UV
radiations are further classified into 3 parts, namely, near UV( 4000A to 3200A ), intermediate
UV( 3200A to 2000A ) and far UV( 2000A to 100A ).
UV radiations were discovered by Ritter in 1801 when he found that the photographic action
extends beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum.

Sources: Sun is the natural source of UV radiations. Mercury vapour lamp, electric arcs of
carbon, iron etc, and discharge of electricity through rarified H 2 gas are the other practical sources
of UV radiations.

Detectors: Photographic plates and photoelectric tubes are used to detect UV. UV can also be
detected using the property of fluorescence.

Properties:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

UV radiations being electromagnetic in nature travel at a speed of 3 10 m / s in vacuum.

They undergo reflection, refraction, interference, polarisation, etc.
They are invisible to human eye but affect photographic plate.
They produce photoelectric effect in metals and luminescence in materials like ZnS.
They have more penetrating power than visible but are absorbed by glass.
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Applications and uses:

1) They are used as efficient sterilizers.
2) They have the property of synthesizing vitamin D when the skin is exposed to sunlight and
are used in treating rickets.
3) They are used in high resolving power microscopes.
4) They are used to distinguish artificial gems from natural diamond, vanaspati from pure
ghee.
5) They are used in burglar alarms and photoelectric relays.

Visible radiation
Visible light is the narrow region of electromagnetic spectrum which is detected by the
human eye. The wavelength range of visible light is from 4000A to 8000A and the frequency
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range is from 4 10 Hz to 8 10 Hz . Within this range we perceive colours ranging from
violet to red. The human eye has a peak sensitivity of light at about 5500A corresponding to
greenish yellow. Visible light is produced by atomic excitations.

Infrared Radiations
Electromagnetic radiations lying beyond the red end of the visible spectrum and having
wavelength in the range from 0.75 to 1000 are called infrared radiations. Infrared radiations
are further divided into 3 groups, namely, near IR radiation( 0.75 to 2.5 ), intermediate IR
radiation( 2.5 to 50 ) and far IR radiation( 50 to 1000 ).
William Herschel discovered IR in 1800. He found that a thermometer showed a rise in
temperature when its bulb was kept out of the red region of the solar spectrum.

M.N.Sharath kumar

Sources: Sun is a powerful source of IR radiations. All hot bodies emit IR radiations, some
common laboratory sources of IR are Nernst filament, globar and lasers.
Nernst filament is made of a powdered mixture of oxides of zirconium, thorium and
caesium held by a suitable binding material. It is heated by passing current to a temperature of
about 1200k . At this temperature, it emits IR. Globar is a rod of silicon carbide. When it is
heated to 900k by electric current it emits IR. Lasers are the latest sources of IR.

Detectors: IR radiations are detected using thermocouples, thermopiles, bolometers and

photoconducting cells.

Properties:
1) Infrared radiations being electromagnetic in nature, travel at a speed of 3 10 m / s in
vacuum.
2) They undergo reflection, refraction, interference, polarization etc.
3) They affect photographic plate and are invisible to human eye.
4) They can penetrate through thick columns of fog and mist.
5) They are strongly absorbed by glass. Hence prisms of rock salt, quartz and fluorspar
are used in their study.
6) IR radiation rises the temperature of the body on which it falls.
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Applications and uses:

1) Due to their stimulating effect, they are used in treating sprains.
2) They are used in long distance photography as they can penetrate fog and mist.
3) They are used in the analysis of chemical compounds and determination of molecular
structure.
4) They are used to detect forgery and the erasing of documents.
5) In defence, IR is used to guide tanks in the dark.

MICROWAVES
Microwaves have wavelength in the range 1mm to 0.1m and frequency in the range 3 10 to
3 1011 Hz . Microwaves were discovered by Hertz. Microwaves are produced by special vacuum
tubes such as Magnetrons, Klystrons Gunn diodes, etc..
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Properties:
1) Microwaves travel with speed of light in vacuum.
2) They exhibit reflection and refraction.
3) They exhibit interference, diffraction and polarization.

Uses:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Microwaves are used in radar system for aircraft navigation.

Microwaves are used in ovens for cooking purposes.
They are used in the study of atomic and molecular properties of matter.
They are used in satellite communication.
They are used in the detection of speed of tennis ball, cricket ball and moving
automobiles.

RADIOWAVES
Radio waves were discovered by Marconi. The wavelength range of radiowaves is from 0.1m to
4
104 m and the frequency range is 3 10 Hz to 3 109 Hz . Radiowaves are generated by
electronic devices called LC oscillators.
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Properties:
1) Radio waves travel with speed of light in vacuum.
2) They exhibit reflection and refraction.
3) They exhibit interference, diffraction and polarization.

Uses:

1) Long radio waves( LF 30 kHz 300 kHz ) are used for medium range
communication.
2) Medium waves( MF 300 kHz 3 MHz ) are used for local sound.
3) Short waves ( HF 3 MHz 30 MHz ) are used for distant sound broadcasts.
4) Radio waves ( VHF 30 MHz 300 MHz ) are used for frequency modulated sound
broadcasts.
5) Radio waves ( VHF 30 MHz 3000 MHz ) are used for TV broadcasts.

Electromagnetic Radiations:
Maxwell predicted theoretically the existence of electromagnetic radiations.
Electromagnetic radiation is the name given to a whole range of transverse radiation having
different wavelengths but the six common properties, namely,
(i) it is propagated by varying electric and magnetic fields oscillating at right angles to
each other;
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(ii) it travels with a constant speed of 2.998 10 m / s in vacuum;
(iii) it is unaffected by electric and magnetic fields; (iv) it travels in straight lines in
vacuum;
(v) it may be polarized;
(vi) it can show interference and diffraction
Name of the
Range of
source
Transition
Detection
region
wavelength
1) Gamma
Rays

0.01A 0.1A

Nuclei, Betatron

2) X-Rays

0.1A 100A

X-Ray Tube

3) Ultraviolet
Radiation

100A 4000A

Gas discharge,
arcs, sparks

4) Visible light

4000A 7500A

Hot filaments

Outer electrons

5) Infrared
Radiation

7500A 1mm

Globar, Laser

6) Microwaves
Crystal

0.2mm 10mm

Magnetron

Molecular
rotation
and vibration
Electron spin

7) Radiowaves

10mm 107 mm

Oscillating
Electric circuit

Nuclear
spin

Nuclear

Inner
electron
Outer electrons

Geiger &
Schintillation
Counters
- Photoelectric
Cells
Photoelectric
Cells, eye
Bolometer,
Thermopile
Crystal
Solid State
Detectors
Electrical
circuit

For convenience the electromagnetic spectrum is divided into different regions shown in the table.

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Dunningtons method for determination of

e
m

The schematic diagram of Dunningtons method for determining

e
is shown in the figure. An
m

alternating voltage at a constant high frequency produced by a crystal oscillator O is applied

simultaneously to the two pairs of CM2 and FM1 . M1 and M 2 are metal plates with fine
holes at their centre. Electrons from the hot filament F are accelerated towards M1 during the
positive half cycle and emerge through a fine opening in M1 . The electrons are then bent into a
circular path by a magnetic field B applied normal to the figure. The radius of curvature r of
the circular path is defined by the slits S1 , S2 and S 3 .
Only those electrons whose velocity v satisfies the relation

mv 2
Bev
(1)
r
Can pass through the slits S1 , S2 and S 3 .
From (1)

Ber
(2)
m

After the electrons are turned through an angle , they enter the Faraday chamber C through the
fine hole in grid M 2 and produce deflection in the galvanometer G. The electrodes and the slits
are enclosed in an evacuated glass envelope. The grid M 2 is connected to the same oscillator
which accelerates the electrons. Suppose the time taken by the electrons to be turned through the
angle is the period

1
1
n
or integral multiple of i.e. , where f is the frequency of the
f
f
f

oscillator. Then the electrons will lose all their energy in overcoming the opposing P.D. between
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M.N.Sharath kumar

M 2 and C and just fail to reach C. The galvanometer indicates zero deflection when this
condition is satisfied. This can be brought Distance travelled by the electron in moving from
M1 to M 2 = r
Time taken for traveling this distance=

distance r

time
n/f
rf
v
(3)
n

n
f

Hence from (2) and (3)

Ber rf

m
n

e
f

m nB

is measured using the microscope built into the apparatus. B and f can be measured accurately.
From the known values of , B and f,

e
can be calculated.
m

Types of Electron emission:

A metal consists of atoms arranged in a regular order. Each atom consists of a nucleus
surrounded by electrons revolving in various orbits. The electrons in the outermost orbits are
loosely bound to the nuclei. These electrons can move freely from one atom to another in all
possible directions.
Although the free electrons can move within the metal, yet they cannot escape the metal
surface due to the attraction of positive ions (called image charge). The electron can leave the
surface if it somehow gains sufficient energy to overcome this attraction.
The four important types of electron emission are:

1) Thermionic emission:
When a metal is heated, due to heat energy, the emission of electrons takes place. This
phenomenon is called thermionic emission and the emitted electrons are called thermions.

2) Photoelectric emission:
When a metal is exposed to radiation of suitable frequency, the emission of electron
takes place. This phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect and the electrons so emitted are
called photoelectrons.

3) Field emission:
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When a strong electric field, say 10 volt / m , is applied such as to make the metal
surface negative with respect to the space around it, then some of the free electrons are
accelerated away from the surface. This is known as field emission or cold emission.

4) Secondary emission:
When highly energetic electrons strike a metal surface, it causes the emission of other
electrons from the surface. This is called secondary emission.

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